UNIT 2.

ANALYSING NARRATIVE
TEXTS




2.1
INTRODUCTION TO THE GENRE: WHAT IS A
NARRATIVE TEXT?
THE NATURE OF NARRATIVE TEXTS.
2.1 Introduction. WHAT IS A NARRATIVE TEXT?
THE NATURE OF NARRATIVE TEXTS




But this is a simple definition for the most elaborate and complex discursive
mode.
We are going to focus our revision of narrative so as we understand:

- ITS GENERAL ORGANIZATION

- ITS FORMAL AND DISCURSIVE CONSTITUENTS



A sequence of chronologically or logically
related events.
NARRATIVES are one of the most frequent speech
events in our daily communication:







A) Narratives of real events
(newspapers, documentaries)
B) Narratives of fictional events
(films, tv serials)

A reality or a fiction are presented by the narrator as an
ordered speech act: with a BEGINNING, a
MIDDLE, and an END.
-Conversations with friends or
people we meet
-Real events in newspapers
-Fictional narratives in movies or
tv serials
-Documentaries
What is a speech act?



Three dimensions of a the text:
LOCUTIONARY DIMENSION: what the texts says by means of the
phonological, syntactic and semantic choices made by its author.
ILLOCUTIONARY DIMENSION: these choices are also conditioned by
the authors communicative intention (what the text is trying to do with
readers/its communicative effect)
PERLOCUTIONARY DIMENSION: readers response to the text.

In the illocutionary dimension what matters is the MESSAGE and
its COMMUNICATIVE INTENTION.




An utterance or proposition at work in the process of
communication
2.1. NATURE OF NARRATIVE
TEXTS



Narratives are featured as macro speech-acts, as their production involves more
than one single speech act.

The main communicative goal of a narrative is to present an evaluated
observation about the fictional world and, by a process of extension, of the
real world represented by it.

Paradoxical nature of narrative:
-On the one hand, the speaker develops certain strategies aimed at asserting the
truth of propositional contents.
-On the other hand, narratives present an image of the world which is not true, and
they are told by a speaker (narrator) who is also a fictional construct.


Conditioned by the narrators point of view:
we can identify certain processes on the authors side meant to activate specific
expectations on the readers.


A) Narrative as discourse
2.1. NATURE OF NARRATIVE TEXTS
B) Narrative as fiction

In literary communication the report of an event is always part of a
larger situational context.

Both event and situation become FICTIONAL when readers
reconstruct the story which explains them all.

This reconstructive effort is undertaken by readers with the guide of the
reporting speaker, the narrator.

The relation between narrator and reader is based on the authority
conferred on the former by his knowledge of the events (we trust that
the narrator will be a faithful and accurate reporter)



2.1 NATURE OF NARRATIVE TEXTS
The role of the narrator is double-sided:
-He must report a sequence of events: accuracy of report, faithfulnees
to truth
-He must present them from his own point of view:

But in FICTIONAL TEXTS: events and participants constitute a world
which is partly the narrators reproduction of the REAL WORLD
and partly the product of HIS IMAGINATION.

Readers must be given the clues which allow them to reconstruct this
fictional world:
(many of these clues are derived from the contextual knowledge the
narrator and reader share.
Ex: in Bread, the symbolic meaning of bread, injustice in the world, human morality and
behavior..
2.1.1 NATURE OF NARRATIVE
TEXTS
In literary texts the problem is more complex:
Communication is determined by DISPLACEMENT:


Ex: Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart
We ought to consider the implications derived from this absence
of common discursive network in our evaluation of specific
events/and or participants (characters)


Ex: Jonathan Swift, Gullivers Travels.
It is one of the most significant effects of fictional narratives.
Real world is used by author and reader as a basis of their
construction of the fictional world. But the real world may be
distorted significantly in the process of fictionalisation.


-between author and reader (dont share the same
discursive network)
-between the narrated world and those of both
author and reader.
2.1. NATURE OF NARRATIVE
TEXTS
The displacement between narrated world and the
worlds of both author and reader can be measured
taking into account the two extremes:
REALISM
and
FANTASY
A narrative is realistic if it presents a world closely
resembling our image of the real world.

A narrative is a fantasy if it features elements which are
not acceptable or possible according to that image.
(See P. 232= Fantastic)




2.3
METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES FOR
THE ANALYSIS OF NARRATIVE TEXTS
2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES

William Lavobs description of NATURAL NARRATIVES
(oral narratives):
He considers two interrelated structures:




And






EVENT STRUCTURE
Centred on the report of the
events
EVALUATIVE STRUCTURE
Centred on the speakers
evaluative position
2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
EVENT STRUCTURE:
Based on the ordered distribution of information according
to a temporal frame (defined by verb tenses and temporal
references) which allows the recipient to establish a relation of
cause and effect among the events.
This ordered sequence of events has been called :



And the resulting image has been called:


Not synonymous; a narrative can feature more than one plot
and still constitute one single story.
PLOT
STORY
2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
EVALUATIVE STRUCTURE:
Results from the use of specific strategies of evaluation which
manifest a certain point of view on the information provided.

Made explicit by the narrators commentaries on the
characters or the actions.

Additions to the basic story, to highlight attitudes or to
command the listeners attention at important moments.

In oral speech it includes gestures, paralinguistic features,
intensifiers, negatives, repetitions, responses to the actions
presented as part of the story, etc.

2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
EXAMPLES:
Evaluative as responses to the actions:
- The wives and daughters lament their confinement to the
island, although I think it is the most delicious spot of ground in
the world. Swift, Voyage to Laputa, p.209.

- her Imperial Majestys apartment was on fire, by the
carelessness of a Maid who fell asleep while she was reading a
romance. Swift, Voyage to Lilliput, p. 91.

- If ever a man deserved his success, that man was Okonkwo,
Achebe, 19.
2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
LAVOBS NARRATIVE SECTIONS:

ABSTRACT
ORIENTATION
COMPLICATION
EVALUATION
RESOLUTION
CODA
2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
*ABSTRACT:
to point out the nature of the events that the speaker is about to
report by means of a summary.
One or two clauses summarizing the whole story
In written texts: the title of the text, cover illustrations,
introductory quotations, and other cotextual elements.

Examples:
- Tess of the DUrbervilles. A Pure Woman Faithfully Presented by
Thomas Hardy (long and explicit title)
- Things Fall Apart (modern titles are more inderteminate; clue of
what we should seek to focus when reading) (Chinua Achebe)
- A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (James Joyce)

2.3.1. NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
*ORIENTATION:
Introduces the physical and interpersonal contexts.
At the outset, it is necessary to identify in some way the time, place
(the setting), persons and their activity or the situation.
The conditions that will initiate the sequence of events.
Orientation is naturally placed at the beginning; though
sometimes preceded by sections of the complication: STORY begins
IN MEDIA RES.
Strong descriptive mode: predicative clauses, complex noun and
adverbial phrases.

EXAMPLES:
- From Tess of the dUrbervilles, Thomas Hardy. Part I. Chapter 2.
The village of Marlott lay amid the north-eastern undulations of the beautiful Vale of
Blakemore or Blackmoor aforesaid, and engirdled and secluded region, for the most part
untrodden as yet by tourist or landscape-painter, though within a four hours' journey
from London. It is a vale whose acquaintance is best made by viewing it from the summits
of the hills that surround it--except perhaps during the droughts of summer.
*************
The forests have departed, but some old customs of their shades remain. Many, however,
linger only in a metamorphosed or disguised form. The May-Day dance, for instance, was
to be discerned on the afternoon under notice, in the guise of the club revel, or "club-
walking," as it was there called.
It was an interesting event to the younger inhabitants of Marlott, though its real interest was
not observed by the participators in the ceremony. Its singularity lay less in the retention
of a custom of walking in procession and dancing on each anniversary than in the
members being solely women.
**************
The banded ones were all dressed in white gowns--a gay survival from Old Style days, when
cheerfulness and May-time were synonyms--days before the habit of taking long views
had reduced emotions to a monotonous average.
**************
She was a fine and handsome girl--not handsomer than some others, possibly--but her
mobile peony mouth and large innocent eyes added eloquence to colour and shape. She
wore a red ribbon in her hair, and was the only one of the white company who could boast
of such a pronounced adornment.


2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
*COMPLICATION:
The text really becomes the narrative of a sequence of events.
More dynamic situations; the report of relevant events for the
character and audience.
The movement from the orientation to the complication may be marked
by shift in references from habitual to punctual.

CRISIS OR CONFLICT; the longest section.
Organized in EPISODES (smaller narratives). Episodes can be
separated by chapters, sections, paragraphs the narrative is made of
episodes that do not add anything significant to the process of
resolution. Ex: Things Fall Apart. First Part.
If they do not contribute to the development of the conflict or crisis, they
are NARRATIVE DIGRESSIONS.


2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
EVALUATION:
An alternative or complementary structure, blended with the event structure.
to ascertain the nature of the events and the reporters attitudes, and
consequently, the expected attitude in readers.

EXTERNAL EVALUATION: marks the existence of a relation between
narrator and reader which emphasizes the distance between fictional and
readers world:



INTERNAL EVALUATION: narrators participation is less exposed
to the reader:


-comments especially addressed to the reader
-interrupt the progression of the story-telling
-force readers to reconsider his own evaluation
-modifiers
-modal verbs
-intensifiers, etc
EXAMPLES:

External evaluation:
-This may perhaps pass with the reader rather for an European or English
story, than for one of a country so remote. But he may please to consider,
that the caprices of womankind are not limited by any climate or nation, and
that they are much more uniform than can be easily imagined. Swift,
Voyage to Laputa, p. 208.

Internal evaluation:
-the most scandalous corruptions into which these people are fallen by the
degenerate nature of man. For as to that infamous practice of acquiring
great employments by dancing on the ropes. Swift, Voyage to Lilliput, p.
96




2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
RESOLUTION:
The narrator reports the end of conflict or crisis.
What happens after the conflict is solved.

A return to order after the chaos that the conflict represented.

-COHERENT CONCLUSION OF THE NARRATIVE

-SPECIFIC CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE NARRATORS (AUTHORS)
VIEW OF THE WORLD
2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
*CODA:
Like the abstract, it is part of the discursive framing.
Marks the conclusion and indicates to the audience that the
speaker has reached to the end of the narrative.







EXAMPLE:
Justice was done, and the President of the Inmortals in Aeschylean phrase
had ended his sport with Tess. Tess of the dUrbervilles, chapter 59.
-Comment about the narrative events and their
resolution

-Speakers final evaluation to insist on or clarify
some aspect

-Conclusive formula: and they lived happily ever
after.
2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
Structural elements:

COHERENCE AND COHESION
It is a very important skill for us as readers to develop an
awareness of the cohesion and coherence of texts.

---What does COHESION mean?
*all the grammatical and lexical links that link one part of a text to
another. use of synonyms, lexical sets, pronouns, verb tenses, time
references, grammatical reference, etc.
For example, 'it', 'neither' and 'this' all refer to an idea previously mentioned.
'First of all', 'then' and 'after that' help to sequence a text. 'However', 'in
addition' and 'for instance' link ideas and arguments in a text.
- cohesion is a means of establishing connections within a text at all sorts
of different levels, e.g., section, paragraphs, sentences and even phrases.

2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
TIES: a single instance of cohesion

Five cohesive devices:



*REFERENCE: this term is used to describe the different ways in which
entities are refered to in the same text.
- Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish. (reference is their
tie)
(reference operates at the semantic level; the reference item must not match the
gramatical item it refers to)


- Wash and core six cooking apples. Put the apples into a fireproof dish. (reference and
repetition are their ties)


-reference
-substitution
-ellipses
-conjunction
-lexical cohesion
2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
*SUBSTITUTION: Replacement of one item by another

Example:
-I have heard many strange stories, but this one is the strangest of all of them.
(nominal substitution-Noun)
-Ill have boiled eggs. Ill have the same (nominal substitution-Noun)
-Children do not play now as they used to do (verbal substitution)
-Is she going to buy a car? I think so. (clausal substitution-clause)

(the substitute item has the same structural function as that for which it substitutes)

*Distinction between SUBSTITUTION and REFERENCE: substitution is a
relation in the wording rather than in the meaning.
Reference is a more abstract concept that deals with how items are
aluded to. A relation between meanings.
Substitution deals with words. A relation between linguistic items such as
words and phrases. A grammatical relation.To avoid repetition.
2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
*ELLIPSES: words are deliberately left out of a sentence, though the
meaning can still be understood. (Nominal, verbal, clausal)

Example:
-Where are you going?
-To town (clausal ellipses)

*CONJUNCTIONS: a words which joins words, phrases or clauses together,
such as but, and, when, so that, nevertheless, or, that, unless
-Additive: and
-Adversative: but, nevertheless
-Causal: so, thus, hence, therefore
-Temporal: then
2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES
*LEXICAL COHESION: Sentences are associated thematically
when they have a number of lexical items which have the same
referent (referential identity) or share common semes
(common semantic field). Both cases constitute LEXICAL
COHESION.
-lexical items that participate in the elaboration of common
semantic fields:
Ex:
I havent yet begun to feel
That I have had a decent meal!
He ran around the kitchen yelping,
Ive got to have another helping!
2.3.1 NARRATIVE STRUCTURES

---What does COHERENCE mean?
*General principle of interpretation of language in context.
*When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, readers can follow along
easily, and the writing is coherent. The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly.

-Coherence can be thought of as how meanings and sequences of ideas relate to
each other.

Typical examples would be :

general> particular; statement> example; problem> solution; question> answer;
claim> counter-claim.
(See p. 143)

2.3.2. SETTING, PLOT, CHARACTERS
*SETTING: (See p. 147-149)
participants and actions are located
-provides information about the main character
-vivid setting increases credibility of character and events
-sometimes it provides keys to understand main character
-contributes to create the mood or atmosphere

Reconstruted by SPATIO-TEMPORAL references about the fictional
world.

-locative adverbials
-narrators descriptions or references to places or objects

*to reconstruct a fictional world we need to locate it in
SPACE and TIME.


2.3.2. SETTING, PLOT, CHARACTERS
But the SETTING does not only contribute to create a temporal
and geographical background:
*in some cases it also produces a particular MOOD AND TONE
OR
ATMOSPHERE
linked to the setting in that they give the reader clues about
the emotions or feelings attached to the setting




I quitted my seat, and walked on, although the darkness and storm
increased every minute, and the thunder burst with a terrific crash
over my head. It was echoed from Saleve, the Juras, and the Alps of
Savoy; vivid flashes of lightning dazzled my eyes, illuminating the lake,
making it appear like a vast sheet of fire; then for an instant everything
seemed of a pitchy darkness, until the eye recovered itself from the
preceding flash. The storm, as is often the case in Switzerland,
appeared at once in various parts of the heavens. The most violent
storm hung exactly north of the town, over that part of the lake which
lies between the promontory of Belrive and the village of Copet.
Another storm enlightened Jura with faint flashes; and another
darkened and sometimes disclosed the Mole, a peaked mountain to
the east of the lake. While I watched the tempest, so beautiful yet
terrific, I wandered on with a hasty step.
From Mary Shelleys Frankenstein, 1818.

Setting: dark night, storm, near the Alps in Switzerland (setting by
references of narrator, Belrive, Jura.)
Atmosphere: romantic=beauty-fright (anticipates the meeting between
the narrator and the monster)

2.3.2. SETTING, PLOT, CHARACTERS
* PLOT AND STORY: (See pp. 140, 144-145)
The simple sequence of events in a novel is a STORY, but the
moment we start to take account of motivation and causation the
story becomes a PLOT.

-Famous definition by
E.M. Forster (Aspects of the Novel, 1927):
The king died and then the queen died is a story
The king died and then the queen died of grief is a plot

-Story: a narrative of events arranged in time sequence; makes the
audience know what happens next.
-Plot: also a narrative of events the emphasis falling on causality (time
sequence is overshadowed by sense of causality)
2.3.2. SETTING, PLOT, CHARACTERS
Plot: What happens? The king died and the queen died of grief.
Story: What is it all about? The king died and the queen died.

A narrative can have one ore more PLOTS-LINES: events can centre
around one or more groups of characters.

Most novels develop
MULTIPLE PLOTS

MAIN PLOT SUB-PLOTS
*Sub-plots can serve as contrast to the main plot when for instance, there is the
same kind of events in higher and lower social spheres (Shakespeares plays)

-LOOSE OR EPISODIC PLOT: ex=picaresque novels, Don Quixote (EPISODIC);
Beckets Waiting for Godot (almost nothing happens- LOOSE PLOT)
-TIGHT PLOT: everything happens for a reason and one event is consequence of
another. It increases SUSPENSE.
2.3.2. SETTING, PLOT, CHARACTERS
*CHARACTERS:
***For the reconstruction of a character by the reader we count on four
textual sources of information or METHODS OF
CHARACTERIZATION:

*descriptions and comments by the narrator (description or
report)
*what they do (action)
*what the say or think (conversation/thought)
*symbols or images
(see pp. 137-139)

***Ways of revealing a or creating a character:
TELLING AND SHOWING (See pp. 135-136)


2.3.2. SETTING, PLOT, CHARACTERS
Character-Types
*Useful for us to recognize a TYPE (prototype) in each CHARACTER
can help us determine its most significant features
-can help us locate the variations from the conventional standards

(See pp. 134-135)


*the recognition of the type of each character should not be
our main goal, just the first step in the analysis of its role
in the text, its relationship with other characters,
etc.

*AGENTS AND PATIENTS
- according to the ACTIONS in which they
participate and how they RELATE with other
characters.
(Functional relations)



AGENTS
OR
PATIENTS
2.3.2. SETTING, PLOT, CHARACTERS


AGENTS
*If we view AGENTS in a relation of opposition:
PROTAGONIST/ANTAGONIST
*If we consider the effects of their actions:
HERO =constructive, restorative role/VILLAIN= destructive role



PATIENTS
*The effects of the actions of the agents in other characters determine:
VICTIMS= Characters affected by the villains actions
BENEFICIARIES= those who benefit from the heros actions

* The choice of a name for each character should not be our main goal in our
analysis. We should be able to explain what the character represents in
the story as a whole.


2.3.2. SETTING, PLOT, CHARACTERS

PROTAGONISTS AND HELPERS

*According to the relevance that their roles have in the
development of narrative events:
-central characters or PROTAGONISTS
-secondary characters or HELPERS (Vladimir Propps
term)

(Propp established in 1928 seven types of characters: hero, villain, helper,
donor, dispatcher, princess and her father, false hero)

2.3.2. SETTING, PLOT, CHARACTERS

*ROUND/FLAT CHARACTERS
(E.M. Forster, Aspects of the Novel, 1927)
According to their degree of complexity
(See p. 226)
*FLAT : they are constructed
-around a single idea or quality
-around a set of qualities conventionally ascribed to a especific type.
-as projection of static values
-or subordinated to the functional needs of the plot (no independent existence)
*ROUND:
-They resist classification because they present a complex set of features or
transform themselves and change
-They react and adapt to the evolving conditions of the story
-They seem to have personality of their own

2.3.2. SETTING, PLOT, CHARACTERS

*We should be aware of the ways the author conditions the readers
affective and ideological relations with the
characters:

-ADMIRATIVE IDENTIFICATION with the hero.
-DISSOCIATION or DETACHMENT with the villain.
-SYMPATHETIC or EMOTIONAL IDENTIFICATION with the victim
(remember Unokas description in chapter 1 of Things Fall Apart; prosody contributes to
our sympathetic consideration)





Our evaluation of a character should be conditioned by the way in
which it contributes to the perception of a text as a coherent whole,
and of the world presented as a coherent projection of ideas about
the real world.
*REMEMBER!!




2.4
NARRATIVE VOICES
WHO IS SPEAKING?
2.4 NARRATOR. Point of view
Narrator: the person who is telling the story
Author: the person who wrote the story
*In our analysis of the narrator we will focus on:









-participation of narrator in his narrative: CHARACTER/NON-
CHARACTER =(DIEGESIS) (See p. 110-113)

-extent of narratorial presence in the events: IMPERSONAL/PERSONIFIED
(See pp. 109-110)

-the level of knowledge he has about the events:
OMNISCIENT, LIMITED OMNISCIENT, EQUISCIENT (See pp. 112-113)

-his intrusion in the minds of the characters: COMPLICITY, INTRUSION,
INTIMACY (See pp. 119-120)

-degree of reliability of the narrative: RELIABLE/UNRELIABLE
(See pp. 117-118)
2.4.1 FIRST PERSON NARRATIVE
Uses I or we
Usually a CHARACTER in the story, who interacts with other
characters.
We see those interact through the narrators eyes, we cant know
anything the narrator doesnt know. Limited in scope.
Cannot state the inner world of others

*WITNESS NARRATOR :
The narrator is a character involved in the story more or less directly
(personal account of the events)

*PROTAGONIST NARRATOR:
The narrator is the main character in the story

2.4.2 THIRD PERSON NARRATIVE

Often with no opinion, though sometimes any evaluative mark indicates an
intention to control the reader.
Ubiquitous narrator who does not seem to have a personality of his own.

*OMNISCIENT NARRATOR: knows and tells the unexpressed thoughts and
feelings of the characters. Unsrestricted access to the minds of every single
character.
-employs shifting points of view
-may openly comment on the behaviour of his characters
-the author reports ideas and events and also judges them
-renders objectivity to the story; the author can distance himself from
characters, alowing reader to judge by themselves
-usually reliable

* LIMITED or SELECTIVE OMNISCIENT: his intrusion in the minds has
been limited to the minds of central characters or a single one.

2.4.2 THIRD PERSON NARRATIVE
*EQUISCIENT NARRATOR: does not report any thoughts other than
his own.
-Narrator and character have the same information

-Reports what could realistically be inferred from the characters
gestures, behaviour and words.

-If he chooses a character, he tells the reader only what happens where
the character is.
-Can physically describe the character (unlike the 1st person narrator)

-tells the story as he lives it

-It can also appear in first person (Ex: Watson in Sherlock Holmes)

STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS TECHNIQUES

-Representing the unexpressed thoughts of a character (See, pp. 124-
125; 234)

INTERIOR MONOLOGUE:
Thoughts are simply ordered and arranged/clearly structured as if they had
been uttered or merely inserted within the narrators utterance by :
You can imagine them being uttered aloud.

a) indirect/reported speech:
Ex. indirect: It was for herself that he loved Tess; her soul, her
heart, her substance-not for her skill in the dairy, her aptness as
his scholar, and certainly not for her simple, formal faith-
profession. Thomas Hardys Tess of the DUbervilles

Ex: He stood up and passed out among them in the file. He had to
decide. He was coming near the door. If he went on with the
fellows he could never go up to the rector because he could not
leave the playground for that. And if he went James Joyce, A
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man


STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS TECHNIQUES

b) Direct speech:


Ex. Direct: As I Came into the morgue I Chanced to
glimpse Mollys corpse an thought: Jesus, here it is, at
last Ive found it

Ex: The detective rushed into the morgue: Where is the
corpse? Unless I have a look at her shoes, the identity of
Mollys murderer will never be known.


*STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS: (See p.
125)
NON-VERBALIZED expressions of
thoughts/Sometimes chaotically organized
-Fragmentary, Associative; imitates how people
think

Ex: It was true. God was almighty. God could call him now, call
him as he sat at his desk, before he had time to be conscious of the
summons. God had called him. Yes? What? Yes?...He had died.
Yes. He was judged. A wave of fire swept through his body: the
first. Again a wave. His brain began to glow. Another. James
Joyces A Portrait.

STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS TECHNIQUES
Free indirect speech:
Third person narration which combines some of the
characteristics of third person report with first
person direct speech.
What distinguishes free indirect speech from normal indirect
speech, is the lack of an introductory expression such as "He said"
or "he thought". It is as if the subordinate clause carrying the
content of the indirect speech is taken out of the main clause which
contains it, becoming the main clause itself. Using free indirect
speech may convey the character's words more directly than in
normal indirect, as he can use devices such as interjections and
exclamation marks, that cannot be normally used within a
subordinate clause.
See pp. 126-127