COMP10026

Data & Computer Communications

“Extending the Lifespan of Transmission Media Using Modulation”

Banner ID: B00113374

Due Date: 20th November 2009

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Table Of Contents
page

1 Introduction.................................................................. 3

2 Mobile Telephone Network & Data Transmission......... 3

2.1 Overview 3
2.2 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) 3
2.3 Enhanced Data-Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) 4
2.4 Future Technologies 5

3 WLAN Technologies & IEEE 802.11................................ 5

3.1 Overview 5
3.2 802.11b 5
3.3 802.11g 6
3.4 Future Technologies 7

4 Conclusion.................................................................... 7

5 Reflection..................................................................... 7

6 References................................................................... 8

Table of Figures
page

1 An 8-PSK Symbol Constellation …................................. 4

2 Groups of Complimentary Sequences.......................... 6

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1 Introduction

In the field of computer and data communications, the transmission medium is often the crux of a
communications system. It is this medium that determines the bandwidth, data rate and consequently
potential throughput of the system. Often, the transmission medium will have inherent physical limitations
which put an upper limit on the amount of data that can be handled.

When the data limit of a medium has been reached, considerations for the future of the system must be made.
Is there a more advanced medium available that would be able to replace the outdated one? Is it even feasible
to replace and upgrade the entire system’s media? In the case of large scale communications networks the
answer to the latter question is most likely no. However there are methods that can be used to extend the
lifespan of the existing media through improved and more efficient encoding of the signal that passes through
it.

Refining modulation techniques are one method of improving the data throughput of a medium. This report
will explore two applications of modulation in contemporary technologies which have been replaced with more
sophisticated techniques to increase the data capacity of their common media.

2 Mobile Telephone Network & Data Transmission

2.1 Overview

Since the birth of mobile telephony, its supporting network has been through numerous upheavals. To date,
there have been three major generations of mobile network, with each subsequent generation adding
functionality which was previously unavailable. The second generation will mainly be discussed here,
examining the introduction of data transmission into the mobile telephony network.

The earliest Second Generation (2G) network was created in 1991 and represented the digitisation of original,
analogue-based First Generation (1G) networks, allowing for the transmission of higher quality voice calls.
While 1G networks were exclusively used to transmit voice data from one handset to another, one of the
defining developments of 2G was the ability to convey small amounts of non-voice data (in the form of packets)
utilising the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM). This addition of packet switching into a
digitised mobile network came to be known as 2.5G. Soon, the use of the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
over these networks allowed features such as the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) to come into popularity.
Although this technology only provided an average throughput of 30 to 40 kbps for typical file downloading
operations [1], the pioneering ability to send data packets wirelessly between devices contributed massively to
GSM’s establishment as the most popular platform for the mobile phone market [2].

2.2 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

GPRS uses a relatively sophisticated form of continuous phase modulation known as Gaussian Minimum Shift
Keying (GMSK). In this method, a rectangular shaped data pulse is first run through a Gaussian filter, resulting
in rounded, bell-shaped transitions. These smooth transitions result in increased bandwidth efficiency for the
system over more traditional, abruptly changing transitions. After this initial processing, the modulation
method is very similar to standard Minimum Shift Keying, with each phase transition transmitting one bit of
information per radio signal [1].

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This filtering also has its disadvantages. Filtering the original rectangular pulses gives rise to “inter-symbol
interference”, where the smoothed pulses overlap each other [3]. This makes the recipient’s job more difficult
as it is harder to detect bit-changes in a data stream. Due to the carrier signal of this system being extremely
smooth as well (also a result of the Gaussian filtering), synchronisation is often more troublesome between the
transmitter and receiver. As a result, a more intricate demodulator is required to extract the data from the
signal.

2.3 Enhanced Data-Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)

Despite the use of GMSK with GPRS, it was clear that the throughput of the system would simply not be
enough to provide for the ever increasing data demands of the mobile phone network. To further this, an
enhanced method was developed that would interface conveniently (and be backward compatible with) the
previous GPRS standard. Known as EDGE (Enhanced Data-Rates for GSM Evolution), this improvement can
offer average throughputs of up to three times that of GPRS [1]. The backwards compatibility of the method
also ensured its wide adoption on GSM networks.

The reason for EDGE’s increased speeds lay in the adoption of a new modulation method. In contrast with
GPRS’s GMSK method (which could only send one data bit per radio signal), each phase transition of EDGE’s
Octagonal Phase Shift Keying (8-PSK) method would represent a string of three bits.

Figure 1: An 8-PSK Symbol Constellation

Referenced from [4] under the GFDL

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Another enhancement of the EDGE system lay in its ability to utilise different coding schemes. With nine
distinct schemes available, EDGE utilises the most efficient one dependant on the condition of the device's
signal reception. With an optimum signal available, the highest encoding scheme uses 8-PSK to send 59.2 kbps
per time slot†. Conversely, if an extremely unreliable connection is the only one available, EDGE would revert
to using GMSK at a minimum of 8.8 kbps per time slot. Therefore even in the worst of signal conditions, EDGE
is at least able to match GPRS’s maximum performance (utilising the same modulation scheme) with the
potential to triple its typical throughput. Between these two extremes lie a host of intermediate coding
schemes, allowing EDGE to adapt to signal fluctuations and provide the best service available.

Whilst technically considered a 3G technology by the ITU (having earned a place in their 3G system definition),
EDGE’s backwards compatibility with GSM and ease of implementation on 2G/2.5G systems place it ideally in
between both families. As such, it is frequently referred to as “2.75G”, implying that it is an ideal system to
bridge the gap between an older and more widely adopted GSM/GPRS network and a fully fledged 3G network
which uses even more advanced technologies.

2.4 Future Technologies

The third generation of mobile network (3G) and its range of data transmission technologies have already
dwarfed that of EDGE. The most impressive of these, Enhanced High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA+) boasts
mobile broadband data links of up to 42Mbps and 28Mbps! [5] However, these networks are not as of yet widely
accessible and can mostly be considered as still in development.

3 WLAN Technologies & IEEE 802.11

3.1 Overview

The development of wireless communications standards by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) has been under way since 1990. Since then, wireless connectivity for LANs (WLAN connectivity) has
been identified as an area worthy of major development and as such several standards have been produced
and approved. One of the first of these, 802.11b has enjoyed widespread use throughout home users since its
release in 1999. From there, the improved 802.11g standard was introduced in 2003 and has become the de
facto standard for WLAN communications in the home and business environment [6].

3.2 802.11b

The 802.11b technology operates at the 2.4 GHz frequency band and utilises Complimentary Code Keying (CCK)
modulation to encode data [7]. CCK modulation was adopted as a technique to replace the use of Barker Code
in previous forays into wireless connectivity due to its increased efficiency in transmitting bit sequences.
Complimentary codes (aka complimentary sequences) by themselves are groups of bits that do not actually
change value via the transition area.

†
†
Optimally, EDGE can provide eight time slots but user devices typically only utilise four.

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 Figure 2: Groups of Complimentary Sequences
Referenced from [8]

At its highest resolution, CCK uses combinations of complimentary sequences as symbols to transmit data, and
also has a “half-speed” mode where each symbol represents half the bit-value of its higher speed. As each
symbol in full speed transmission carries the value of 8 bits [7], both modes can be seen to improve on Barker
Code symbols which only transmit 1 bit per symbol [9]. Using this scheme, 802.11b’s two modes have maximum
data rates of 11Mbps and 5.5Mbps, respectively (although as with most wireless technologies, the typical
throughput is often lower).

3.3 802.11g

Similarly to 802.11b, 802.11g also operates in the 2.4GHz frequency range. Its modulation technique, however,
differs from its predecessor. Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing (OFDM), can be considered a “multi-
carrier” system which allows the division of data streams into “subcarriers” which are transmitted
simultaneously at different frequency intervals (unlike CCK, which is only a “single-carrier” modulation scheme,
broadcasting at a single frequency). A result of this is that OFDM performs better in collision-heavy
environments than CCK [10]. In 802.11g, OFDM uses 52 subcarriers, spaced 312.5kHz apart [11].

In 802.11g, various other modulation techniques can be used to further encode the subcarriers that OFDM
produces. The typical scheme used for modulation of 802.11g's subcarriers (at its highest data transmission
speed) is 64-QAM, which utilises both phase and amplitude modulation. 64-QAM utilises 64 distinct symbols
with each one representing six bits. Considering that 52 sub-carriers are simultaneously being broadcast,
many times more data can be carried in the same amount of time as CCK.

As such, 802.11g offers a large boost in data rate transmission when compared to 802.11b. As mentioned
above, 802.11b with CCK encoding can reach maximum data speeds of 11Mbps. In comparison, 802.11g’s
maximum data rate is 54 Mbps, almost five times faster. While CCK is considered a good choice for
transmitting data rates up to 11Mbps, OFDM is recognised as performing more efficiently as transmission rates
climb higher.

Much like EDGE was to GPRS, 802.11g was designed to be a backwards-compatible upgrade for 802.11b. The
802.11g standard has data rate modes built into it that allow it to transmit at the same speeds as 802.11b, even
utilising the same modulation scheme (CCK). In addition, an optional part of 802.11g’s specification allows it to
send only the pre-amble of its packets in CCK whilst shifting to OFDM for payload delivery, allowing it to co-
exist with older CCK radio receivers. (In this case, sending the pre-amble in CCK can prevent collisions and
increase throughput in device-saturated locations.) [10] Owing to its upgrade-like design, 802.11b and 802.11g
are now frequently bundled together with home routers having options built into them allowing the user to
select which mode it should broadcast in.

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3.4 Future Technology

Under development by the IEEE currently is the 802.11n standard, a further enhancement of 802.11g.
Operating in the 5GHz band as opposed to the 2.4GHz band, 802.11n will be significantly less vulnerable to the
interference that frequently impaired earlier technologies. Amongst other features, modulation upgrades in
the form of “improved OFDM” will increase the bit rates that can be achieved. Under optimal conditions,
802..11n's theoretical maximum throughput will be 600Mbps, over ten times that which is currently achieved
by 802.11g [12].

Although many network-device manufacturers have released “pre-n” compliant devices based on initial drafts
of 802.11n, these devices are not truly 802.11n compliant. It is anticipated that there will be firmware
upgrades available to make them compliant with the official standard, and as the standard was published on
the 29th October 2009 it is likely that these patches are under currently under development.

4 Conclusion

This report has examined the modulation techniques used in two examples of communications systems.
Providing both an older method of modulation and comparing that to a more sophisticated version, it has been
shown that by altering modulation techniques it is possible to increase the data capacity of a medium (in the
shown examples, primarily radio waves/air) and prolong its lifespan. This in turn eliminates the need to look
for new alternatives that offer higher data capacities, preserving the investment made on the infrastructure of
a communication system.

5 Reflection

Overall, I feel I have performed well in this assessment. I do realise that my final word count may be slightly in
excess of the 2000 ± 5% guideline, but I feel the detail and level of understanding provided on some of the
modulation schemes leaves me justified in doing so.

I am also pleased with my time management of this assessment, as it was completed a week before its due
date with only cursory formatting edits being required before its official submission. From a personal
perspective, the level of research required for this assessment has made me a lot more knowledgeable about
modulation as a concept (with which I only had a working understanding of before).

One criticism I have of my performance is perhaps in the width of sources I have provided as references.
Although many reliable sources are cited, some of the white papers may be slightly biased and over optimistic
in regards to the typical throughputs of some technologies.

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6 References
[1]
Rysavy, P (2004)
“Data Capabilities: GPRS to HSDPA”
Rysavy Research

[2]
GSMWorld (2009)
“Market Data Summary”
[originally accessed at http://www.gsmworld.com/newsroom/market-data/market_data_summary.htm
on 3rd November 2009]

[3]
Johnstone & Nguyen (2001/2002)
“Bandwidth-Efficient Modulation through Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying”
Crosslink Magazine
[originally accessed at http://www.aero.org/publications/crosslink/winter2002/03.html on 5th November 2009]

[4]
Wikimedia Commons (2005)
“Constellation diagram for Gray-coded 8-PSK”
Wikimedia Commons
[originally accessed at http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/8PSK_Gray_Coded_WMC.png]

[5]
Qualcomm Inc. (2009)
“HSPA+ for Enhanced Mobile Broadband”

[6]
Cocorada, S (2008)
“An IEEE 802.11g simulation model with extended debug capabilities”
1st International Conference on Simulation Tools and Techniques for Communications, Networks and Systems & Workshops

[7]
Pearson, B (2000)
“Complementary Code Keying Made Simple”
Intersil

[8]
Golay, M.J.E (1961) p.82 - 87
“Complementary Series”
IRE Transactions on Information Theory, April 1961
found via [7] detailed above

[9]
VOCAL Technologies
“802.11b WLAN”
[originally accessed at http://www.vocal.com/redirect/802_11b.html on November 12th 2009]

[10]
Zyren, J (2001)
“IEEE 802.11g Explained”
Intersil

[11]
Elo, M (2008)
“The Basics of OFDM”
Keithly Instruments

[12]
Meru Networks
“Wireless Without Compromise: Delivering the promise of IEEE 802.11n”
[originally accessed at http://www.merunetworks.com/pdf/whitepapers/WP_80211nAppDelivery_v1.pdf on November 14th
2009]