Applied Modern Physics I

X-ray diffraction / topography and

spectroscopy, electron microscopy, materials
science
X-ray radiation is very high in energy E = h f ( 2 10
-15
J = 1,25
10
4
eV so its the same energy an ee!tron "o#d have if it "ere
a!!eerated $y an ee!tri!a for!e going thro#gh a %otentia of
12,500 V& thats "hy it %enetrated s'in and fesh easiy, $ones
not (#ite so easiy and have #sage in medi!ine ) is that the main
#sage***
+ho "as ,onrad +ihem -.ntgen, dis!overer of X-rays* /
medi!a do!tor* / %hysi!ist, the very first 0o$e %ri1e "inner in
2hysi!s*
how did he discover X-rays? 1345, $y !han!e,
e5%erimenting "ith !athode rays (doing simiar things to J6J
7hom%son& on one end of the a$oratory, there "as a sheet of
%a%er that "as !overed "ith a %hos%hor sitting aro#nd at the
other end of the a$oratory, e5%erimenting in the dar', he noti!ed
that %hos%hor ights #% "hen he s"it!hes on his !athode ray
t#$e, dragging o#t ee!trons and a!!eerating them $y a %otentia
differen!e, the !athode ray t#$e is e5%e!ted to $e #nder va!##m,
$#t there "as 8#st eno#gh rest gas (air& that ee!trons got so"ed
do"n $y $eing s!attered $y the moe!#es,
today "e 'no"9 "hen ee!trons are so"ed do"n they radiate off
their ost in 'ineti! energy ) and that is X-rays an
ee!tromagneti! "ave : a stream of high energy %hotons
traveing at the s%eed of ight

at the time no$ody 'no"s ho" the radiation originates and of
"hat 'ind it "as9 "ave or %arti!es* -.ntgen !o#d in a ong
series of e5%eriments sho"ed9
- X-rays %enetrate a s#$stan!es to some e5tend, eements of
o" atomi! "eight are es%e!iay trans%arent, eements of high
atomi! n#m$er !an $ye #sed as shieds for %rote!tion against X-
rays
- X-rays !a#se many s#$stan!es to f#ores!e, i6e6 a$sor$ing them
and radiating off ee!tron-magneti! "aves of a different
"aveength
- X-rays are not defe!ted in a magneti! fied, so they do not
!onsist of !harged %arti!es
- X-rays !an effe!tivey $e generated $y ;!athode rays =
a!!eerated ee!trons< fa on a meta anode (and any other
materia %a!ed in their %ath
- X-rays ioni1e the gasses thro#gh "hi!h they %ass, !a#sing an
in!rease of ee!tri!a !ond#!tivity
but not diffraction which would prove X-rays are to be
described by waves!
reason9 then - of course - unknown, the "aveength of X-rays is
so sma that there "ere no manmade diffra!tion gratings
avaia$e
ho" does a diffra!tion at a grating differ from that of a do#$e
sit arrangement*

a diffra!tion grating has a m#!h m#!h greater n#m$er of sits
for the %ositions of the ma5ima
d sin = = m >
"here m = 0, 1, 2, ? are !aed the order of the ine and d is
!aed the grating %eriod, i6e6 (#otient of some ength + divided
$y the n#m$er of ines
as the ma5ima of the ines is very "e defined and narro", one
!an meas#re the "aveength of the in!ident (mono- or
%oy!hromati! if it is not too many& radiation that %rod#!ed the
interferen!e@diffra!tion %attern (for a do#$e sit e5%eriment the
$right fringes arising from different "aveength ight "o#d
overa% too m#!h to $e disting#ished
$y 1412, Aommerfed at the 2hysi!s Be%artment of Cniversity of
D#ni!h, nominated 30 times for 0o$e %ri1e "itho#t ever
"inning it, died from a !ar a!!ident had !a!#ated an order of
magnit#de for the "aveength of X-rays9 061 nm
if that "ere to $e tr#e, "aveength "o#d $e so short that
diffra!tion of 061 nm X-rays from a standard o%ti!a grating of
%eriod E Fm "ere to give diffra!tion ange of 06002G
so %essimism, ho" is some$ody going to %rove X-rays are
"aves or not
a 2hB st#dent of Aommerfed, E"ad "or'ing on soid state
theory im%i!ations "hat if !rystas "ere, as some of the eading
mineraogist (e6g6 Vi!tor D6 Hodsmith at the Dineraogy
Be%artment of C of D#ni!h& e5%e!ted a three-dimensiona
ordered arrangement of atoms "ith inter-atomi! distan!es of the
order of magnit#de 061 nm ) yo# have to %a#se here, the very
e5isten!e of atoms "as not "e esta$ished at that time et aone
their %ossi$e arrangement in !rystaine soids,
a%%roa!hed Da5 Ia#e (an assistant %rofessor at Aommerfeds
!hair& at ,afJ ;I#t1<, "here st#dents and fa!#ty #sed to hang
o#t, on an (#ite #nreated matter
Ia#e "as at that time "or'ing on a treatise on !assi!a o%ti!s
and heard for the first time $oth hy%otheses, that the "aveength
of X-rays may $e as short at 061 nm and that !rystas may
%ossess a %ossi$e %eriodi! arrangement of the atoms in E
dimensions "ith a s%a!ing of the order of magnit#de 061 nm
on their "ay $a!' to the 2hysi!s de%artment, the idea o!!#rred to
Ia#e, "e, there sho#d $e interferen!es if a !rysta is e5%osed
$y a $eam of ;s#ffi!ienty mono!hromati!< X-rays
he himsef $eing a theorist, he ta'ed a %ostdo!, Kriedri!h, "ho had
%revio#sy "or'ed "ith -.ntgen& and a %ostgrad#ate, Lni%%ing, into
trying the e5%eriment, $ehind the $a!' of the $ig $oss, Aommerfed,
"hen Aommerfed heard a$o#t it he "as f#rio#s es%e!iay as they didnt
get the res#ts Ia#e e5%e!ted as they didnt 'no" "here to oo' for - so
the %ro8e!t !ame to an hat
Ia#e finay got %ermission to go ahead $#t the $ig $oss "as sti
!onvin!ed it "as a st#%id e5%eriment as he !a!#ated, even if there "ere
X-ray interferen!es, the therma motion of the atoms at their res%e!tive
%a!es in a !rysta "o#d smear them o#t6
little did he know
and Da5 von Ia#e, i6e6 he got 'nighted, got for the !orre!t
inter%retation of the intensity ma5ima and the deveo%ment of
the so !aed 'inemati! theory of X-ray diffra!tion his 1414
0o$e %ri1e6
"hat "as fo#nd in one e5%eriment not ony that
X-rays do indeed %ossess "aves %ro%erties and
that !rystas indeed %ossess a three dimensiona
arrangement of atoms, but also nothing less
than the discovery of a method to probe the
inner structure of crystalline matter, "hi!h
"e 'no" today is amost a soids, $e they
metas, !erami!s, semi!ond#!tors, ?6 (not gass,
r#$$er, and !ertain %asti!s&
a diffra!tion grating is reay a one dimensiona thing, the
nat#ray o!!#rring !rystas are, ho"ever, E dimensiona,
therefore "e get a sighty different reation for the distri$#tion
on intensity on a s!reen of %hotogra%h

Mraggs e(#ation9 n > = 2 d sin = "here n is order of refe!tion
ao"ing !rystas to $e #sed as 'ind of a grating for
meas#ring "ave ength of !hara!teristi! X-rays "hi!h
arise from ee!troni! transitions of the innermost ee!trons
and anaysis of !rystas str#!t#res, soids in genera
as a matter of fa!t a ne" s!ien!e "as ena$ed "hi!h goes
$y the name materials science/crystallography
ne" s!ien!es a"ays start o#t as a %are%istemes (-6+6 ,ahn&
from the an!ient Hree'9
episteme ) meaning a domain of 'no"edge
par - means amongst other things s#$sidiary
i6e6 a s#$sidiary s#$8e!t "ithin a s!ien!e is something right at the
fringes of attention and f#nding that does not %rimariy aim for
soving any %ra!ti!a %ro$em, %eo%e ony do it for the f#n of it,
$e!a#se they find it interesting6 ,han des!ri$ed it as: looking
at the forest, not !st selecting a tree for logging "
later on, electron, and neutron diffraction, which
are complementary to X-ray diffraction the
single most important tools of materials science
a s!ien!e in its o"n right* Nts a s!ien!e "hen it has its
o"n 8o#rnas, !onferen!es, so!ieties, instit#tionai1ed
de%artments, degrees, grad#ate st#dents, ? "hen it has
something !ni#!e that disting#ishes it from the s!ien!e
that gave $irth to it ("hi!h is %ro$a$y a"ays 2hysi!s&
"hat is #ni(#e a$o#t materias s!ien!e@!rystaogra%hy*
-6+ ,han9 ;? the materias s!ientist has to "or' at
severa eves of organi1ation, ea!h of "hi!h is #nder-
%inned $y the ne5t eve6 Oere, again, he is $rother #nder
the s'in of the $ioogist, "ho does 8#st the same9 staring
"ith the !e "a, say, the goes on to st#dy the
mor%hoogy and e!onomy of the !e as a "hoe, then the
isoated organ (made of !es&, then the organism as a
"hoe6 ? the concept of microstr!ct!re is the most
important single definition theme of Materials $cience
and %ngineering6<
perhaps something is a science when it has spun off an
engineering discipline, what do you think?
perhaps something is a science when consistently Nobel
prizes have been awarded in that field, what do you think?
Nobel prizes hysics!
"#"$ Da5 von Ia#e, X-rays are an ee!tromagneti! "ave of
a$o#t 061 nm "aveength, atoms in !rystas are arranged in a
reg#ar EB atti!e "ith s%a!ing in the 061 nm range, there is X-
ray diffra!tion from !rystas, the %ossi$iity of anay1ing the
arrangements of matter in !rystas, (Ia#e e(#ations&, 1412
"#"% Air +iiam Oenry Mragg and +iiam Ia"ren!e Mragg
(son of the former&, X-ray !rystaogra%hy, +6I6 Mragg e(#ation,
X-ray !rysta s%e!trometer, 141E
"#&' ,inton Bavidson and Air Heorge 26 7hom%son (J6J6
7hom%sons son "ho first sho"ed ee!trons are %arti!es&,
ee!tron diffra!tion $y !rystas, in other "ords ee!trons are
"aves, 142P
"#() Ernst -#s'a, inventing the ee!tron mi!ros!o%e "here one
o%eration mode is ee!tron diffra!tion (14E1& together with
Herd Minning and Oeinri!h -ohrer, s!anning t#nneing
mi!ros!o%e, (!om%etey #nreated&
"##$ Mertram 06 Mro!'ho#se and ,ifford H6 A!h#, %ioneering
ne#tron diffra!tion and s%e!tros!o%y
Nobel rizes *hemistry
"#&) 2eter J6 Be$ye
X-ray and electron diffraction analyses of molecules
"#)+ Da5 K6 2er#t1, John ,6 Lendre"
X-ray diffraction analysis of haemoglobin und myoglobin
"#)$ Bame Borothy ,ro"foot Oodg'in
X-ray diffraction analysis of biochemical macromolecules
"#') +iiam 06 Ii%s!om$
X-ray diffraction analysis of borhydrids
"#(+ /aron L#g
X-ray diffraction analysis of nucleic acids and protein
complexes
"#(% Oer$ert /6 Oa#%tmann, Jerome Lare
direct methods of X-ray crystallography
"#(( Johann Beisenhofer, -o$ert O#$er, Oartm#t Di!he
structure and function of protein-chromophor-complex
Nobel rize ,edicine
"#)+ James B6 +atson, Kran!is O6,6 ,ri!', Da#ri!e O6K6
+i'ins, X-ray diffraction analysis of DN and its importance
for genetic code
note there has not been any Nobel prize for medical X-
rays, so probably that was much less important to the
development of mankind as the physical and
crystallographic use of X-rays
so in a sense9 Daterias A!ien!e@,rystaogra%hy is the
rea ega!y of Lonrad +ihem -.ntgen, "hat ha%%ened
to him, he got the first ever 0o$e %ri1e in 2hysi!s in
1401, $#t ref#sed to a!!e%t the money,
d#ring the hy%erinfation foo"ing "ord "ar N, he died a
very %oor man from man#trition, e5ha#stion, and %oor
heath d#e to his e5%eriments "ith X-rays