QUEZON CITY POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Quezon City Polytechnic University
673 Quirino Highway, San Bartolome
Novaliches Quezon City


AIR POLLUTION
Case Study: The Fog


In partial fulfillment of the requirements
In Industrial Engineering
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Engr. Norberto D. De Jesus
Present by:
Astrero, Johnnel B.
Boyo, John Lester D.
Abendao, Inno Mark Joseph


QUEZON CITY POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY


INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT


11 1: Air Pollution Perspective
Air pollution is of public health concern on the micro meso and macro scales. Indoors air
pollution results from products used in construction materials, the madequency of general
ventilation, and geophysical factors that may result in exposure to naturally occurring radioactive
materials. Industrial and mobile sources contribute to mesoscale air pollution that contaminates
the ambient air that surrounds us outdoors. Macro scale (or global) effects include acid rain and
ozone pollution. Global effects of pollution results from sources that may potentially change the
upper atmosphere, examples which include depletion of the ozone layers and global warming.

11 2: Fundamentals
Pressure Relationships and Units of Measure
The fundamental relationships of pressure and the units of measure used in discussing air
pollution were presented in Ch 2: they are micrograms per cubic meter (g . m-), parts per
million (ppm), and the micrometer (m). Micrograms per cubic meter and parts per million are
measures of concentration and are both used to indicate the concentration of gaseous pollutants.
Conversion from one of these units to the other was discussed in Ch 2. The concentration of
particulate matter may be reported only as micrograms per cubic meter.

Adiabatic Expansion and Compression
Air pollution meteorology is, in part, a consequence of the thermodynamic processes of the
atmosphere. On such process is adiabatic expansion and contraction. An adiabatic process is one
that takes place with no addition or removal of heat and with sufficient slowness so the gas can
be considered to be in equilibrium at all times.

11 3: Air Pollution Standards
The 1970 Clean Air Act (CAA) required the U.S. EPA (ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY) to investigate and describe the environmental effects of any air
pollutants emitted by stationary or mobile sources that may adversely affect human health or the
environment.

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11- 4 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Effects on Materials
Mechanism of Deterioration. Five mechanism of deterioration have been attributed to air
pollution: abrasion and removal, direct chemical attack, indirect chemical attack; and
electrochemical corrosion. Solid particles of large enough size and traveling at high enough
speed can cause deterioration by abrasion. With the expectation of soil particles in dust storms,
most air pollutant particles either are too small or travel at too slow a speed to be abrasive.
Factor that Influence Deterioration. Moisture, temperature, sunlight, and position of the
exposed material are among the more important factors that influence the rate of deterioration.
Moisture in the form of humidity, is essential for most of the mechanism of deterioration to
occur. Metal corrosion does not appear to occur even at relatively high SO
2
pollution levels until
the relative humidity exceeds 60%. On the other hand, humilities above 70 -90% will promote
corrosion with air pollutants. Rain reduces the effects of pollutant-induced corrosion by dilution
and washing away of the pollutant.

Effects of Vegetation
Cell Leaf Anatomy. Because the leaf is the primary indicator of the effects of air pollution on
plants, we shall define some term and explain how the leaf function. A typical plant cell has
three main components: the cell wall, the protoplast, and the inclusions. Much like human skin
the cell wall is thin in young plants and gradually thickens with age. Protoplast is term used to
describe the protoplasm of one cell. It consists primarily of water, but it also includes protein,
fat, and carbohydrates. The nucleus contains the hereditary material ( DNA), which controls the
operation of the cell. The protoplasm located outside the nucleus is called cytoplasm. Within
the cytoplasm are the tiny body or plastids. Example include protoplasts, leucoplasts,
chloroplasts, and mitochondria.
Pollutant Damage
Ozone injures the palisade cells. The chloroplast condenses and ultimately the cell walls
collapse. This results in the formation of red brown spots that turn white after a few days. The
white spots are called fleck. Ozone injury appears to be the greatest during midday on sunny
days. The guard cells are more likely to be open under these conditions and thus allow pollutants
to enter the leaf.
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Effects on Health
Susceptible Population
Under the best circumstances it is difficult to assess the effects of air pollution on human
health. Personal pollution from smoking results in exposure to air pollutant concentrations far
higher that the low levels found in the ambient atmosphere. Occupational exposure may also
results in pollution doses far above those found outdoors. Test on rodents and other mammals are
difficult to interpret and apply to human anatomy. Test on human subjects are usually restricted
to those who would be expected to survive. This leads us to a question of environmental ethics.

Anatomy of the Respiratory Systems
The respiratory system is the primary indicator of air pollution effects in humans. The
major organs of the respiratory system are the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
The nose, pharynx, larynx, and trachea together are called the upper respiratory tract (URT) and
LRT or Lower respiratory tracts are bronchi and lungs itself.
Inhalation and Retention of Particles
The degree of penetration of particles into the LRT is primarily a function of the size of
the particles and the rate of breathing. Particles greater than 5 -10 m are screened out by the
hairs in the nose. Sneezing also helps the screening process.
Chronic Respiratory Disease
Several long term diseases of the respiratory system are seriously aggravated by and
perhaps may be caused by the air pollution. Airway resistance is the narrowing of air passages
because of the presence of irritating substances. The result is that breathing becomes difficult.
Carbon Monoxide ( CO).
This colorless, odorless gas is lethal to humans witihin a few minutes at concentration
exceeding 5000ppm. CO reacts with hemoglobin in the blood to form carboxyhemoglobin
(COHb). Hemoglobin has a greater affinity for CO than it does for oxygen. Thus the formation
of COHb effectively deprives the body of oxygen. At COHb levels of 5 to 10%, visual
perception, manual dexterity, and ability to learn are impaired.


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QUEZON CITY POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY


INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Hazardous Air Pollutants ( HAPs) .
Most of the information on the direct effects of hazardous air pollutants (also known as
air toxics) on human health comes from studies of industrial workers. Exposure to air toxics in
the workplace is generally much higher than in the ambient air. We know relatively little about
the specific effects of the HAPs at the low levels normally found in the ambient air.

Lead (Fb).
In contrast to the other major air pollutants, lead is a cumulative poison. A further
difference is that is it ingested in food and water, as well as being inhaled. Of that portion taken
by ingestion, approximately 5-10% is absorbed in the body. Between 20 and 50% of the inspired
portion is absorbed. Those portions that are not absorbed are excreted in the feces and urine.
Lead is measured in the urine and blood for diagnostic evidence of lead poisoning.
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO
2
).
The oxides of nitrogen are referred to collectively as NO
2.
Exposure to NO2
concentrations above 5 ppm for 15 min results in cough and irritation of the respiratory tract.
Continued exposure may produce abnormal accumulation of fluid in the lung (Pulmonary
Edema) . The gas is reddish brown in concentrated form and gives a brownish yellow tint at
lower concentration. At 5 ppm it has pungent sweetish odor.

Photochemical Oxidants.
Although the photochemical oxidants include peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), acrolein,
peroxylbenzcyl nitrates (PBzN), aidehydes, and nitrogen oxides, the major oxidant is ozone (O
3
).
Ozone is commonly used as indicator of the total amount of the oxidant present. Oxidant
concentrations above 0.1 ppm result in the eye irritation. At a concentration of 0.3 ppm, cough
and chest discomfort increased. Those people who suffer from chronic respiratory disease are
particularly susceptible.



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QUEZON CITY POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY


INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

PM
10
.
As noted earlier, large particles are not inhaled deeply into the lungs, this why EPA
switch from an air quality standard based on total suspended matter (TSP) to one based on
particles with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10 m (PM
10.
) Studies in the United States,
Brazil and Germany have related higher levels of particulates to increased rick of respiratory,
cardiovascular, and cancer related deaths, as well as pneumonia, lung function loss, hospital
administrations, and asthma.

11-9 Indoor air quality model
If we envision a house or room in a house or other enclosed space as a simple box then we can
construct a simple mass balance model to explore the behavior of the indoor air quality as a
function of infiltration of outdoor air, indoor sources and sinks, and leakage to the outdoor air. If
we assume the contents of the box and well mixed then.
11-10 Air pollution control of stationary sources
Gaseous Pollutants
Absorption. Control devices based on the principle of absorption attempt to transfer the
pollutant from a gas to liquid phase. This is a mass- transfer process in which the gas dissolves
in the liquid. The dissolution may or may not be accompanies by a reaction with an ingredient of
the liquid. Mass transfer is a diffusion process wherein the pollutant gas moves from points of
higher concentration to points of lower concentration.
Spray chamber
1. Diffusion of the pollutant gas to the surface of the liquid
2. Transfer across the gas-liquid interface (dissolution)
3. Diffusion of the dissolved gas away from the interface into the liquid
Adsorption. Adsorption is a mass-transfer process in which the gas is bonded to a solid. It is a
surface phenomenon. The gas (the adsorbate) penetrates into the pores of the solid (the
adsorbent) but not into the lattice itself.
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Combustion. When the contaminant in the gas stream is oxidizable to an inert gas, combustion
is a possible alternative method of control. Typically, CO and hydrocarbons fall into this
category. Both direct flame combustion by afterburners and catalytic combustion have been
used in commercial applications.
Flue Gas Desulfurization
Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems fall into two based categories non-regenerative and
regenerative. In non-regenerative system the reagent used to remove the sulfur oxide from the
gas stream is used and discarded. In regenerative systems the reagent is recovered and
reused. In terms of the number and size of systems installed, non-regenerative system
dominate.
Control Technologies for Nitrogen Oxides
Almost all nitrogen oxide

air pollution results from combustion process. They are

produced from the oxidation of nitrogen bound in the fuel, from the reaction of molecular oxygen
and nitrogen in the combustion air at temperatures above 1600K and from the reaction of
nitrogen in the combustion air with hydrocarbon radicals.
Prevention. The process in this category employ the fact that reduction of the peak flame
temperature in the combustion zone reduces NOx formation. Nine alternative have been
developed to reduce flame temperature
1. Minimizing operating temperatures
2. Fuel switching
3. Low excess air
4. Flue gas recirculation
5. Lean combustion
6. Staged combustion
7. Low NOx burners
8. Secondary combustion
9. Water-steam injection

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Post combustion. Three processes may be used to convert NOx to nitrogen gas: selective
catalytic reduction (SRC), selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR), and nonselective catalytic
reduction (NSCR).

Particulate Pollutants
Cyclones. For particle size greater than about 10 m in diameter, the collector of choice is the
cyclone. This is an inertial collector with no moving parts. The particulate the cyclone. This is
inertial collector with no moving parts. The particulate laden gas is accelerated through a spiral
motion, which imparts a centrifugal force to the particles.
Filters. When high efficiency control of particles smaller than 5 m is desired, a filter may be
selected as the control method. Two types are in use: (1) The deep bed filter, and (2) the bag
house. The deep bed filter resembles a furnace filter. A packing of fibers is used to intercept
particles in the gas stream. For relatively clean gases and low volumes, such as air conditioning
systems, these are quite effective. For dirty industrial gas with high volumes, the bag house is
preferable.
Liquid Scrubbing. When the particulate matter to be collected is wet, corrosive, or very hot, the
fabric filter may not work. Liquid scrubbing might. Typical scrubbing applications include control
of emission of talc dust, phosphoric acid mist, foundry cupola dust, and open hearth steel
furnace fumes.
Electrostatic Precipitation (ESP). High-efficiency. Dry collection of particles from hot gas
streams can be obtained by electrostatic precipitation of the particles. The ESP is usually
constructed of alternating plates and wires.
11-11 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCES
Engine Fundamentals
Before we examine some cures for the pollution from the common gasoline automobile engine,
it may be useful to compare the three familiar types of engines: gasoline, diesel, and jet.
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INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

The Gasoline Engine. In the typical automobile engine with no air pollution controls, a mixture
of fuel and air is fed into a cylinder and is compressed and ignited by a spark from the spark
plug. The explosive energy of the burning mixture moves the pistons. The pistons motion is
transmitted to the crankshaft that drives the car. The burnt, spent mixture passes out of the
engine and out through the tail pipe.

The Diesel Engine. The diesel engine differs from the four-stroke gasoline engine in two
respects. First, the air supply is unthrottled; that is, its flow into the engines is unrestricted. Thus,
a diesel normally operates at a higher air-to-fuel ratio than does a gasoline engine. Second,
there is no spark ignition system.
The Jet Engine. Large commercial aircraft that use the thrust of compressed gases for
propulsion may contribute significant amounts of particulates and NOx to urban atmospheres.
Effect of Design and Operating Variable on Emissions. The list of variables that affect
internal combustion (automobile) emission includes the following:
1. Air-to fuel ratio
2. Load or power level
3. Speed
4. Spark timing
5. Exhaust back pressure
6. Valve overlap
7. Intake manifold pressure
8. Combustion chamber deposit build up
9. Surface temperature
10. Surface-to-volume ratio
11. Combustion chamber design
12. Stroke-to-bore ratio
13. Displacement per cylinder
14. Compression ratio
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QUEZON CITY POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY


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Control of Automobile Emissions
Blowby. The flow of air past the moving vehicle is directed through the crankcase to rid it of any
gas-air mixture that has blown past the pistons, any evaporated lubrication oil, and any escaped
exhaust products.
Fuel Tank Evaporation Losses. Evaporation of volatile hydrocarbon (VOCs) from the fuel tank
is controlled by one of two systems. The simplest system is to place an activated charcoal
adsorber in the tank vent line. Thus, as the gasoline expands during warm weather and forces
vapor out of the vent, the VOCs are trapped on the activated carbon.
Carburetor Evaporation Losses. During engine operation, the hydrocarbon vapors generated
in the carburetor are vented internally to the engines intake system. After the engine is shut off,
the gasoline in the float bowl continues to evaporate because of the high temperature in the
engine compartment. This phenomenon is called hot soak.
Inspection-Maintenance (I/M) Programs. The devices installed by automobile manufacturers
are extremely successful in minimizing the pollution from the exhaust and from evaporating fuel.
However, as with other aspects of running an automobile, these devices wear out and fail.

11-12 WASTE MINIMIZATION
The best and first step in any air pollution control strategy should be to minimize the production
of pollutants in the first place. Because a large proportion of air pollutants results from the
combustion of fossils fuels, an obvious approach to waste minimization is to conserve energy.






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