Manual Farmtilapia

Printed in Jamaica by: Press-Box Printers Ltd.
984-2161
A Guide to the FARMING OF TILAPIA
i
Notes
40
Fred Hanley, Ph.D.
Dr. Hanley is a technical resource for the Jamaica Broilers
Group of Companies. He has been active in commercial animal
production for 17 years and has extensive experience in general
aquaculture, poultry and swine nutrition and feed formulation
and manufacture. He has expertise in the nutrition and feeding
of tilapia and has published several peer-reviewed papers and
magazine articles on the subject. Fred also has an M.Phil. in
Zoology (Marine Biology) and has been a consultant to the
Government of Jamaica in marine fisheries conservation.
ii 39
Aquaculture Jamaica Limited, Barton Isle farm, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica
FOREWORD
Give a man a fish.....
He will eat for a day.
Teach him how to farm fish....
He will feed himself (but may need subsidies for life).
Advise him to use tilapia as his main culture fish.........
He will have a tool, which if used wisely, will sustain his future development.
Adapted from Anonymous and Jrme Lazard (1997).
Jamaica Broilers Group takes pleasure in producing the second edition of the Guide
to the Farming of Tilapia. Since the publication of the first edition in 1990, many new
developments have occurred, including the intensification of pond culture through the
use of high-exchange water and artificial aeration, saltwater tank culture, and advances
in product development and processing. Because culture conditions and the technology
of farming are widely varied and continually evolving, the Guide cannot provide a
complete treatment of tilapia farming. Instead, it tries to serve as a general, informative
guideline for the advanced fish farmer, prospective investors and other interest groups
to aid in the assessment of the culture potential and management of these remarkable
fish.
A Guide to the Farming of Tilapia
Notes
38
iii
Schroeder, G.L. 1975. Nighttime material balance for oxygen in fish ponds receiving organic wastes. Bamidgeh, 27:
65-74.
Simon, F. 1997. Marketing tilapia in the United States. Pp. 127-130 in: D.E. Alston, B.W. Green and H.C. Clifford
(eds.) IV Symposium on Aquaculture in Central America. 22-24 April 1997, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. Asociacion
Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras and the Latin American Chapter of the World Aquaculture Society.
Stickney, R.R. 1997. Tilapia nutrition, feeds and feeding. Pp. 34-54 in: B.A. Costa-Pierce and J.E. Rakocy (eds.)
Tilapia Aquaculture in the Americas, Vol. 1. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA.
Teichert-Coddington, D.R. and B.W. Green, 1993. Yield improvement through maintenance of minimal oxygen con
centration in experimental grow-out ponds in Honduras. Aquaculture, 118: 63-71.
Timmons, M.B., Ebeling, J.M., Wheaton, F.W., Summerfelt, S.T. and Vinci, B.J. 2001. Recirculating Aquaculture
Systems. NRAC Publication 01-002, Cayuga Aqua Ventures, Ithaca NY. 650 pp.
Trewavas, E. 1983. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. British Museum
(Natural History), London SW7 5BD. 583 pp.
Watanabe, W.O., R.I. Wicklund, B.L. Olla, and W.D. Head, 1997. Saltwater culture of the Florida Red and other
tilapias: A Review. Pp. 55-141, in: Costa-Pierce, B.A. and J.E. Rakocy, eds. 1997. Tilapia Aquaculture in the
Americas, Vol.1. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States.
FCH 29.11.02, edited 10.02.05
CONTENTS
Section Page
1. INTRODUCTION 1
World production of tilapia 1
Tilapia in Jamaica 2
2. SOME THINGS TO CONSIDER BEFORE STARTING 2
3. FARMING TILAPIA 3
Pond culture 4
Tank culture 6
Saltwater culture 6
Recirculating systems 7
4. WATER 8
Surface water criteria for fish culture 8
Water quality requirements of tilapia 9
The environmental physiology of tilapia 9
Dissolved oxygen requirements of tilapia 11
Water quantity 16
5. FISH 17
Broodstock and breeding 17
Culture system and production 18
Growth in semi-intensive and intensive systems 23
Nutrition and feeding 23
Fish handling 26
Harvesting 27
Live-hauling 27
Diseases, sanitation, bio-security and quarantine 27
Tilapia economics 30
Processing and marketing 31
Organic tilapia 33
6. APPENDICES 34
Water quality standards for fish culture 34
Some useful conversion factors 35
Flow rates 35
7. REFERENCES 36
iv
37
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Tables Page
Table 1. Recommended side slopes and top width of pond dikes 4
Table 2. Diameter of outlet pipes for various pond sizes 5
Table 3. Selected surface water criteria for public water supplies, USA 9
Table 4. Summary of the environmental physiology of tilapias 10
Table 5. The solubility of oxygen in freshwater 11
Table 6. Seepage loss from various soil types 16
Table 7. Levels of management intensity and typical production parameters 22
Table 8. Summary of known and recommended nutrient requirements of tilapia 24
Table 9. Feed and feeding recommendations for tilapia in pond culture 25
Table 10. Feed and feeding requirements for tilapia in tank culture 26
Table 11. Main parasites and diseases of tilapia 29
Table 12. Disinfectants and their application 30
Table 13. Farm cost components for Jamaican tilapia producers 31
Table 14. Expected yields from various processing cuts 32
Figures
Figure 1. World tilapia production, 1984-2004 1
Figure 2. Farmed tilapia production in Jamaica, 1980-2004 2
Figure 3. Dissolved oxygen, temperature and pH in a typical pond 12
Figure 4. Growth of red tilapia in single- and multi-phase stocking 23
Plates and Diagrams
Plate 1. Feeding tilapia at Aquaculture Jamaica Limited, Barton Isle Cover
Plate 2. Aquaculture Jamaica Limited, Barton Isle, St. Elizabeth Foreword
Plate 3. Taiwanese paddlewheel 14
Plate 4. Red tilapia - a mosaic of several species 17
Plate 5. Diagram of external genitalia of tilapia 18
Plate 6. High density raceways, Barton Isle 21
Plate 7. Catfish feed blower 25
Kubaryk, J.M. 1980. Effect of diet, feeding schedule and sex on food consumption, growth and retention of protein
and energy by tilapia. Ph.D. Diss., Auburn University, Auburn, AL.
Liao, I-C. And T-P. Chen. 1983. Status and prospects of tilapia culture in Taiwan. Pp. 588-596 in: L. Fishelson and
Z. Yaron (eds.) International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
Lim, C. 1997. Nutrition and feeding of tilapias. Pp. 94-107 in: D.E. Alston, B.E. Green and H.C. Clifford (eds.) IV
Symposium on Aquaculture in Central America. Asociation Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras and the Latin
American Chapter of the World Aquaculture Society.
Lovell, R.T. 1989. Nutrition and Feeding of Fish. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY.
McLarney, W. 1984. The Freshwater Aquaculture Book: A Handbook for Small Scale Fish Culture in North America.
Hartley & Marks, Inc. Point Roberts, WA.
Meade, J.W. 1989. Aquaculture management. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Mires, D. 1995. Aquaculture and aquatic environment: Mutual impact and preventive management. The Israeli
Journal of Aquaculture - Bamidgeh, 47: 163-172.
National Research Council (NRC) 1993. Nutrient Requirements of Fish. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Pandian, T.J. and K. Varadaraj. 1988. Techniques for producing all-male and all-triploid Oreochromis mossambicus.
Pp. 243-249 in R.S.V. Pullin, T. Bhukasawan, K. Tonguthai and J.L. Maclean (eds.) The Second International
Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. ICLARM Conference proceedings 15, 623 pp. Department of Fisheries,
Bangkok, Thailand, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines.
Pillay, T.V.R. 1990. Aquaculture Principles and Practices. Fishing News Books, Oxford, UK.
Popma, T.J. 1982. Digestibility of selected feedstuffs and naturally occurring algae by tilapia. Ph.D. Diss., Auburn
University, Auburn, AL.
Popma, T.J. and L.L. Lovshin. 1996. Worldwide Prospects for Commercial Production of Tilapia. Res. & Dev. Series
No. 41, International Center for Aquaculture and Aquatic Environments, Auburn University, Auburn, AL.
Popma, T.J. and R.P. Phelps. 1998. Status report to commercial tilapia producers on monosex fingerling production
techniques. Pp. 127-145 in Proceedings, Vol. 1, Aquicultura Brasil 98, 2-6 November, 1998, Recife-PE, Brasil.
Plumb, J.A. 1999. Infectious diseases of tilapia and their management. Pp. 125-133 in B.W. Green, H.C. Clifford,
M. McNamara and G.M. Montano (eds.) V Central American Symposium on Aquaculture, 18-20 August 1999,
San Pedro Sula, Honduras. Asociacion Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras, Latin American Chapter of the
World Aquaculture Society and Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture Collaborative Research Support Program,
Choluteca, Honduras.
Rappaport, U., S. Sarig and M. Marek. 1976. Results of tests of various aeration systems on the oxygen regime in
the Ginosar Experimental ponds and growth of fish there in 1975. Bamidgeh, 28: 35-49.
36
1
REFERENCES
Ammerman, G.R. 1985. Processing. Pp. 569-616 in C.S. Tucker, ed. Channel Catfish Culture. Elsevier Science
Publisher, New York, NY, USA.
Austin, H.M. 1971. A survey of the ichthyofauna of the mangroves of western Puerto Rico during December 1967-
August 1968. Caribbean Journal of Science, 11: 27-39.
Balarin, J.D. and R.D. Haller. 1983. Commercial tank culture of tilapia. Pp. 473-483 in: L. Fishelson and Z. Yaron
(eds.) International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. Tel Aviv University Press, Tel Aviv, Israel.
Boyd, C.E. 1990. Water quality in ponds for aquaculture. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn
University. Birmingham Publishing Co., Birmingham, AL.
Boyd, C.E. and B.J. Watten. 1989. Aeration systems in aquaculture. Rev. Aquatic Sci., 1:425-472.
Boyd, C.E. and C.S. Tucker. 1995. Sustainability of channel catfish farming. World Aquaculture, 26: 45-53.
Carlson, A.R., J. Blocker and L.J. Herman. 1980. Growth and survival of channel carfish and yellow perch exposed
to lowered constant and diurnally fluctuating dissolved oxygen concentrations. Prog. Fish Cult., 42: 73-78.
Carter, R.R. and K.O. Allen. 1976. Effects of flow rate and aeration on survival and growth of channel catfish in
circular tanks. Prog. Fish Cult., 38: 204-206.
Creswell, R.L. 1993. The Aquaculture Desk Reference. Chapman & Hall, New York, NY 10003.
FAO, 2000. From Seafood Leader, October 2002.
Goudie, C.A., W.L. Shelton and N.C. Parker. 1986. Tissue distribution and elimination of radiola belled methyl-
testosterone fed to sexually undifferentiated blue tilapia. Aquaculture 58: 215-226.
Hanley, F. 2000. Tilapia aquaculture in Jamaica. Pp. 204-214 in Costa-Pierce, B.A. and J.E. Rakocy, eds. Tilapia
Aquaculture in the Americas, Vol. 2. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA.
Hargreaves, J.A. 2000. Tilapia culture in the Southeast United States. Pp. 60-81, in: Costa-Pierce, B.A. and J.E.
Rakocy, eds. Tilapia Aquaculture in the Americas, Vol. 2. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge,
Louisiana, USA.
Hepher, B. 1988. Nutrition of Pond Fishes. Cambridge University Press. 388 pp.
Hussain, M.G., D.J. Penman, and B.J. McAndrew. 1996. Effects of triploidy on sexual maturation and reproduction
in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus L., pp. 320-325 in R.S.V. Pullin, J. Lazard, M. Legendre, J.B. Amon
Kothias and D. Pauly (eds) The Third International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. ICLARM Conf. Proc.,
41, 575 pp.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tilapias are members of the family Cichlidae that are warmwater fishes native to Africa
and the Middle East where more than 100 species are found in the wild. Commercially
important tilapias belong to three major generic groups distinguished primarily by their
reproductive behavior (Trewavas, 1983):
1. Oreochromis - the maternal mouthbrooders;
2. Sarotherodon - the paternal or biparental mouthbrooders;
3. Tilapia - the substrate spawners.
The genus Oreochromis is by far the most important cultured group, with O. niloticus,
O. mossambicus, O. aureus and various red mosaics of these species comprising the
majority of farmed tilapias. A capture fishery for Sarotherodon galilaeus (St. Peters
Fish) is important in Israel, while Tilapia rendalli is commercially significant as a
capture fish in Brazilian reservoirs (Popma and Lovshin, 1996). From the 1940's to the
1970's the popularity of tilapia as fish for food, the aquarium trade and in aquatic weed
and insect control has led to their transference to at least 75 countries and a rapid
increase in their culture. Worldwide, farmed tilapia production is now close to 1,500,000
metric tonnes (mt) per annum, making it second only to the carps (11,000,000 mt)
among farmed fishes (Figure 1). China is the largest producer, at >750,000 mt with the
Philippines (>100,000 mt), Mexico (95,000 mt) and Taiwan (90,000 mt) also producing
significant quantities. This prominence has been made possible by several exceptional
attributes, which include ease of reproduction in captivity, tolerance of environmental
extremes, an omnivorous feeding habit, rapid growth and firm, sweet-tasting flesh.
Figure 1. World tilapia production 1984-2004 (FAO and estimates)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
'000 tonnes
Capture Cul ture
2
35
Tilapia in Jamaica. Tilapia from St. Lucia (O. mossambicus) were brought to Jamaica
in 1950 as a low-input crop stocked in community watershed ponds to provide protein
for rural folk. Their managed culture began in 1977 when two Government of Jamaica/
USAID Inland Fisheries Development Projects demonstrated the economic viability of
using tilapia as the basis for a local aquaculture industry. The industry started with O.
mossambicus, but the dark color of the peritoneal membrane of these fish found disfavor
with consumers, and they were replaced by O. niloticus in 1979. In 1984 red hybrids
were introduced. These fish, similar in color to the domestically popular marine snappers
were more acceptable to consumers and the culture began to expand. From the harvest
of 20 mt in 1979, the output of marketable tilapia increased to around 5,000 mt in 2001
(Figure 2). At present, tilapia comprise around 95% of Jamaican aquaculture production.
Figure 2. Farmed tilapia production in Jamaica, 1980-2004 est.
The Guide discusses aspects of the production of tilapia in Jamaica where semi-
intensive pond culture is the most common system of farming. Other systems, including
seawater and high-exchange culture occur and will be discussed in less detail. A small
section on recirculation aquaculture, which as yet is not practiced, will be included since
Jamaica exports tilapia to the USA where this system of culture is increasingly being
adopted.
2. SOME THINGS TO CONSIDER BEFORE STARTING
Many people express an interest in fish farming, but few really investigate the demands
involved in becoming successful producers. Prospective farmers are urged to talk to
practicing farmers and to think seriously on the biological and business side of fish
farming before committing to an enterprise. Here are some factors which need
consideration:
2.1. Species What species or strain will be cultured? Is there a demand for it? Do
Appendix II. SOME USEFUL CONVERSION FACTORS
Appendix III. FLOW RATES
1 gal(US)/min = 0.00223 ft
3
/sec = 0.0631 L/sec = 5.42 m
3
/day
1 ft
3
/sec = 449 gal(US)/min = 28.3 L/sec = 0.0283 m
3
/sec = 2,450 m
3
/day
1 L/sec = 15.9 gal(US)/min = 0.0353 ft
3
/sec = 86.4 m
3
/day
1 m
3
/sec = 15,800 gal(US)/min = 35.3 ft
3
/sec = 86,400 m
3
/day
(Boyd, 1990)
To Convert Multiply By To Obtain
acres
acres
acres
acre-feet
acre-feet
btu
calories, gram
centigrade, degrees
centimeters
cubic feet
cubic meters
feet
gallons (US)
gallons (US)
gallons/min.
horsepower
joules
kilograms
kilowatt-hrs
lux
million gals./day
ounces
square feet
square meters
tons (metric)
4.047 x 10
-1
4.047 x 10
3
4.35 x 10
4
4.356 x 10
4
3.259 x 10
5
3.927 x 10
-4
3.9685 x 10
-3
(C x 9/5) + 32
3.937 x 10
-1
2.832 x 10
-2
2.642 x 10
2
3.048 x 10
-1
8.327 x 10
-1
3.785
6.308 x 10
-2
7.457 x 10
-1
9.486 x 10
-4
2.2046
3.413 x 10
3
9.29 x 10
-2
1.5472
2.835
9.29 x 10
-2
3.861 x 10
-7
2.205 x 10
3
hectares
sq. meters
sq. ft.
cu. ft.
gallons (US)
horsepower-hours
btu
fahrenheit, degrees
inches
cubic meters
gallons (US)
meters
gallons (Imp)
liters
liters/sec.
kilowatts
btu
pounds
btu
foot-candles
cu.ft./sec
grams
sq. meters
square miles
pounds
34
3
Appendix I. Water quality standards for fish culture. Units in mg/L unless other-
wise stated. (Meade 1989).
you have the technical know-how; do your site conditions meet the
species requirements?
2.2. Market Where will the fish be sold? Who are the buyers and what price will
they pay? What are the specifications for quantity, quality and types
of product needed to satisfy or develop the market? What will storage
needs be? How accessible is the farm - to roads, to an airport? What
condition are the roads in?
2.3. Land Topography, soil type and drainage; size of project; legal aspects of
lease or ownership and zoning and future use of neighboring lands;
availability of land for expansion.
2.4. Water Source - wells or rivers; supply - gravity flow or pumping; cost of
water; quantity and quality - are these affected by seasonal trends
or neighboring industry?
2.5. Project Site selection - location, access, proximity to market; effects of other
agricultural or industrial enterprise (eg crop spraying and chemical
use); farm layout - inflow, outflow, arrangement of brood, nursery,
and growing ponds - function and design; water control and distribution
structures - protection from flooding; support facilities - hatchery,
maintenance, storage, office, roads, bridges, culverts; type of culture
system - ponds, raceways; scale of operation.
2.6. Finance Source and terms; budgets; capital and operating costs; cash flow;
business plan.
2.7. Management
Quality, training and experience of personnel; requirements - biologists,
production, accounting, supervisory, sales, maintenance; security;
predator controls; work schedules, communications; record-keeping;
planning schedules; computers.
3. FARMING TILAPIA
Tilapia are farmed in a diversity of systems - in ponds with no additional inputs or inputs
of fertilizer or agricultural by-products, with supplemental or complete feeds, with
aeration, in ponds having little or no water exchange, or with flowing water, or having
polyethylene liners, in concrete raceways, in cages, in fresh, brackish and saline waters,
in polyculture with other fish and shrimp, integrated with broiler, duck and vegetable
production - to name several. This adaptability has contributed to the widespread
dispersal of the group, but has slowed the development of controlled culture and the
optimization of production methods. In Jamaica, tilapia are raised principally in earthen
ponds.
Process Process Yield (% of live weight)
Alkalinity (as CaCO
3
)
Aluminium
Ammonia
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Alkalinity <100 mg/L
Alkalinity >100 mg/L
Calcium
Carbon dioxide
Copper
Dissolved oxygen
Hardness (as CaCO
3
)
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Nitrogen
Nitrate
Nitrite
PCBs
pH
Potassium
Salinity
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfate
Sulfur
Total dissolved solids
Total suspended solids
Zinc
10-400
4-160
0-10
5-to saturation
10-400
0-3
6.5-8.0
0.01
0.02
0.05
5.0
0.0005
0.005
0.006
0.03
0.01
0.02
15.0
0.01
0.2
110% (total gas pressure)
103% (as N gas)
0.1 in soft water
0.002
5.0
5%
0.01
75
50.0
1.0
400.0
80.0
0.005
Printed in Jamaica by: Press-Box Printers Ltd. 984-2161
i
Notes
40
Fred Hanley, Ph.D.
Dr. Hanley is a technical resource for the Jamaica Broilers
Group of Companies. He has been active in commercial animal
production for 17 years and has extensive experience in general
aquaculture, poultry and swine nutrition and feed formulation
and manufacture. He has expertise in the nutrition and feeding
of tilapia and has published several peer-reviewed papers and
magazine articles on the subject. Fred also has an M.Phil. in
Zoology (Marine Biology) and has been a consultant to the
Government of Jamaica in marine fisheries conservation.
ii 39
Aquaculture Jamaica Limited, Barton Isle farm, St. Elizabeth, Jamaica
FOREWORD
Give a man a fish.....
He will eat for a day.
Teach him how to farm fish....
He will feed himself (but may need subsidies for life).
Advise him to use tilapia as his main culture fish.........
He will have a tool, which if used wisely, will sustain his future development.
Adapted from Anonymous and Jrme Lazard (1997).
Jamaica Broilers Group takes pleasure in producing the second edition of the Guide
to the Farming of Tilapia. Since the publication of the first edition in 1990, many new
developments have occurred, including the intensification of pond culture through the
use of high-exchange water and artificial aeration, saltwater tank culture, and advances
in product development and processing. Because culture conditions and the technology
of farming are widely varied and continually evolving, the Guide cannot provide a
complete treatment of tilapia farming. Instead, it tries to serve as a general, informative
guideline for the advanced fish farmer, prospective investors and other interest groups
to aid in the assessment of the culture potential and management of these remarkable
fish.
A Guide to the Farming of Tilapia
Notes
38
iii
Schroeder, G.L. 1975. Nighttime material balance for oxygen in fish ponds receiving organic wastes. Bamidgeh, 27:
65-74.
Simon, F. 1997. Marketing tilapia in the United States. Pp. 127-130 in: D.E. Alston, B.W. Green and H.C. Clifford
(eds.) IV Symposium on Aquaculture in Central America. 22-24 April 1997, Tegucigalpa, Honduras. Asociacion
Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras and the Latin American Chapter of the World Aquaculture Society.
Stickney, R.R. 1997. Tilapia nutrition, feeds and feeding. Pp. 34-54 in: B.A. Costa-Pierce and J.E. Rakocy (eds.)
Tilapia Aquaculture in the Americas, Vol. 1. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA.
Teichert-Coddington, D.R. and B.W. Green, 1993. Yield improvement through maintenance of minimal oxygen con
centration in experimental grow-out ponds in Honduras. Aquaculture, 118: 63-71.
Timmons, M.B., Ebeling, J.M., Wheaton, F.W., Summerfelt, S.T. and Vinci, B.J. 2001. Recirculating Aquaculture
Systems. NRAC Publication 01-002, Cayuga Aqua Ventures, Ithaca NY. 650 pp.
Trewavas, E. 1983. Tilapiine fishes of the genera Sarotherodon, Oreochromis and Danakilia. British Museum
(Natural History), London SW7 5BD. 583 pp.
Watanabe, W.O., R.I. Wicklund, B.L. Olla, and W.D. Head, 1997. Saltwater culture of the Florida Red and other
tilapias: A Review. Pp. 55-141, in: Costa-Pierce, B.A. and J.E. Rakocy, eds. 1997. Tilapia Aquaculture in the
Americas, Vol.1. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States.
FCH 29.11.02, edited 10.02.05
CONTENTS
Section Page
1. INTRODUCTION 1
World production of tilapia 1
Tilapia in Jamaica 2
2. SOME THINGS TO CONSIDER BEFORE STARTING 2
3. FARMING TILAPIA 3
Pond culture 4
Tank culture 6
Saltwater culture 6
Recirculating systems 7
4. WATER 8
Surface water criteria for fish culture 8
Water quality requirements of tilapia 9
The environmental physiology of tilapia 9
Dissolved oxygen requirements of tilapia 11
Water quantity 16
5. FISH 17
Broodstock and breeding 17
Culture system and production 18
Growth in semi-intensive and intensive systems 23
Nutrition and feeding 23
Fish handling 26
Harvesting 27
Live-hauling 27
Diseases, sanitation, bio-security and quarantine 27
Tilapia economics 30
Processing and marketing 31
Organic tilapia 33
6. APPENDICES 34
Water quality standards for fish culture 34
Some useful conversion factors 35
Flow rates 35
7. REFERENCES 36
iv
37
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Tables Page
Table 1. Recommended side slopes and top width of pond dikes 4
Table 2. Diameter of outlet pipes for various pond sizes 5
Table 3. Selected surface water criteria for public water supplies, USA 9
Table 4. Summary of the environmental physiology of tilapias 10
Table 5. The solubility of oxygen in freshwater 11
Table 6. Seepage loss from various soil types 16
Table 7. Levels of management intensity and typical production parameters 22
Table 8. Summary of known and recommended nutrient requirements of tilapia 24
Table 9. Feed and feeding recommendations for tilapia in pond culture 25
Table 10. Feed and feeding requirements for tilapia in tank culture 26
Table 11. Main parasites and diseases of tilapia 29
Table 12. Disinfectants and their application 30
Table 13. Farm cost components for Jamaican tilapia producers 31
Table 14. Expected yields from various processing cuts 32
Figures
Figure 1. World tilapia production, 1984-2004 1
Figure 2. Farmed tilapia production in Jamaica, 1980-2004 2
Figure 3. Dissolved oxygen, temperature and pH in a typical pond 12
Figure 4. Growth of red tilapia in single- and multi-phase stocking 23
Plates and Diagrams
Plate 1. Feeding tilapia at Aquaculture Jamaica Limited, Barton Isle Cover
Plate 2. Aquaculture Jamaica Limited, Barton Isle, St. Elizabeth Foreword
Plate 3. Taiwanese paddlewheel 14
Plate 4. Red tilapia - a mosaic of several species 17
Plate 5. Diagram of external genitalia of tilapia 18
Plate 6. High density raceways, Barton Isle 21
Plate 7. Catfish feed blower 25
Kubaryk, J.M. 1980. Effect of diet, feeding schedule and sex on food consumption, growth and retention of protein
and energy by tilapia. Ph.D. Diss., Auburn University, Auburn, AL.
Liao, I-C. And T-P. Chen. 1983. Status and prospects of tilapia culture in Taiwan. Pp. 588-596 in: L. Fishelson and
Z. Yaron (eds.) International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
Lim, C. 1997. Nutrition and feeding of tilapias. Pp. 94-107 in: D.E. Alston, B.E. Green and H.C. Clifford (eds.) IV
Symposium on Aquaculture in Central America. Asociation Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras and the Latin
American Chapter of the World Aquaculture Society.
Lovell, R.T. 1989. Nutrition and Feeding of Fish. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY.
McLarney, W. 1984. The Freshwater Aquaculture Book: A Handbook for Small Scale Fish Culture in North America.
Hartley & Marks, Inc. Point Roberts, WA.
Meade, J.W. 1989. Aquaculture management. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Mires, D. 1995. Aquaculture and aquatic environment: Mutual impact and preventive management. The Israeli
Journal of Aquaculture - Bamidgeh, 47: 163-172.
National Research Council (NRC) 1993. Nutrient Requirements of Fish. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Pandian, T.J. and K. Varadaraj. 1988. Techniques for producing all-male and all-triploid Oreochromis mossambicus.
Pp. 243-249 in R.S.V. Pullin, T. Bhukasawan, K. Tonguthai and J.L. Maclean (eds.) The Second International
Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. ICLARM Conference proceedings 15, 623 pp. Department of Fisheries,
Bangkok, Thailand, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Manila, Philippines.
Pillay, T.V.R. 1990. Aquaculture Principles and Practices. Fishing News Books, Oxford, UK.
Popma, T.J. 1982. Digestibility of selected feedstuffs and naturally occurring algae by tilapia. Ph.D. Diss., Auburn
University, Auburn, AL.
Popma, T.J. and L.L. Lovshin. 1996. Worldwide Prospects for Commercial Production of Tilapia. Res. & Dev. Series
No. 41, International Center for Aquaculture and Aquatic Environments, Auburn University, Auburn, AL.
Popma, T.J. and R.P. Phelps. 1998. Status report to commercial tilapia producers on monosex fingerling production
techniques. Pp. 127-145 in Proceedings, Vol. 1, Aquicultura Brasil 98, 2-6 November, 1998, Recife-PE, Brasil.
Plumb, J.A. 1999. Infectious diseases of tilapia and their management. Pp. 125-133 in B.W. Green, H.C. Clifford,
M. McNamara and G.M. Montano (eds.) V Central American Symposium on Aquaculture, 18-20 August 1999,
San Pedro Sula, Honduras. Asociacion Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras, Latin American Chapter of the
World Aquaculture Society and Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture Collaborative Research Support Program,
Choluteca, Honduras.
Rappaport, U., S. Sarig and M. Marek. 1976. Results of tests of various aeration systems on the oxygen regime in
the Ginosar Experimental ponds and growth of fish there in 1975. Bamidgeh, 28: 35-49.
36
1
REFERENCES
Ammerman, G.R. 1985. Processing. Pp. 569-616 in C.S. Tucker, ed. Channel Catfish Culture. Elsevier Science
Publisher, New York, NY, USA.
Austin, H.M. 1971. A survey of the ichthyofauna of the mangroves of western Puerto Rico during December 1967-
August 1968. Caribbean Journal of Science, 11: 27-39.
Balarin, J.D. and R.D. Haller. 1983. Commercial tank culture of tilapia. Pp. 473-483 in: L. Fishelson and Z. Yaron
(eds.) International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. Tel Aviv University Press, Tel Aviv, Israel.
Boyd, C.E. 1990. Water quality in ponds for aquaculture. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn
University. Birmingham Publishing Co., Birmingham, AL.
Boyd, C.E. and B.J. Watten. 1989. Aeration systems in aquaculture. Rev. Aquatic Sci., 1:425-472.
Boyd, C.E. and C.S. Tucker. 1995. Sustainability of channel catfish farming. World Aquaculture, 26: 45-53.
Carlson, A.R., J. Blocker and L.J. Herman. 1980. Growth and survival of channel carfish and yellow perch exposed
to lowered constant and diurnally fluctuating dissolved oxygen concentrations. Prog. Fish Cult., 42: 73-78.
Carter, R.R. and K.O. Allen. 1976. Effects of flow rate and aeration on survival and growth of channel catfish in
circular tanks. Prog. Fish Cult., 38: 204-206.
Creswell, R.L. 1993. The Aquaculture Desk Reference. Chapman & Hall, New York, NY 10003.
FAO, 2000. From Seafood Leader, October 2002.
Goudie, C.A., W.L. Shelton and N.C. Parker. 1986. Tissue distribution and elimination of radiola belled methyl-
testosterone fed to sexually undifferentiated blue tilapia. Aquaculture 58: 215-226.
Hanley, F. 2000. Tilapia aquaculture in Jamaica. Pp. 204-214 in Costa-Pierce, B.A. and J.E. Rakocy, eds. Tilapia
Aquaculture in the Americas, Vol. 2. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA.
Hargreaves, J.A. 2000. Tilapia culture in the Southeast United States. Pp. 60-81, in: Costa-Pierce, B.A. and J.E.
Rakocy, eds. Tilapia Aquaculture in the Americas, Vol. 2. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge,
Louisiana, USA.
Hepher, B. 1988. Nutrition of Pond Fishes. Cambridge University Press. 388 pp.
Hussain, M.G., D.J. Penman, and B.J. McAndrew. 1996. Effects of triploidy on sexual maturation and reproduction
in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus L., pp. 320-325 in R.S.V. Pullin, J. Lazard, M. Legendre, J.B. Amon
Kothias and D. Pauly (eds) The Third International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture. ICLARM Conf. Proc.,
41, 575 pp.
1. INTRODUCTION
Tilapias are members of the family Cichlidae that are warmwater fishes native to Africa
and the Middle East where more than 100 species are found in the wild. Commercially
important tilapias belong to three major generic groups distinguished primarily by their
reproductive behavior (Trewavas, 1983):
1. Oreochromis - the maternal mouthbrooders;
2. Sarotherodon - the paternal or biparental mouthbrooders;
3. Tilapia - the substrate spawners.
The genus Oreochromis is by far the most important cultured group, with O. niloticus,
O. mossambicus, O. aureus and various red mosaics of these species comprising the
majority of farmed tilapias. A capture fishery for Sarotherodon galilaeus (St. Peters
Fish) is important in Israel, while Tilapia rendalli is commercially significant as a
capture fish in Brazilian reservoirs (Popma and Lovshin, 1996). From the 1940's to the
1970's the popularity of tilapia as fish for food, the aquarium trade and in aquatic weed
and insect control has led to their transference to at least 75 countries and a rapid
increase in their culture. Worldwide, farmed tilapia production is now close to 1,500,000
metric tonnes (mt) per annum, making it second only to the carps (11,000,000 mt)
among farmed fishes (Figure 1). China is the largest producer, at >750,000 mt with the
Philippines (>100,000 mt), Mexico (95,000 mt) and Taiwan (90,000 mt) also producing
significant quantities. This prominence has been made possible by several exceptional
attributes, which include ease of reproduction in captivity, tolerance of environmental
extremes, an omnivorous feeding habit, rapid growth and firm, sweet-tasting flesh.
Figure 1. World tilapia production 1984-2004 (FAO and estimates)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
'000 tonnes
Capture Cul ture
2
35
Tilapia in Jamaica. Tilapia from St. Lucia (O. mossambicus) were brought to Jamaica
in 1950 as a low-input crop stocked in community watershed ponds to provide protein
for rural folk. Their managed culture began in 1977 when two Government of Jamaica/
USAID Inland Fisheries Development Projects demonstrated the economic viability of
using tilapia as the basis for a local aquaculture industry. The industry started with O.
mossambicus, but the dark color of the peritoneal membrane of these fish found disfavor
with consumers, and they were replaced by O. niloticus in 1979. In 1984 red hybrids
were introduced. These fish, similar in color to the domestically popular marine snappers
were more acceptable to consumers and the culture began to expand. From the harvest
of 20 mt in 1979, the output of marketable tilapia increased to around 5,000 mt in 2001
(Figure 2). At present, tilapia comprise around 95% of Jamaican aquaculture production.
Figure 2. Farmed tilapia production in Jamaica, 1980-2004 est.
The Guide discusses aspects of the production of tilapia in Jamaica where semi-
intensive pond culture is the most common system of farming. Other systems, including
seawater and high-exchange culture occur and will be discussed in less detail. A small
section on recirculation aquaculture, which as yet is not practiced, will be included since
Jamaica exports tilapia to the USA where this system of culture is increasingly being
adopted.
2. SOME THINGS TO CONSIDER BEFORE STARTING
Many people express an interest in fish farming, but few really investigate the demands
involved in becoming successful producers. Prospective farmers are urged to talk to
practicing farmers and to think seriously on the biological and business side of fish
farming before committing to an enterprise. Here are some factors which need
consideration:
2.1. Species What species or strain will be cultured? Is there a demand for it? Do
Appendix II. SOME USEFUL CONVERSION FACTORS
Appendix III. FLOW RATES
1 gal(US)/min = 0.00223 ft
3
/sec = 0.0631 L/sec = 5.42 m
3
/day
1 ft
3
/sec = 449 gal(US)/min = 28.3 L/sec = 0.0283 m
3
/sec = 2,450 m
3
/day
1 L/sec = 15.9 gal(US)/min = 0.0353 ft
3
/sec = 86.4 m
3
/day
1 m
3
/sec = 15,800 gal(US)/min = 35.3 ft
3
/sec = 86,400 m
3
/day
(Boyd, 1990)
To Convert Multiply By To Obtain
acres
acres
acres
acre-feet
acre-feet
btu
calories, gram
centigrade, degrees
centimeters
cubic feet
cubic meters
feet
gallons (US)
gallons (US)
gallons/min.
horsepower
joules
kilograms
kilowatt-hrs
lux
million gals./day
ounces
square feet
square meters
tons (metric)
4.047 x 10
-1
4.047 x 10
3
4.35 x 10
4
4.356 x 10
4
3.259 x 10
5
3.927 x 10
-4
3.9685 x 10
-3
(C x 9/5) + 32
3.937 x 10
-1
2.832 x 10
-2
2.642 x 10
2
3.048 x 10
-1
8.327 x 10
-1
3.785
6.308 x 10
-2
7.457 x 10
-1
9.486 x 10
-4
2.2046
3.413 x 10
3
9.29 x 10
-2
1.5472
2.835
9.29 x 10
-2
3.861 x 10
-7
2.205 x 10
3
hectares
sq. meters
sq. ft.
cu. ft.
gallons (US)
horsepower-hours
btu
fahrenheit, degrees
inches
cubic meters
gallons (US)
meters
gallons (Imp)
liters
liters/sec.
kilowatts
btu
pounds
btu
foot-candles
cu.ft./sec
grams
sq. meters
square miles
pounds
34
3
Appendix I. Water quality standards for fish culture. Units in mg/L unless other-
wise stated. (Meade 1989).
you have the technical know-how; do your site conditions meet the
species requirements?
2.2. Market Where will the fish be sold? Who are the buyers and what price will
they pay? What are the specifications for quantity, quality and types
of product needed to satisfy or develop the market? What will storage
needs be? How accessible is the farm - to roads, to an airport? What
condition are the roads in?
2.3. Land Topography, soil type and drainage; size of project; legal aspects of
lease or ownership and zoning and future use of neighboring lands;
availability of land for expansion.
2.4. Water Source - wells or rivers; supply - gravity flow or pumping; cost of
water; quantity and quality - are these affected by seasonal trends
or neighboring industry?
2.5. Project Site selection - location, access, proximity to market; effects of other
agricultural or industrial enterprise (eg crop spraying and chemical
use); farm layout - inflow, outflow, arrangement of brood, nursery,
and growing ponds - function and design; water control and distribution
structures - protection from flooding; support facilities - hatchery,
maintenance, storage, office, roads, bridges, culverts; type of culture
system - ponds, raceways; scale of operation.
2.6. Finance Source and terms; budgets; capital and operating costs; cash flow;
business plan.
2.7. Management
Quality, training and experience of personnel; requirements - biologists,
production, accounting, supervisory, sales, maintenance; security;
predator controls; work schedules, communications; record-keeping;
planning schedules; computers.
3. FARMING TILAPIA
Tilapia are farmed in a diversity of systems - in ponds with no additional inputs or inputs
of fertilizer or agricultural by-products, with supplemental or complete feeds, with
aeration, in ponds having little or no water exchange, or with flowing water, or having
polyethylene liners, in concrete raceways, in cages, in fresh, brackish and saline waters,
in polyculture with other fish and shrimp, integrated with broiler, duck and vegetable
production - to name several. This adaptability has contributed to the widespread
dispersal of the group, but has slowed the development of controlled culture and the
optimization of production methods. In Jamaica, tilapia are raised principally in earthen
ponds.
Process Process Yield (% of live weight)
Alkalinity (as CaCO
3
)
Aluminium
Ammonia
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Calcium
Carbon dioxide
Copper
Dissolved oxygen
Hardness (as CaCO
3
)
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Nitrogen
Nitrate
Nitrite
PCBs
pH
Potassium
Salinity
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfate
Sulfur
Total dissolved solids
Total suspended solids
Zinc
10-400
4-160
0-10
5-to saturation
10-400
0-3
6.5-8.0
0.01
0.02
0.05
5.0
0.0005
0.005
0.006
0.03
0.01
0.02
15.0
0.01
0.2
110% (total gas pressure)
103% (as N gas)
0.1 in soft water
0.002
5.0
5%
0.01
75
50.0
1.0
400.0
80.0
0.005
4
33
3.1. Pond culture
3.1.1. Site selection
3.1.1.1. Soil Clay (25-50%) and sandy-clay soils are best, since they are impervious.
Loamy and silty-sandy soils tend to be semi-pervious, and are not as
good. Peaty soils are unsuitable. The clay should extend to a depth of
1.0 metre (3.3'). If in doubt, check the ability of the soil to hold water
by balling a lump in your hand - if the soil compacts easily, it should
retain water. Soil augur samples (12/ha) should be taken at regular
intervals throughout land designated for ponds prior to construction
to determine site suitability.The soil taken out of the pond will be used
to build the dikes, and its type will determine the slope and width of
the dike and thus affect the depth of the pond (Table 1).
Table 1. Recommended side slopes and top width of pond dikes.
Source: Pillay, 1990. Aquaculture Principles and Practices.
Ponds should not be built around the roots of bushes or trees as these encourage seep-
age. In commercial aquaculture, a seepage rate of 1-2 cm/d (0.4-0.8"/d) is acceptable
if replacement is possible, but soil permeability must be reduced when the rate
approaches 10 cm/d (4"/d). This may be done by packing the bottom or sides of the
pond with clay. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pond liners may be used in permeable soils, but
they are expensive.
The chemical properties of the soil are also important, as soils which are too acidic or
too alkaline will not encourage good productivity. A soil pH of 6.5-8.5 is desirable. This
can be tested using a pH meter (US$80-180) or litmus paper.
3.1.1.2. Topography The slope should be gentle, from water inlet to water outflow,
allowing good water supply and drainage by gravity flow if
possible. For inlet channels, allow 0.3 m (1') per 300 m (984');
cut drainage channels 1.5 m (5') below the inlet level. The
slopes should be determined by a surveyor. Remember that
sloping land has shallow soil, while flat land tends to have deep
soil.
canned smoked spreads are beginning to appear in the US market. While it is possible
for large tilapia producers to market directly, Simon (1997) suggested that marketing
alliances with solid, established and reputable seafood marketing companies with good
distribution networks would be strategically the best option to overcome the myriad
logistical and financial issues accompanying the shipping of fish from foreign bases into
the US or Europe. There are also increasing phytosanitary requirements to meet. Thus,
producers need to implement HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) and
possibly ISO 9000+ or 14000 monitoring systems to improve controls and satisfy inter-
national requirements for production and process standards and the environmental
safety of the operations.
5.11. Organic tilapia
The production of organic crops and meat is the fastest-growing sub-sector of agriculture,
with the products often carrying a 25-50% premium over traditionally grown crops and
livestock. However, conversion to organic aquaculture requires the development of farming
practices that promote a sustainable (process flow out = process flow in) aquatic
ecosystem. Whereas at the time of this writing there appear to be no official US,
European or Jamaican standards for organic aquaculture, the grower entering this field
will likely eventually have to conform to several requirements or restrictions such as:
1. The absence of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in broodstock, seedstock
and feed ingredients (this includes transgenic fish);
2. Feedstuffs originating from certifiable organic agriculture; the non-use of rendered
by-products; and reductions in the use of fish meal (5%?) In diets;
3. No use of inorganic fertilizers or pesticides;
4. No use of antibiotics and chemotherapeutants;
5. De-intensification - A lowering of stocking densities to conform with the ecological
capacity of the site;
6 Restrictions on energy consumption (affects aeration);
7. Intense monitoring of environmental impacts and penalties for breaches;
8. Integration of natural plant communities, eg wetlands for effluent processing, in
farm management;
9. Organic processing and packaging methods;
10. Certification by an internationally-recognized agency.
Details may be found on the website of the International Federation of Organic
Agriculture Methods <http://www.ifoam.org/standards/ibs_draft2_2002_nocor.html>
Sandy loam
Sandy clay
Firm clay
With brick lining inside
With concrete lining inside
1:2-1:3
1:1.5
1:1
1:1-1:1.5
0.75-1:1
1:1.5-1:1.2
1:1.5
1:1
1:1.5-1:2
1.5-1:2
0.50
0.50-0.80
0.80-1.20
1.20-2.00
2.00-3.00
0.40
0.40-0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50-0.60
0.50
0.50-1.00
1.50
2.00-2.50
2.50-4.00
Type of soil
Freeboard
(m)
Inside
slope
Outside
slope
Water
depth (m)
Top width
of dike (m)
32
5
Tilapia are marketed in a variety of product forms, often requiring specialized processing
equipment and techniques. While the majority of production worldwide is sold in live,
fresh or gutted and scaled form, the increasing recognition of tilapia as a high-quality
fish means it must compete in commodity and upscale restaurant and convenience-food
markets with so-called generic white fish fillet. Thus, a fair amount of tilapia is
produced in whole form or as fillets (skin-on/skin-off for reds and skin-off for silvers)
for fresh, frozen, chill pack, Individual Quick Frozen (IQF), deep-skinned, smoked,
breaded or flavored fillet markets, while other product is directed to sushi or boneless
markets. For proper frozen storage, it is desirable to lower the internal temperature of
the fish below -18 C.
However, a major disadvantage of tilapia is their low dressing percentage and fillet yield
(33-38%) when compared to other cultured fish (eg salmon at 60%). The yield is
further lowered if the small pin bones located on the median line between the tenderloin
and the rib cage are removed or if deep skinning is required. Accordingly, many
processing facilities in developing countries process by hand or use a combination of
machines and manual-processing in order to retain more flesh around the pin bones.
Table 14. Expected yields from various processing cuts
Source: Popma and Lovshin (1996).
The most popular size of fillet in the market ranges between 3-5 oz (85-140 g).
Assuming a 33% fillet yield, Popma and Lovshin (1996) noted that tilapia must weigh
500-850 g to produce this range.
Simon (1997) identified frozen tilapia products as accounting for the vast majority of
tilapia consumed in the USA with the largest market segment being frozen whole fish
primarily from Taiwan (now from China) and selling for US$1.10-1.65/kg. Frozen fillets
of variable quality, Ranging from sushi grade to badly-trimmed off-flavored product, sell
for over US$10.00/kg to less than US$5.00/kg. Fresh products tend to be produced
domestically, and generally command a premium of at least US$0.75/kg over that of
frozen product.
Tilapia are sold through several channels of distribution, ranging from pondside sales of
live fish through retail chains and specialty seafood distributors who buy directly from
producers. In addition, further-processed products with great value-added such as
3.1.2. Area Ponds vary in area from 0.1 - 1.0 ha (0.25 - 2.40 acres), but
where ponds are harvested by hand-labor, 0.4 ha (1.0 ac)
rectangular ponds are easiest to manage, and the shape
facilitates better water exchange than square or circular ponds.
Quick harvesting and turn-around time increase the number of
crops, improving the productivity of the pond. However, small
ponds are more costly to build per unit area than large ponds,
so the decision will often be an economic one made during
construction.
3.1.3. Depth From shallow to deep end, ponds should be around 1-2 m (3-
6') deep, with 0.5 m (1-2') of freeboard (the area of embankment
between the surface of the water and the top of the dike) - this
will regulate the water temperature and vegetation, frustrate
flying predators, and prevent the overflow of water during
flooding.
3.1.4. Dike Remove grass and stones when cutting the dike; build it in layers
20 cm (8") thick with compaction. The inside of the slope will
need to be graded from 1:2 to 1:4 as the area of the pond
increases. The width at the top should equal the height. In
sandy soil, construct a clay core 0.5 m (20") thick to prevent
leakage. Plant the dike with grass to prevent soil erosion.
3.1.5. Drainage L-shaped (turn-down) PVC drains set in a concrete collar, are
common and relatively inexpensive. However, greater control
(eg. draining from different levels) can be achieved with wooden
or concrete monks. The area of the pond will determine the
diameter of the pipe needed for efficient drainage and flood-
water control (Table 2).
Table 2. Diameter of outlet pipes for various pond sizes.
Source: McLarney 1984. The Freshwater Aquaculture Book.
3.1.6. Screens Inflow and outflow water conduits should be screened, the first
to prevent ingress of undesirable species and the second to
prevent the escape of fish. Box screens made of plastic or
0.02 (0.05)
0.02-0.08 (0.05-0.20)
0.08-0.30 (0.20-0.75)
0.30-0.40 (0.75-1.00)
> 0.40 (>1.0)
5.1 (2)
7.6-10.2 (3-4)
15.2-22.9 (6-9)
30.5 (12)
Sluice or monk
Area of Pond - hectares (acres) Diameter of outlet pipe - cm (inches)
Process Yield (% of live weight)
Heads-on dress out weight
Headed, gutted, skinless
Fillet with pin bones
Fillet without pin bones
Fillet without rib cage and pin bones
Deep-skinned fillets (red muscle removed)
76-80
51-53
36-38
32-35
28-31
22-25
6
31
galvanized mesh are common and effective - several reducing
mesh sizes can be employed to lessen blockage by fouling.
Water drawn from rivers or lakes should be passed through
saran netting to remove fish eggs.
3.1.7. Catch pit An excavation 15 m x 15 m x 0.5 m high (49' x 49' x 2') may
be sited inside the pond around the outlet to serve as a catch-
pit in ponds drained at harvesting. Clean water is run into the
catch-pit to increase the survival and improve the condition of
the fish that collect as the pond is drained. Screened cross-
pipes, 10 cm (4") in diameter, may be installed between adjacent
ponds to allow for water movement between the ponds.
3.2. Tank culture
Tank culture, although attempted at several locations in Jamaica, has not yet been
commercially successful due to a lack of expertise in the medium. It is usually done in
order to intensify production under more controlled conditions and requires costly inputs
for the supply of aeration and the removal of wastes and for back-up power supply.
Water exchange is preferred to aeration as it provides oxygen and flushes away the
wastes. But the productivity per unit area can be high, realizing greater returns to off-
set increased costs. Balarin and Haller (1983) reported tilapia yields of 100-200
kg/m
3
/yr for silver tilapia in intensively-fed circular tanks and raceways having
continuous water flow of 0.5-1.0 L/kg/min in Kenya, while Liao and Chen (1983) noted
yields of 6-8 t/100 m
2
/yr of 600 g red tilapia with FCRs of 1.2-1.5 from Taiwanese
super-intensive octagonal tanks. These latter tanks used green water from an associated
large earthen pond for refreshment of their water.
3.3. Saltwater culture
In Jamaica, as in other island nations, freshwater supplies are limited and constrain the
expansion of land-based fish production. For further development, islands may have to
turn to mariculture. Indeed, a major culture advantage of the tilapias is their euryhalinity,
and the exhibition of varying degrees of tolerance to saltwater, with O. mossambicus
and T. zillii being the most salt tolerant. In fact, O. mossambicus has been recorded
living in marine environments in Puerto Rico (Austin, 1971) and Papua New Guinea
(Watanabe et al., 1997). Other species, in particular the popularly cultured O. niloticus
and the red hybrids are less tolerant to salinity but may be grown in full-strength sea-
water if acclimated when young. Watanabe et al. (1997) reported that Florida red tilapia
were capable of reproduction in seawater (36 ), but that fertilization, hatching
success and survival of pre-juveniles were only optimal at salinities near isosmotic (12
), declining significantly at salinities higher than 18 . They also noted that salinity
tolerance in Florida red tilapia improved markedly around 40 days post-hatching,
which is the recommended age for acclimating fry to seawater. Acclimation was best
accomplished by a gradual (5 /day) increase of salinity, but was possibly more cost-
Table 13. Farm cost components for small (1-4 ha), medium (5-20 ha) and large (21-45 ha)
Jamaican tilapia producers (% of unit cost; 1999).
1
1. Figures are rounded; source: Hanley (2000).
The economics of farming is affected by the volume of production. Small farms, with
low production tend to have higher proportional costs for feed than medium farms, but
less than large farms which feed more intensively. Likewise, fingerling costs are higher
on small and medium farms than on large farms because the latter tend to produce their
own fingerlings and sell the surplus, offsetting costs. Large farms have higher utility and
fuel costs because they operate vehicles and aerators in addition to the pumps operated
by small and medium farms.
5.10. Processing and marketing.
Culture and harvesting practices, with emphasis on the maintenance of minimal stress,
affect the quality of fish to processing. Sometimes, cultured tilapia cannot be marketed
because of off-flavors. There are several types of off-flavor, commonly named for the
sensory flavor they evoke, such as earthy, muddy, detergent, sewage, chemical,
etc. Purging the fish of taints usually requires they be stocked in clean, flowing water
for 3-7 days.
Thus, prior to harvest, samples of the fish in a pond should be taste-tested for off-
flavors. This is usually done by dressing and cooking the fish to 70 C in a microwave
oven followed by sensory evaluation by an experienced panel of taste-testers. Once the
fish are approved for harvest, they may be sent to processing. Increasingly, processing
operations are mechanical and automated, although specialty products such as bone-
less fish still require trained manual operators.
Post-harvest transport and processing operations require quantities of crushed ice (to
prevent bruising and cool efficiently) in the ratio of 0.33 kg of ice to 1.0 kg of fish to
reduce the temperature of the fish from 27- 2 C upon complete melting of the ice over
a 4-6 hr period. If the fish are to be held on ice for 12 h with their starting temperature
at 27 C, a ratio of 1.0 kg ice to 1.0 kg fish will be needed, but if the fish are 10 C or
colder, a ratio of 0.5 kg of ice per kg of fish will suffice (Ammerman, 1985).
Item Medium farm
5-20 ha
Small farm
1-4 ha
Large farm
21-45 ha
Feed
Fingerlings
Labor
Utilities, fuel, supplies, equipment
Transport
Bank, Administration, Management
57
9
3
16
2
13
33
40
3
5
2
17
42
30
3
8
4
13
30
7
Quarantine procedures should be instituted to protect resident stock from potential
diseases present in introduced stock. This requires the presence of a quarantine area
that is isolated from the rest of the farm. In the quarantine area there should be:
1. Separate water supply and drainage from other farm areas;
2. No cross-movement of personnel or equipment from other farm areas;
3. Proper biosecurity measures for disinfection of people and equipment;
4. The removal of dead fish for incineration separate from other farm mortalities;
5. The isolation of fish for up to 6 weeks to observe for disease signs;
6. Regular veterinary checks for the presence of parasites or disease and the
appropriate treatment.
Ponds containing diseased fish may be disinfected by spreading slaked lime (Calcium
hydroxide) or quicklime (Calcium oxide) over the drained but wetted soil in the amount
of 0.25 kg/m
2
. Concrete tanks may be disinfected using a 10 ppm solution of chlorine
(Calcium hypochlorite).
Table 12. Disinfectants and their application
Source: L. Creswell, Aquaculture Desk Reference, 1993.
5.9. Tilapia economics
It is not possible to give a standardized presentation of the economics of tilapia farming
because local conditions, location, type of culture, size of operation and changing
technology affect the cost of production and market prices. Table 13 shows the contri-
bution of the major cost components in small (1-4 ha), medium (5-20 ha) and large
(21-45 ha) Jamaican semi-intensive tilapia farms.
effective when the fry were pre-acclimatized at an intermediate salinity of 19 before
direct transfer to seawater. The authors noted that for fish spawned at 18 , direct transfer
to seawater was possible.
Tilapia grow well in seawater. Watanabe and co-workers reared Florida red tilapia from
5.4 g to 462 g in flow-through seawater tanks at densities of 15-35 fish/m
3
in 150 days
(3.04 g/d) on diets containing 20-32% protein at a feed conversion ratio of 1.80. They
also tried commercial scale production of these fish in 0.2 ha earthen seawater ponds
(20-27 ), stocking 0.85 g sex-reversed male fry at a density of 30,000/ha, feeding
them on a 25% protein diet. At temperatures of 26-31 C the fish reached an average
weight of 452 g in 160 d, with a feed conversion ratio of 1.8.
3.4. Recirculating systems
Recirculating systems typically integrate an intensive fish production component with
recycling water pumps and purification units for water quality management. In pond
culture the latter may be an extensive reservoir pond, while in covered tank culture it
is usually a biological filter to oxidize ammonia to nitrite and nitrate, and drum filters to
remove solid wastes. Ultra-violet radiation and/or ozonation may also be applied to
disinfect and lower the level of suspended solids. The systems often need optimal
oxygenation and tend to be supplied with mechanical aeration or pure oxygen. Mires
(1995) reported on the Israeli DEKEL system, a flow-through system comprising 4 x
500 m
3
ponds in hexagonal array. These were annexed to a larger reservoir pond in
which water was circulated from the reservoir through the culture units and back again
for the settlement of organic solids and the immobilization or transformation of nitrogen
and phosphorus by bacteria into less harmful compounds. The daily exchange of
recycled water was 4-5 times the total volume, while the reservoir pond area needed to
be 8-10 times that of the production unit. The system yielded around 18 kg of fish/m
2
per annum (equivalent to 184 mt from a one-hectare pond).
Enclosed, intensive recirculating systems may be either greenwater or clearwater, and
provide for partial or almost total (95-98%) water re-use. Hargreaves (2000) reported
on several such systems in the southern US, noting that when fish loading increased
above 5 kg/L/min of water flow, water quality maintenance by flow was insufficient and
supplementation with aeration or oxygenation was required. Notably, efficient operation
of the biofiltration system removed larger particulate algae used as food by the fish,
leaving behind small, faster-growing phytoplankton cells which were more difficult for
tilapia to graze effectively. However, these systems tend to be very efficient users of
water, replacing less than 10% of volume per day.
There appears to be little published information on the production capabilities of green-
water recirculation systems. Clearwater systems, utilizing a range of filtration and water
treatment components, may achieve production of 150-200 kg/m
3
(equivalent to 2,050
mt from one hectare), with FCRs of 1.1-1.5. Production costs from recirculation tilapia
culture are presently between US$2.00-2.50/kg.
Disinfectant Application Concentration Effective against
Chlorine
Sodium hydroxide
Iodophors
Quat.Amm.Cpds.
Calcium oxide
1-2%
1% with 0.1% teepol;
2.3 L/m2
250 ppm
250 ppm
As per manufacturers
instructions
As powder, 380 g/m
2
Bacteria, fungi, viruses
Bacteria, viruses,
protozoa
As above
Bacteria
Protozoa
Concrete, fiberglass, PVC-lined
ponds, footbaths
Earthen ponds, and as above
As above, nets, clothing, hands
Nets, clothing, hands
Earthen ponds, fibreglass,
concrete, PVC-lined ponds
8
29
4. WATER
Fish are totally dependent on water - they breathe, eat and excrete in it. They take it
into their bodies, lose salts into it and are in constant contact with it. Not surprisingly,
the quality and quantity of the water greatly affect the success of fish culture.
4.1. Water quality
Water quality includes the physical, chemical and biological factors that influence the
use of water. It does not remain constant. It varies with source (eg. rainfall, river, or
wells), inputs (eg. feed, fertilizer, aeration, and pollutants), stocking density and
replacement rate to name a few. Poor water quality stresses fish, causes poor
performance and is often the major factor contributing to diseases and mortality.
4.1.1. Source The best water is surface water from fast-flowing rivers or
canals rich in oxygen and nutrients and containing no pollutants.
Well water may also be used, but usually contains no oxygen or
nutrients, and requires pumping. It is also usually cold. Both
sources must be checked in a laboratory for pollutants such as
agricultural and industrial chemicals, and pathogenic bacteria
from human or livestock activities. Water from marshes or
swamps is generally undesirable, as it is often acidic and poor
in oxygen.
4.1.2. Surface water criteria for fish culture
Fish may be cultured in waters having wide variations in quality,
but in markets which insist on high quality fish for human
consumption, it is not recommended to push the limits too far
beyond those considered suitable for human use. Table 3
presents some of the criteria for public water supplies in the
USA. These standards may soon be demanded from external
producers.
Table 11. Main parasites and diseases of tilapia
Source: Plumb (1999).
Organism/disease Symptoms/effects Treatment
Viruses
Irido- and birnaviruses
Bacteria
Fungal
Parasites
Aeromonas spp., Vibrio
spp., Pseudomonas spp.
Edwardsiella sp.
Columnaris
(Flavobacterium sp.)
Streptococcus spp.
Saprolegnia spp.
Protozoans - Ich,
Trichodina, Ichthyobodo,
Chilodonella, Epistylis
Trematodes -
Dactylogyrus spp,
Gyrodactylus spp.
Crustacea - Ergasilus,
Argulus, Lernaea.
Dark color; lethargy; distended abdomen;
pale gills; opaque eyes; internal organs pale;
swollen kidneys; mortality to 50%.
Frayed fins; inflamed skin and fins; scale
loss; ulcers on the head and mouth; bulging
eyes with opaque corneas; swollen
abdomens; liver pale and/or mottled with
red spots; liver, spleen and kidneys necrotic;
lethargy and mortality to 20%.
Lethargy; swimming on side; enlarged
abdomen; swollen, opaque, bloodshot eyes;
gas-filled cavities; liver pale and mottled;
swollen spleen and kidneys; inflamed intestine.
Lethargy; pale, necrotic lesions on gills,
body and fins; frayed fins; scale loss.
Lethargy; erratic swimming; whirling at the
surface; dark skin pigmentation; bulging,
bloodshot eyes; bloated abdomen; ulcers;
pale liver; bloody intestinal fluid; Reduction
of feeding; skin lesions; fin rot; gill rot;
bloated belly.
White, grey or brown furry growths; lethargy;
mortality.
Lethargy; grayish color; gasping at surface;
inflamed, necrotic skin having white spots;
scale loss.
Gill, fin and body infestation; mortality.
As above.
Control of management and environ-
mental variables.
As above;
For external bacteria: Potassium
permanganate @ 2-4 mg/l indefi-
nitely, or @ 4-10 mg/l for 1 h;
CuSO
4
@ 0.5-3.0 mg/l indefinitely;
Chloramine-T @ 10-20 mg/l for 1-
72 h.
For internal bacteria: Terramycin @
50 mg/kg/d in feed 12-14 d with
21-d withdrawal; Romet 30 @ 50
mg/kg/d in feed 5 d with 42-d with-
drawal; Erythromycin @ 50mg/
kg/d in feed 12 d; Amoxycillin @
50-80 mg/kg/d in feed 10 d.
Reduce handling stress and injury.
Flush with Formalin or immerse
with H
2
O
2
@ 500 l/l for 15 min.
to treat eggs or for 1 h to treat
body surface; CuSO
4
, KMnO
4
, salt
are also used but seldom effective.
KMnO
4
@ 2-4 mg/l or Formalin @
20-25 l/l or CuSO
4
@ 0.5-3.0
mg/l for indefinite immersion. UV
irradiation or ozone treatment of
water and filtration of water can
reduce densities of free-swimming
stages.
Formalin @ 25l/l for indefinite
immersion or @ 167 l/l for 1 h.
28
9
Table 3. Selected surface water criteria for public water supplies (USA).
Source: Creswell, 1993, Aquaculture Desk Reference.
4.1.3. Water quality requirements of tilapia
4.1.3.1. The environmental physiology of tilapias
The major water quality parameters affecting tilapia are: dissolved oxygen (DO),
temperature, salinity (the concentration of all dissolved ions measured as chloride), pH
(level of acidity or alkalinity), ammonia (ionized NH
4
and un-ionized NH
3
; the latter
is toxic), nitrite (NO
2
, also toxic) and hardness (the concentration of calcium and
magnesium ions). Tilapia are more tolerant than most cultured fish to extremes in these
Constituent or characteristic
Microbiological
Inorganic chemicals (mg/l)
Permissible criteria Desirable criteria
Coliform organisms
Fecal coliforms
10,000/100 ml
2,000/100 ml
<100/100 ml
<20/100 ml
Alkalinity
Ammonia
Chloride
Copper
Dissolved oxygen
Lead
Nitrates + nitrites
Sulphate
Total dissolved solids (filterable residue)
30 to <400-500
0.5 (as N)
250
1.0
>4 (monthly mean)
0.05
10 (as N)
250
500
30 to <400-500
<0.01
<25
Virtually absent
Near saturation
Absent
Virtually absent
2
200
Organic chemicals (mg/l)
Pesticides (mg/l)
Oil and grease Virtually absent Absent
Aldrin
DDT
Dieldrin
Lindane
0.017
0.042
0.017
0.056
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
2,4D Plus 2,4,5-T; Plus 2,4,5-TP
Phenols
0.1
0.001
Absent
Absent
Herbicides (mg/l)
have a wide array of disease and parasite problems occurring simultaneously. Bacterial
diseases are among the most serious problems of cultured tilapia, particularly those
caused by Streptococcus spp., followed possibly by parasitic infections and fungal out-
breaks. As yet, viruses do not seem to affect tilapia significantly, but this may change
as the culture intensifies.
Some of the signs indicating a disease problem include changes in normal behavior,
reduced vigor or failure to feed, bloated bodies, erratic swimming, exopthalmia (bulging
eyes), red rims around the eyes, the appearance of lesions or sores on the body and
fins of the fish and moribund or dead fish. Some disease-causing organisms, the symptoms
they produce and common treatments are outlined in Table 11.
Diseased fish should be removed from the culture system and quarantined for treatment
or discarded in a manner that will prevent their contamination of healthy stock. But
early detection of a problem is necessary, as the appearance of dead animals may
indicate that a problem is far advanced. The maintenance of good management practices
to reduce stress and the incidence of diseases is infinitely more preferable than the
reactive use of chemical treatments. Apart from the prohibitive cost of chemical treatment,
consumer concern about chemical residues in foods has curtailed the use of many
therapeutic compounds and these restrictions are unlikely to be relaxed.
Bio-security measures should become a regular part of management practices. These
could include the quarantine of new fish introduced from external sources, the non-
transfer of personnel and equipment between hatchery/nursery and growout, regular
sanitation of equipment, vehicles (and personnel) and working programs to monitor
health and react to disease outbreaks.
10
27
parameters (Table 4). See also Appendix I for general water quality standards for fish
culture.
Table 4. Summary of the environmental physiology of tilapias. Units in mg/L unless otherwise
stated.
1,2
1. While a species may survive over a wide range in a physical factor, the range for optimum growth or reproduction
is usually narrow. Also, rapid changes in environmental factors will often cause death; 2. [ ] is the symbol for concen-
tration; 3. = increasing levels, = decreasing levels.
until equilibrium is reached providing the temperature differences are not too great (5-
10 C).
5.6. Harvesting
Harvesting is the most labor-intensive growing activity, requiring several persons on
seining crews, and drivers for live-haul units. Nets of various mesh sizes are used for
handling and harvesting fry, fingerling and adult tilapia. Generally, large-mesh (2-3 cm)
nylon seine nets 2.5-3.0 m deep are used to seine 0.4-1.0 ha ponds, although in large
and smaller ponds it is often necessary to drain the water partially to ease access and
concentrate the fish in the catch basin. This is also necessary since tilapia are adept at
escaping seine nets, with only 25-50% of the fish in a pond being caught per net haul.
For each meter of pond width 1.5 m of net are needed.
The fish should not be fed 24 h before harvesting. The absence of food in their guts
will lower their oxygen demand and increase the chances of survival and the overall
condition of the fish for processing. Harvesting is best done in the coolest part of the
day for this reason, and it may be necessary to arrange aeration or water flow in catch
basins and holding nets.
5.7. Live hauling
Live-hauling is necessary to transport fish in good condition. Typically, live-haul units
are metal, fibre-glass or plastic tanks fitted with mechanical agitator-type aerators,
compressed air or liquid oxygen and transported by carriages or on truck bodies. Live-
hauling should be performed in clean containers with aeration or oxygen and the tanks
should be cleaned and disinfected between uses. Often, handling stress may be
lessened by lowering the temperature of the water by 2-3 C or to 20-22 C by the addi-
tion of ice, and a 1-3% salt solution will produce a slight anesthetic effect and
stimulate the production of protective mucous.
Tranquilizing fish. Various tranquilizers may be used to calm fish during transport, such
as methane tricainesulfonate (MS-222) at 40-150 mg/L, MS-222 + quinaldine at 20-30
mg/L MS-222 + 5 mg/L quinaldine, sodium barbital at 6.7-7.7 g/L, sodium bicarbonate
at 640 mg/L and methylparafynol (Dormison) at 1-2 ml/gal. While chemical treatments
or anesthetics may be used to calm fish being transferred to other ponds, it is not
acceptable to use them with fish going to processing.
5.8. Diseases, sanitation, bio-security and quarantine
It is unusual for tilapia to experience diseases or parasite infestations if the water system
is well managed and the fish are not stressed. However, the frequency of disease problems
increases with the intensity of culture. Sometimes the severity of an incident will be
increased if a secondary infection accompanies the primary, as in the case of a bacterial
infection following parasitic infestation, and where fish are severely stressed it is possible to
Factor
Extreme range:
all species
Normal range:
Oreochromis spp.
Comment
Depth, m
Temperature,
o
C
35-40
6-42
<20
25-32
Influenced by temperature, O
2
,
CO
2
, H
2
S, NH
3
gradients
Reproduction stops < 22C,
feeding < 16 C; tolerates lower
temperatures in saline water.
Salinity,
pH
0-150 with gradual
adaptation
5-11
0-20
6.5-8.0
Low fecundity < 10, but some
will reproduce in 35
Hardness, as
calcium carbonate
1-300 75-200 [Ca] increases with salinity
Carbon dioxide 0-72.6 0-10 Toxicity increased by [DO]
Ammonia-N 0.3-3.4 0-0.5 Toxicity increased by [DO]
Hydrogen sulphide <1.0 <0.01 Toxicity increased by [DO]
Influenced by [O
2
],[ CO
2
] and
hardness
Nitrite 0.7-200 <1.0
More toxic in freshwater, Cl
-
reduces toxicity, NH
3
increases it
Nitrite 0-3
Nitrite is oxidized to nitrate by
aerobic bacteria
Oxygen 0.1-400% saturation 3-9
Influenced by temperature, and
partial pressure of other gases
Turbidity, mg/L <80 <25
Data from catfish ponds; affects
light penetration and O
2
absorption through gills.
26
11
The feed protein levels are guidelines, since the nutrient requirements of the fish are
met by a combination of the nutrient level in the feed and the volume of feed consumed
by the fish. Ration size and the nutrient density of the feed are related feed manage-
ment tools, since a feed with a higher nutrient density (eg higher protein) may be fed
at a lower rate to deliver the same total dietary protein as a feed with lower protein fed
at a higher rate.
Table 10. Feed and feeding recommendations for tilapia in tank culture
* Fish may be fed as often as water quality and logistics will allow.
5.5. Fish handling
Tilapia are handled several times during the crop - for transfers and stockings, sampling,
partial harvesting and final harvesting. Handling is stressful, raising the oxygen demand
of the fish 300%-500%, and if performed roughly, causing the loss of mucus and scales,
bruising and the ingress of parasites and disease to the affected areas.
Handling should be kept to a minimum and when necessary, carried out in the early
morning (cooler) with clean nets, and aeration or flow of clean, aerated water. Sorting
tables should be smooth-surfaced and clean, and the number of handlers must be
sufficient to ensure that the fish are returned to the water as soon as possible. Weighing
should be done in tared, water-filled containers (or in hauling tanks by volume-
displacement) and the fish should not be overcrowded.
When transferring fish from one body of water to another, it is desirable (but not usually
possible) to have the temperature of the two bodies of water within 2 C of each other.
Pond water may be added slowly to live-haul water to equilibrate the two. If fry are
being transferred, they may be put into plastic bags and floated in the receiving water
The effects of the environmental variables are often inter-related, eg. the reduced
solubility of DO with increasing temperature; the effects of plant photosynthesis in
producing DO in the day and carbon dioxide (CO
2
) at night and the consequent
tendency for the formation of carbonic acid in a reaction between CO
2
and water,
producing elevated pH in the day and lowered pH at night; the effects of turbidity in
mediating light penetration and the effects of this on photosynthesis; the interactions
between other dissolved gases and oxygen - as the concentrations of NH
3
, CO
2
, and
hydrogen sulphide (H
2
S) etc. increase there is less space for DO; the formation of
nitrous acid from the reaction of nitrite and water - which lowers pH and makes H
2
S
more toxic as pH decreases.
4.1.3.2. Dissolved oxygen requirements of tilapia
The most important water quality variable affecting fish is DO. Although able to with-
stand low concentrations of DO for varying periods, tilapia will not perform well in
waters containing less than 3-4 mg/L (parts per million, ppm), and concentrations
greater than 5 ppm are sought by intensive culturists. Some facts:
Fish reduce their food consumption when oxygen is limiting, thus weight gain and
food conversion efficiency decline as DO concentration ([DO]) decreases beyond
suitable levels. Tilapia will expend energy at the surface passing oxygenated sur
face water over their gills if DO levels are very low, reducing their capacity to
grow. This gulping is commonly known as piping.
There is a lag period after sub-optimal, stressful DO conditions, and growth
may not be resumed immediately. This period can be several hours in duration,
ensuring poor growth in the presence of fluctuating [DO].
Studies with carp and tilapia have shown that fish growth decreases if [DO] before
sunrise falls below 25% of saturation (Rappaport et al., 1976) and a laboratory
study of the effect of daily fluctuating [DO] on catfish suggested that fluctuations
in DO may also reduce growth (Carlson et al., 1980). Interestingly, the response
is not two-sided, as maintaining [DO] above the required minimum has not been
shown to increase food intake, or improve FCR and growth rates, at least not in
channel catfish (Carter and Allen, 1976).
Table 5. The solubility of oxygen in freshwater (ppm) at different temperatures and salinity at
atmospheric pressure (sea level)
Source: Extracted from Boyd, 1990. Water Quality in Ponds for Aquaculture.
Temperature, C
Salinity,
9.08
8.24
7.54
20
25
30
8.81
8.01
7.33
8.56
7.79
7.14
10 5 0
18-20
18
18
12
9
9
9
9
9
9
4
satiation
10-5
5.5-4.5
4.5-3.5
3-2
1.5
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.5-1.0
0
1
2
3/32"
1/8"
1/8"
3/16"
3/16"
3/16"
3/16"
3/16"
0.0025
0.6-1.0
1.0-1.4
2.4
3.2
3.2
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.8
50/17
40/12
38/12
38/10
38/8
38/8
38/8
38/8
38/8
38/8
40/12
0.1-1.0
1-5
5-15
15-30
30-100
100-200
200-300
300-400
400-500
500-600
Broodstock
Fish weight
(g)
Feed
protein/fat
(%)
Feed particle
diameter
(mm)
Granule # Ration size
(% of wet
body
weight/day)
Times fed
daily*
12
25
Table 5 shows that DO saturation will be somewhere between 7.1-8.2 ppm in most
freshwater tropical and sub-tropical areas. Thus, the 25% of saturation value below
which [DO] should not fall, could mean that morning DOs below 2 ppm may further
reduce the potential of the fish for growth beyond any reduction experienced by not
providing the minimal DO requirements constantly. The average fluctuations of the
major water quality parameters in tropical aquaculture ponds are depicted in Figure 3.
Readers will note the similarity in appearance of the graphs presented, which indicates
the inter-connected nature of the parameters.
Tilapia show increased oxygen consumption of 100-300% after feeding (in some
species this lasts for up to 12 h), related to an increase in metabolic rate resulting
from the processing of food. Normally, the maximum rates of oxygen consumption
induced by feeding are approximately double those of resting fish, and evidence
suggests that the duration of the effect may be linked to the rate of passage
of food through the gut. Thus the feeding of fish should be scheduled to avoid
maximum oxygen demand from coinciding with low ambient DO levels.
Figure 3. Dissolved oxygen, temperature and pH values in a typical earthen pond
5.4.2. Feeds
Tilapia feeds should be matched to the rearing system. Fish grown in greenwater ponds
do not need vitamins added to the feed, while calcium supplementation can be lower in
limestone-rich locations such as Jamaica.
Alternatively, fish grown in flowing water
and under super-intensive conditions need
complete diets with supplementation of
vitamin and minerals. Tilapia feed very
efficiently throughout the water column,
utilizing mash feeds almost as efficiently as
pellets (the cooking effect of pelleting makes
certain nutrients, particularly starches,
more digestible), and so-called wasted
feed will produce bacteria-rich detritus
that the fish utilize. But extrusion-pelleted
(sinking) or expansion-pelleted (floating)
feeds are best since they delay the loss of nutrients to the pond. Feed particle sizes
should vary with the size of the fish from granules and crumbles for fry and fingerlings
to pellets 3.2 mm and 4.6 mm in diameter for fish 30-100 g and >100 g.
Healthy tilapia are voracious feeders and the maximum water stability duration needed
for a tilapia feed is 60 minutes. Feeds may be offered by hand or with auto feeders or
tractor-driven feed blowers depending on the size of the farm. An experienced hand-
feeder will usually obtain the best food conversion efficiencies. Because of their small
stomach capacity, tilapia respond better to smaller meals and more frequent feeding
than most other cultured fishes (Table 9).
Table 9. Feed and feeding recommendations for tilapia in pond culture.
Source: Kubaryk (1980), Hepher (1988), this author.

26
26.5
27
27.5
28
28.5
29
29.5
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
9:30A 1:30P 5:30P 9:30P 1:30A 5:30A
Time
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
D
.
O
.

(
m
g
/
l
)
9:30A 1:30P 5:30P 9:30P 1:30A 5:30A
Time
Catfish feed blower feeding tilapia
to satiation
6
4
4
3
3
3-2
3-2
2.0-1.5
1.5-1.3
30-10
10-6
6-4
4-3
3
3-2
2-1.5
<0.5
0.5-1.0
1.0-2.0
3.2
3.2-4.6
4.6
4.6
50
40
40-35
35-32
32-28
28
28
<1
1-5
5-20
20-100
100-250
250-500
>500
Fish weight
(g)
Times fed
daily
Feed protein
(%)
Semi-
intensive
(<20,000/ha)
Intensive
(>20,000/ha)
Feed particle
size
(mm)
Ration size
(% wet body weight)
24
13
5.4.1. Nutritional requirements
The nutritional requirements of tilapia have not been fully determined, but seem
similar to those of other warmwater fish, although tilapia tend to utilize carbohydrates
more efficiently, and fat less efficiently than catfish. The requirements are guidelines
since experiments have been conducted on a range of species and ages under different
conditions and often, using purified foodstuffs that would not be used in commercial
culture. An attempt is made to summarize them along with estimates for some not yet
determined for tilapia that are extrapolated from those of other warmwater fishes (Table
8).
Table 8. Summary of the known {and recommended} nutrient requirements of tilapia.
Sources: Lovell (1989), Stickney (1997), Lim (1997), NRC (1993); this author; NN = not known
In tilapia the rate of passage of food through the gut is affected by a number of
factors, including meal size, meal type (high fiber foods tend to hasten transit
time), and temperature. At 25 C the transit time for commercial feed in O.
niloticus is 5-7 h (Popma, 1982). Thus the oxygen demand of tilapia is likely to
double for 5-7 h after the last feeding, or between 2000-2300 h if last fed
between 1500-1600 h. At this time pond [DO]s tend to be less than optimal,
hence the need for nighttime aeration. Oxygen consumption also increases greatly
after handling.
In green water ponds, fish tend to be the low-end users of oxygen. Teichert-
Coddington and Green (1993) showed that in Honduran semi-intensive tilapia
ponds, respiration of plankton comprised around 79% of the oxygen consumed
while the pond bottom (the benthos) and the fish consumed around 17% and 4%
respectively. Thus, the plants are the main producers and consumers of DO and
their oxygen demand must be taken into account when calculating the provision
of oxygen for the fish.
4.1.3.3. The oxygen consumption of tilapia
The oxygen consumption of tilapia is fairly well studied, but with varying agreement
among workers. As with other fish, it is likely to vary with the species (possibly also the
strain), size, activity, food intake, water temperature, dissolved oxygen concentration,
etc, and is generally thought to range between 475-350 mg O
2
/kg fish/h for fish ranging
in size from 1-350+ g.
Schroeder (1975) produced a general equation for calculating the respiration of individual
carp at 20-30 C, showing slightly lower oxygen use by carp than the estimates given
for tilapia:
Y = 0.001W
0.82
where Y = oxygen consumption per fish (g O
2
/h), and W = fish weight (g).
Protein
(%)
Fat
(%)
Carbohydrate
(%)
Fish size
(g)
Protein:Dig. Energy
(mg/kcal)
56-40
40-36
36-30
35-25
12
10
7.5
5
No specific
requirement
(<50)
0.1-2.5
2.5-7.5
7.5-30
>30
123-110
106
103
Digestible energy (kcal/kg, >30 g fish) - {2900}
Amino Acids (as % of dietary protein), [as % of diet]
Arginine - 4.2 [1.18] Lysine - 5.1 [1.43] Tryptophan - 1.0 [0.28]
Histidine - 1.7 [0.48] Methionine + Cystine - 3.2 [0.90] Valine - 2.8 [0.78]
Isoleucine - 3.1 [0.87] Phenylalanine + Tyrosine - 5.7 [1.55]
Leucine - 3.4 [0.95] Threonine - 3.6 [1.05]
Essential Fatty Acids (as a % of diet - Linoleic (n6) - 0.5-1.0)
Vitamins (units/kg diet) Minerals (units/kg diet)
A - 1,000-2,000 IU Calcium - 0.7%
C - 40-125 mg Phosphorus - 0.5%
D - 375 IU Iron - 20 mg
E - 25-100 mg Manganese - NN {3 mg}
K - NN {6-10 mg} Magnesium - 0.06%
Biotin - 0.06 mg Potassium - NN{20 mg}
Choline - NN {0.1 mg} Zinc - 30 mg {30 mg}
Folic - NN {2 mg} Chromium - NN {2 mg}
Inositol - NN {50 mg} Chlorine - NN
Niacin - NN {30 mg} Sodium - NN {5 mg}
Pantothenic B3 - 6-10 mg Copper - NN {5 mg}
Riboflavin B2 - 5-6 mg Iodine - NN {1.1mg}
Thiamin B1 - 2.5 mg Selenium - NN {0.15 mg}
Pyridoxine B6 - NN {6 mg} Cobalt - NN
Cobalamine B12 - NN {0.02 mg}

7.85
7.9
7.95
8
8.05
8.1
p
H
9:30A 1:30P 5:30P 9:30P 1:30A 5:30A
Time
14
23
Semi-intensive farming. The great majority of tilapia farming in Latin America is semi-
intensive, or intensive 1", while a few farms use high-volume water exchange to
achieve intensive 2,3 and super-intensive status. In the USA, due to restrictions on
water use and climate and environmental concerns, tilapia culture tends to be under
greenhouse-type conditions with water recirculation and constant monitoring and
control of environmental parameters.
5.3. The growth of red tilapia in semi-intensive and intensive 1 systems
Growth rate will vary with food supply, temperature, water quality, stocking density,
species or strain of fish, quality of management and genetics. Data from several
Jamaican tilapia farms are presented in Figure 4 showing the growth of red tilapia in
un-aerated, greenwater ponds under multiple-phased stocking at progressively declining
densities of 96,000, 45,000, 20,000 and 10,000 fish/ha, and under single-phase stocking
at 20,000 fish/ha. Interestingly, the two systems require the same pond space (a total
of 8 ha) to produce similar yield (55-56 t/crop), but the multiple-phase system with
lower final growout density produced larger fish (650 g vs 510 g).
Figure 4. Growth of red tilapia in single- and multiple-phase stocking
5.4. Nutrition and feeding
Once tilapia reach the fingerling stage, the major expense in culture is feeding, occupying
50-70% of operational costs. Therefore, after providing the fish with suitable environ-
mental conditions for growth, feed quality and feeding management are the most
important aspects of fish culture.
Tilapia in the wild are omnivorous, feeding primarily on phytoplankton, but also on
detritus, insects and zooplankton. They are versatile feeders, and farmed tilapia will
accept prepared diets immediately upon the initiation of feeding, and the use of
supplemental feeds (providing additional protein, carbohydrate or fat) or complete
feeds (containing all the known required nutrients) can accelerate growth by 5-10
times, increasing yields and shortening crop durations.
Practitioners of recirculating aquaculture tend to calculate oxygen requirements in
relation to the food ration - as around 250 g of oxygen per kg of food fed. Then, there
is the requirement of the bacteria in the biological filter - usually taken as another 250
g/kg feed. The total requirement for the system is then around 500 g O
2
per kg of feed
fed (see Timmons et al., 2001 for a detailed treatment).
4.1.4. Other factors affecting the management of water quality
4.1.4.1. Wind fetch
The major natural sources of oxygen in water are from plant photosynthesis and direct
diffusion at the air-water interface. This diffusion is increased by wind action that creates
small waves in the pond, enhancing the mixing of air and water. The longer the pond,
the greater the fetch of wind action and ponds in extremely windy locations can suffer
wave erosion of windward dikes.
4.1.4.2. Artificial aeration
Artificial aeration may be provided by gravity-fall (barriers, steps, etc), by mechanical
means or by pure oxygen transfer systems (liquid oxygen). The most common method
is mechanical aeration.
4.1.4.2. (a) Mechanical aeration
Mechanical aeration is a proven technique for
improving dissolved oxygen availability and fish
productivity in ponds (Boyd, 1990). There are
several kinds of mechanical aerators, including
vertical pumps, pump sprayers, propeller-aspirator
pumps (eg Aire-O
2
) and diffused-air systems,
but the commonest type of aerator for pond and
tank culture is the paddlewheel aerator. Paddle-
wheels have been identified as the most efficient
aeration devices for fish ponds over 0.4 ha receiving
more than 50 h aeration per year. In the southern
USA, the metal-constructed Auburn-type paddle-
wheel is most common, while outside the US, the
plastic-bodied Taiwanese paddlewheel shown at
left is most favored.
4.1.4.2. (b) Oxygen transfer efficiency
At sea level, the standard aeration efficiency (SAE) of a Taiwanese paddlewheel (adjusted
to 20 C in tap water) is around 1.17 kg O
2
/kWh (Boyd and Watten, 1989), and actual
oxygen transfers can be considered to be around 1.05 kg O
2
/hp/h (1.0 kW = 1.341 hp).
Indeed, oxygen transfer efficiency will depend upon the efficiency of the paddlewheel
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
B
o
d
y

w
e
i
g
h
t

(
g
)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
We ek
Phased Single phase
22
15
The intensity of farming. Balarin and Haller (1983) defined extensive farming as the
production of fish without artificial feeding, usually in ponds, which is dependent upon
natural or enhanced natural productivity to provide nutritional requirements. Intensive
farming on the other hand, attempts to produce the greatest quantity of fish per unit of
culture space, and is dependent on increased stocking levels, increased feeding, and
some form of environmental manipulation such as aeration and/or increased water flow
to supply oxygen and remove wastes so that nutrients might be better assimilated
and growth rate and total yield accelerated. This requires a complex infrastructure
of primary and support equipment and management systems with high capital and
operational cost. Thus the fish produced need to be sufficiently high in market value to
produce greater returns to offset these costs.
Table 7. Levels of management intensity and typical production parameters
Source: Balarin and Haller (1983), Popma and Lovshin (1996), this author; * some experimental.
(affected by its motor, rpm, diameter of the paddlewheel, and depth of immersion of
the paddles) and the practical experience of culturists varies, with some maintaining
that the real oxygen transfer efficiency is only 0.4-0.5 kg O
2
/hp/h.
4.1.4.3. Plankton
All the microscopic animals (zooplankton), plants (phytoplankton) and bacteria suspended
in the water comprise the plankton. Phytoplankton synthesize their food using sunlight,
carbon dioxide, organic salts and the water, while the zooplankton feed on the
phytoplankton. Bacteria utilize any dead organic matter for food. The plankton can be
very important to the culturist, as they provide food and oxygen to the fish.
(phytoplankton consume CO
2
and produce O
2
during the day, while the reverse occurs
at night). When there are sufficient quantities of phytoplankton to discolor the water,
there is said to be a bloom which varies from pale green through dark brown to black
depending on the types and relative ratios of phytoplankton present.
A good bloom is olive green in color. The density of the plants (and hence their ability
to provide food and oxygen to the fish) may be increased through fertilization and
decreased with water exchange, and should be of a consistency such that a secchi disc
immersed in the water just disappears from view at a depth of 30 cm (12").
Alternatively, the upturned palm of the hand should disappear from view when the arm
is immersed to the elbow. A bloom that is too thin will provide less-than-optimum food
and oxygen, while one that is too dense will suffocate itself at night, depriving the pond
of oxygen and causing fish kills. Blooms should not be confused with turbidity caused
by soil suspension or organic leaching from leaf litter or peaty soils.
4.1.4.4. Fertilization.
The productivity of the bloom may be increased artificially by the addition of organic
or inorganic fertilizers. (a) Organic fertilization - dry poultry manure may be used at a
rate of 50 kg/ha/d (50 lb/acre/d) for a week when the pond is filled, to develop the
bloom. Liquid fertilizers (eg. the supernatant from dissolved poultry litter) are not
commonly used, but have the advantage of leaving no sludge from insoluble litter on
the floor of the pond. Dissolve the litter in 50 gal. drums and decant the liquid into the
pond at a rate of 110 gal/ha/d (44 gal/ac/d; 166 L/ac/d).
(b) Inorganic fertilization - chemical fertilizers are more dependable than manures. The
main nutrient limiting plant growth in freshwater ponds is phosphorus, followed by
nitrogen, and fertilizers should contain at least as much phosphate as nitrogen with
optimum ratios being 3:1 P
2
O
5
:N. Fertilizers should be applied at rates of 5-10 kg
P
2
O
5
/ha per application at 2-4 week intervals. Liquid and soluble fertilizers are more
effective, but cut bags may be placed on underwater platforms for the fertilizer to
dissolve slowly and continuously. Urea and ammonium fertilizers are popular and
inexpensive, but can cause ammonia toxicity if used at high rates (Boyd, 1990).
System Inputs & Equipment
Yield
(mt/ha/yr
Days in
culture
Harvest
weight (g)
Density
(fish/m
2
)
Extensive
Semi-
intensive
Intensive 1
Intensive 2
Intensive 3
Super-
intensive
Water reuse
Cages
Ponds, fry, domestic waste, net, hook &
line
Ponds, fry, 1. Fertilizer, manure 2.
Fertilizer, by-products, feeds, nets, water
supply, drainage
Ponds, all-male fry, supplemental pelleted
feed, emergency aeration, graders,
catch-pit, water test kit
Ponds, all-male fry, pelleted feed, partial
water exchange, routine aeration,
equipment as above
Ponds or raceways, all-male fry, pelleted
feed, partial water flow, full-time aeration,
equipment as above, auto-feeders, feed
blowers
Tank, raceway, all-male fry, pelleted feed,
continuous water flow, partial aeration,
equipment as above
Tank, greenhouse covering, all-male fry,
pelleted feed, continuous low water flow,
continuous aeration with monitoring,
biofiltration, heating,
fry, pelleted feed boats, graders, auto-
feeders
<1
1. 1-3
2. 4-8
5-12
7-20
22-50
250-1200
150-600
500-2000*
variable
180-360
180-260
180-260
350-450
420-460
180-260
200-350
<150
<250
350-400
400-500
500-700
500-900
400-600
500-900
0.1-0.2
0.5-2
1-3
1-3
5-10
70-200/m
3
50-100/m
3
50-100/m
3
16
21
4.1.4.5. Liming
Liming is done primarily to buffer the pH of acidic soils and increase total alkalinity and
total hardness in ponds. Common liming materials are agricultural limestone (CaCO
3
),
burnt lime (CaO) and hydrated lime (Ca(OH)
2
). Applied at rates of 1-2 t/ha (900-1800
lb/ac) to the bottoms of empty ponds they will buffer soils with pH of less than 7, and
in the cases of burnt or hydrated lime, will provide a sterilizing action to kill pathogens.
4.2. Water quantity
Tilapia in extensive and semi-intensive culture do not require large infusions or
exchange of water, particularly if night-time aeration is available.
4.2.1. Water to fill the pond
The water supplied must be sufficient to replace that lost through evaporation and seep-
age, with enough for some emergency exchange (eg. if the bloom crashes). Assuming
2.5 crop cycles per year, the minimum annual water requirement per hectare will be:
(Volume of water in pond)2.5 + [evaporation (E) + seepage (S)].
Seepage and evaporation must be determined on-site. In Jamaica, with average plains
temperatures of 32 C (89 F), evaporative losses can be 1.0 cm/d, which can mean the
loss of 10,000 L/ha/d (2,642 US gal/d). Assume 28 days downtime between crops per
year, and the total evaporative loss can be (10,000)337 = 3,370,000 L/ha/yr (>890,000
US gal/ha/yr).
Seepage losses will vary depending on the soil type, but are usually minimal in clay soils
(Table 6). In a clay soil, seepage loss can be 10 mm/m
2
/d = 10 L/ha/d = 10(337) =
3,370 L/ha/yr (890 US gal/ha/yr). The volume of water required to fill the pond = pond
area x average pond depth, which in a 1.0 ha pond with an average depth of 1.2 m (4')
= 10,000 x 1.2 = 12,000 m
3
or 12,000,000 L (3.2M US gal).
Table 6. Seepage loss from various soil types
Source: Water for freshwater fish culture. FAO Training Series 4 (1981).
5.2.3. Nursery phase (pond space needed is usually 0.2 ha/ha)
In the nursery phase, fry are raised from the ex-hatchery weight of 0.5-1.0 g to a weight
suitable for supply to farmers or stocking to own-farm growout, usually 10-40 g in the
case of the former and 40-50 g in the latter. The phasing of the fish, that is, stocking
greater numbers of smaller fish in the nursery for splitting into lesser numbers of larg-
er fish in growout, allows the carrying capacity of ponds to be more efficiently utilized
as the fish increase in weight.
Stocking densities vary greatly depending on the scale of inputs (water exchange
and/or artificial aeration) ranging from 10-100 fish/m2 with final biomass of fish any-
where between 3,000-9,000 kg/ha. Nursery survivals depend on management, ie.
water quality, feed quality, control of diseases and predation and range between 50-
80%. More economical nursery production may be achieved by slowing water exchange,
allowing a rich plankton bloom to help feed the fish in the initial stages when the
biomass is less than 1,000 kg/ha.
5.2.4. Growout phase (pond space needed is usually 0.75 ha/ha)
High-density raceways at AJL Barton Isle
There are several different levels of management intensity practiced by tilapia farmers,
ranging from simple culture having low management input and infrastructure, little
control of nutrition and the environment, and usually producing low yields, to complex
culture having high management input and infrastructure, exercising great control of
nutrition and environment and producing high yields (Table 7).
Soil type Sand Sandy loam Loam Clay-loam Loamy clay Clay
Seepage
loss
(mm/m
2
/d)
25-250 13-76 8-20 2.5-15 0.25-5 1.25-10
20
17
Other male hormones for sex reversal. MT is the synthetic androgen most favored by
tilapia culturists. But others exist. These include: fluoxymesterone, mestanolone,
mibolerone, 19-norethisterone and trenbolone acetate (Popma and Phelps 1998).
Other methods of producing all-male populations. Tilapia have been sex reversed
experimentally by immersion in androgens such as testosterone, mibolerone,
trenbolone acetate, fluoxymesterone and norethisterone acetate, that are added to the
water in various concentrations and for varying durations.
The production of reproductively sterile triploid male or female tilapia has also been
touted as a way to prevent precocious sexual maturation and breeding in mixed-sex
culture ponds. But the technique, accomplished by exposing newly fertilized eggs to
a hydrostatic pressure shock or a heat shock (Hussain et al., 1996), has not been
commercialized.
Interspecific hybridization has been used commercially to produce all-male or predom-
inantly-male populations of tilapia, but the technique is difficult to manage on-farm,
requiring total isolation of the male and female lines. The success of the method is due
to the fact that sex determination in tilapia is effected through at least two different
systems of sex chromosomes - in O. niloticus and O. mossambicus the sex chromosomes
of the female are homozygous, described as XX, while those of the male are
heterozygous, described as XY. In O. aureus and O. hornorum however, the sex
chromosomes of the female are heterozygous while those of the male are homozygous.
Crossing a female with homozygous sex chromosomes (XX) with a male also having
homozygous sex chromosomes (ZZ) (eg female O. niloticus x male O. aureus) always
produces all-male offspring (XZ). This has been relatively successfully done in Israel.
All-male offspring may also be produced by the so-called super-male technology. Here,
young fish are fed estrogen, sex reversing the males to females (normal females would
be XX, but in this case they are XY). These phenotypic females that are genotypic males
are reared to maturity and mated with normal males (XY). The 25% resulting YY fry
may be crossed with normal females to produce 100% males (XY). The resulting fish
have never been treated with hormone and are thus likely to be more acceptable to
consumers.
Safety for human consumption. Several studies have shown that the short treatment
time and rapid metabolism of MT ensure that tilapia are free of MT long before they
reach the consumer. Goudie et al. (1986) found <1% of MT to remain 21 days after
treatment, and the level of hormone and its metabolites in carcass tissue was
undetectable long before the USFDA-stipulated 120-d withdrawal period following
hormone treatment. MT breaks down when exposed to light or high temperature or
microbes that exist in the aquatic environment.
Thus, the minimum annual water requirement/ha in a pond filled 2.5 times per year =
(12,000,000)2.5 + (3,370,000 + 890) = 33.4M L/yr (8.8M US gal).
(Ponds will be filled 3 times the first year and 2 times the next, averaging 2.5 fills per
year).
4.2.2. Water exchange
The above calculations show that large quantities of water can be used in aquaculture.
However, Boyd and Tucker (1995) state that routine water exchange in aquaculture
ponds is an example of inefficiency because ponds are highly efficient in assimilating
carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus inputs not converted to fish flesh which if flushed from
ponds are discharged before assimilation. Also, the pollution potential of aquaculture
increases as a function of increasing water exchange. But large quantities of fish can be
produced in high-exchange aquaculture. Thus a semi-intensive tilapia farmer stocking
at 29,000/ha, having little exchange (1% per ha/d, or 120 m
3
/ha/d) and intermittent
aeration can produce 7-8 mt/ha/crop or 19 mt/ha/yr, while an intensive tilapia farm
using high water exchange (around 15,600 m
3
/ha/d) and higher stocking density
produces around 180 mt/ha/yr. The semi-intensive farm uses water more efficiently
(3.7 m
3
/kg of fish vs 29.4 m
3
/kg of fish), but the intensive farm produces more fish.
If the water is very low-cost, the prospect is attractive, but super high-exchange
aquaculture is only an option if water is inexpensive.
5. FISH
5.1. Broodstock and breeding
Jamaican red tilapia are a mixture of several
species of Oreochromis and the genetic
diversity and relative species composition of
the present-day stocks are uncertain.
Introduced stocks include the South Florida
Fisheries Florida Red, said to be a cross
between an albino O. mossambicus and a
normal colored O. hornorum, the Philippino
Red, said to be a cross between O. mossam-
bicus and O. niloticus produced in The
Philippines and imported from Panama, and a 3-way line developed in Jamaica from a
cross between O. aureus and the Florida Red. In an effort to improve the stock, lines
have also been imported from Taiwan and Stirling University in Scotland. Some farms
still produce small quantities of silver O. niloticus (containing some O. aureus), that
along with O. mossambicus, can be found wild in rivers, canals and lakes. Only one
Jamaican producer is engaged in a systematic, consultative program of broodstock
improvement consisting of on-farm procedures with a small high-technology input.
Selection procedures are proprietary and will not be detailed here.
Red Tilapia, a mosaic of several species
18
19
5.2. Culture system and production
Generally, tilapia producers seek all-male populations of fry for culture, since males are
reputed to grow as much as 40% faster than females. However, this may be partly a
behavioral attribute since males spend less energy in courting behavior when females
are absent (but nest-building continues) and the feeding patterns of females are
reduced during mouthbrooding. All-male populations were originally produced by labor-
intensive manual separation of the sexes, but are now produced using techniques such
as interspecific hybridization (difficult to manage properly, since absolute separation
between male and female lines is necessary) and sex reversal by the oral administration
of androgens to recently hatched fry. Increasingly, a desire to move away from the use
of hormones to produce food fish has stimulated the development of so-called YY
supermales and Genetically Male Tilapia that require hormonal inversion of the parent
fish, but not those used as food by humans.
The culture system in Jamaica and throughout most of
the Americas is one of monosex culture via sex reversal
using a 3-phase production system employing repro-
ductive, nursery and final growout cycles. Generally,
only large farms can afford to have hatchery and nursery
phases and generate an excess of fry or fingerlings for
sale to smaller farms.
5.2.1. Reproductive phase (pond space needed is
usually 0.05 ha/ha)
Broodfish are maintained in 0.4 ha ponds stocked at a
rate of 2000-5000 kg/ha in the ratio of one male to two
or three females. The size of the broodfish varies, as
tilapia commence breeding at an early age and small
size in culture ponds (maturing within 6-8 months of
hatching), but fish of >100 g are used. Similar-sized
males and females may be used to reduce dominance
effects. In general, each female will produce around one to four fry per gram of body
weight. Fry begin to appear about 14 d after stocking and are harvested by skimming the
waters edge daily with a mosquito-meshed seine net.
The brood pond is terminated around 20 d after stocking and the broodfish are then
restocked into a newly-prepared pond for the process to be repeated. If the brood pond
is to be re-stocked immediately, care should be taken to eliminate any unharvested fry
as they will be larger than the succeeding batch and cannibalistic. Broodfish tend to be
active for 5-7 years and may be put into service for periods of 4 months at a time and then
rested in separate ponds for males and females for two months. Fry may also be
produced in brood tanks and cages (Popma and Lovshin 1996). Alternatively, mating
may be carried out in raceways, and ripe eggs may be harvested from the mouths of
incubating females to be hatched in artificial incubators to produce swim-up fry that are
then transferred to sex-reversal. Here, greater control of the process can produce higher
fry survival and uniformity of size. A system in which grandparent fish produce
parent fish which in turn produce fry for production may be utilized to slow the rate of
inbreeding between parents and offspring.
5.2.2. Sex reversal
When tilapia fry hatch their gonadal tissue is sexually undifferentiated. Sex inversion to
male is accomplished by feeding diets containing male steroids (methyl- or ethynyl-
testosterone, MT or ET) to fry so that the gonadal tissue develops into testicular tissue,
producing individuals that grow and function reproductively as males (Popma and
Phelps 1998). Note - these phenotypic males are still genotypic females. The method
can be performed in clear or green water and in ponds or cages. It must be initiated
before the primal gonadal tissue develops into ovarian tissue, which at water temperatures
of 24-28 C occurs in Oreochromis spp. at a size of 11-13 mm or around 3-4 weeks after
hatching.
The fry are stocked at densities of around 16,000/m
2
in aerated hatchery tanks with
water exchange, or at around 10,000/m
2
in nylon mesh hapas. They are fed a high-
protein hatchery diet (usually a salmon starter) in which the hormone has been
incorporated by dissolving it in alcohol, mixing the alcohol-hormone solution into the
feed and drying the mixture to evaporate the alcohol carrier. Some culturists mix the
hormone into oil that provides a suspension that is mixed into the feed. The hormone
is added at a rate of 30-60 mg/kg of feed, and the diets are fed at descending rates of
20-10% of fish biomass per day 4-8 times per day for 28 days. If the fry were treated
at the correct age, the process usually produces 95-98% males. This is checked under
a microscope from a sample of the fish. Normal survival during sex reversal is 70-80%,
although the fry may occasionally require prophylactic treatment for parasites.
The dosage of hormone received is important. Pandian and Varadaraj (1988) found that
irrespective of feeding rate (from 30% to 10%), fry that took up more than 1.5 g or
more of MT/g fish/day for a period of 19 days were all male, while the minimum dosage
required for 100% masculinization shifted to lower levels, from 20 to 5 g/g diet when
the feeding rate was increased from 10-30% body weight per day.
Reasons for poor sex reversal. Poor male counts may occur when fry are greater than
13 mm at the start of sex reversal, or when growth is very rapid (due to high water
temperature and high feed quality), causing the fry to pass too quickly through the
narrow window of susceptibility to sex reversal. Also, the quality of the hormone may
suffer if it is not stored in cool conditions or becomes exposed to sunlight (which
destroys the hormone), or the quality of the feed may decline if it is not dried properly
after the addition of the alcohol carrier. Ironically, poor sex reversal can also occur if the
concentration of the hormone exceeds 60 mg/kg.
Distinguishing characteristics of male and
female Tilapia mossambica. (After Maar,
Mortimor and Van der Lingen, 1966.

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Printed in Jamaica by: Press-Box Printers Ltd.

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