DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS

UNIT-I
Major considerations Limitations Electrical Engineering Materials
Space Factor Temperature gradient Heat flow in two dimensions Thermal
Resistivity of winding Temperature gradient in conductors placed in slots Rating
of machines Eddy current losses in conductors Standard specifications.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN
The aim of the design is to completely obtain the dimensions of all the parts of the
machine to furnish the data to the manufacturer. The main aim of carrying out the
design is to achieve the following.
Lower cost
Lower weight
Reduced size
Better operating performance.
To design the electrical machines properly, one should be familiar with the following
aspects of electrical engineering.
Various electrical materials and their properties.
Properties of magnetic and electric fields.
Laws governing electric circuits.
Laws of electromagnetic induction.
Calculation of magnetic circuits.
Construction of various types of electrical machines.
Behaviour of electrical machines under working conditions.
In addition to above, one needs a good knowledge of strength of material, metallurgy,
mechanics, and the laws of heat transfer.
While designing an electrical machine, much emphasis should be placed on lowering
its cost by saving the materials and reducing to a minimum labour consuming operations
in its manufacture.
The design should be satisfactory with respect to electric strength, mechanical
ruggedness, dynamic and thermal resistance of windings in the event of short circuit.
In order to meet the above requirements during the design of electrical machines, the
designer should be well conversant with the prices of the basic materials used in the
machines.
He should also be familiar with the amount of labour consumed in the production of
machine parts and assemblies.
From the above discussion it is quite obvious that the art of successful design is to
select proper materials and to resolve the conflict for space between magnetic,
conducting and insulating materials o as to produce a cheap and highly efficient machine.
The following sections play a vital role in the design of electrical machines.
v Specification
The initiation of the design of an electrical machine requires a specification of
main data like output in KVA, line voltage, power factor, frequency, number of
phases, type of connections, temperature rise of windings and cores, rated speed
etc.
Besides the main data mentioned above, in case no limits are specified for the
performance parameters, like no load losses, full load current, short circuit
current, percentage regulation etc., these should be determined at the design stage
to confirm with the usual values expected as per the ratings of the machine.
The detailed specifications of various electrical machines in order to initiate
their design are listed below:
Transformer
Power output in KVA or MVA; voltage ratio on no load; Frequency;
number of phases; class (Power or distribution); l.v. and h.v. windings
connections; percentage tappings; phasor group reference for 3 phase
transformers; maximum temperature rise;
Rotating Machines
Direct Current Machine
Generator or motor: type of field excitation: rated output power;
rated voltage; speed; type of enclosure; type of duty (short time,
intermittent, continuous); Field exciting voltage; Maximum temperature
rise.
Alternating Current machine
Generator or motor; type (induction, synchronous); rated output;
rated voltage; frequency; speed; number of phases; connection of winding;
type of rotor winding (Squirrel cage; slip ring for I. motor); type of duty;
type of enclosure; type of cooling; exciter voltage (for syn. machines);
maximum temperature rise.
v Output Coefficient
The starting point of the design of an electrical rotating machine is the output
coefficient, which in terms of output, main dimensions and speed is given by,
Output coefficient, K = P/D
2
LN
where, P - Output of the machine in KVA
D - Diameter of the armature in metre
L - Gross length of the armature in metre
N - Speed of the machine in r.p.m.
For the rotating electrical machines, the output coefficient is also proportional
to the product of two group of terms, the first related to the magnetic loading and
the second to the current loading.
For larger machines, the output coefficient is high and the variation in its
value is relatively small, because of nearly constant flux density and less variation
in specific electrical loading.
However this coefficient varies greatly for small size machines.
The working value of the output coefficient depends also upon the speed of
the machine and on the ventilation system.
The value of output coefficient can by considerably increased by providing a
fan of relatively larger diameter mounted on the shaft of the machine.
The approximate limiting values of the output coefficient giving D
2
L in cubic
metre are of the order of 4.0 to 6.5 for large machines, 3.0 to 4.0 for medium size
and 1.0 to 3.0 for small to medium size machines.
v Specific Loadings
Specific magnetic loadings
Specific magnetic loading, B or the mean flux density over the air gap
surface of the machine is defined as the ratio of total magnetic loading to the area
of the gap.
i.e. B = P DL = /YL
where, P - Number of poles
- Flux per pole, webers
D - Diameter of armature or stator bore, metres
L - Armature or stator core length, metres
Y - Pole pitch
Specific electric loading
Specific electric loading, q is defined as the total number of ampere
conductors per unit of the circumference of the armature or stator
i.e. q = IaZa/ D
where, Ia the armature current, amperes
Za number of armature conductors
Specific magnetic and electric loadings play an important role in the design of
electrical machines. The process of design of any electrical machine is initiated
with the suitable assumptions of these values.
The main dimensions and the design of other parts of the machine is basically
dependent upon the proper selection of the specific magnetic and electric
loadings.
In any rotating electrical machine, power output of the machine is directly
proportional to the following quantities,
D
2
L indicating the volume enclosed by the gap surface
N, the speed of the rotor in r.p.m.
B, the specific magnetic loading
q, the specific electric loading
The above discussion clearly shows that for the same output and speed, the
rotating machine will have a lesser volume, if designed for higher values of
specific loadings. Hence the choice of higher values of specific loadings, lead to
the following advantages.
Reduction in the volume of the machine.
Reduction in the size of the machine.
Lower cost of the material required.
Lower weight of the machine.
Lower over all cost of the machine.
Thus to produce a cheaper machine with reduction in its size, the values of
specific loadings must be pushed to the largest possible. However the choice of
higher value of specific loadings will lead to the following disadvantages.
Disadvantage due to higher specific magnetic loading, Bav:
Increased iron losses.
Larger requirement of m.m.f.
Higher field copper losses
Higher tooth density.
Tendency of saturation of magnetic parts.
Increased magnetizing current and poorer power factor
Reduced leakage reactance and larger initial current on short circuit
Increased temperature rise due to higher losses.
Increased noise.
Disadvantages due to higher specific electric loading, q:
Increased armature copper losses.
Increased leakage reactance because of larger turns per phase
Increased temperature rise because of higher copper losses.
Increased reactance voltage and inferior commutation
Increased field excitation causing more field copper losses
Poorer regulation and stability impaired
Reduction in over load capacity.
Hence the choice of increased values of specific loadings gives rise to
appreciably higher total losses, increased no load current, poorer power factor and
higher temperature rise.
Following factors must be given due consideration while selecting the values
for flux density and specific electric loading for electrical machines.
Temperature rise.
Over load capacity.
Size of the machine
Cost of the machine
Power factor
Efficiency
Noise
v Effects of Material on Design
Engineering materials that are used in electrical machines may be divided into three
broad groups
Conductors
Magnetic materials
Insulating materials.
Conductors possess high conductivity and are used to provide paths for electric
currents in electrical machine windings.
Magnetic materials possess high magnetic permeability and are used as magnetic
cores in electrical machines to set up a magnetic field in the surrounding space.
The conductivity of the insulating materials is very poor and as such they serve to
insulate one current-carrying part from another when ever they operate with a difference
in electrical potential relative to each other.
Effects of Conducting Material
Copper is most suitable as the conducting material for all types of
electrical rotating machines. This is normally used in round or rectangular
cross section. It has all the properties that a good conducting material must
possess.
However in case of transformers, aluminium can also be used as a
conductor instead of copper. The concurrent development of power
transformers with aluminium windings will bring about greater saving of
copper.
Aluminium when used as a conductor in small transformers, decrease the
over-all cost of the transformer. But in case of large transformers, the use of
aluminium will increase the over-all cost as well as the size.
The power transformers with aluminium as conductors, having a power
rating upto 6.0 MVA may serve as the counter parts of copper wound
transformers, as both of these can have similar performance characteristics.
The cost of these two transformers is nearly the same and thus this
substitution may be regarded as fairly equivalent from the view point of both
technology and economy.
Effects of Magnetic Materials
The cost of an electrical machine depends upon its size and on the weight
of magnetic and conducting materials.
The weight of the magnetic material is influenced by the size of the
magnetic circuit of the machine.
The size and the weight of the machine depends upon the assigned values
of specific magnetic loading, which is limited by the saturation and core
losses of the magnetic material used in the machine.
However an increased value of specific magnetic loading could be
assigned for designing an electrical machine provided the magnetic material
has a comparatively higher saturation limit and lower core losses per kg of
material.
Presently magnetic materials having very high permeabilities and low
specific iron losses are available. These materials are much superior and result
into a reduced size of the machine with a lower over-all cost.
The most suitable magnetic materials for electrical machines, which give a
considerable reduction size and cost, are silicon steel of various grades.
The increase in flux density makes it possible to save magnetic material,
although cold rolled steel is more expensive than hot rolled steel. The specific
loss at a certain value of flux density for cold rolled grain oriented steel is
nearly half as compared to hot rolled steel at the same value of flux density.
Thus for the same losses, cold rolled steel can be worked at much higher
flux densities, which will ultimately lead to reduction of weight, size and the
over-all cost of the machine.
Hence while starting the design of electrical machine, one should select
very carefully a magnetic material which would give a best and economical
design.
Effects of Insulating Material
Insulating materials are very sensitive to temperature rise.
Every class of insulating materials has an upper limit of temperature upto
which these can be used safely. This limiting temperature imposed by the
insulating material used in the machine dictates the allowable losses in any
electrical machine.
A poor insulating material such as paper, cotton etc. can withstand a
maximum temperature of only 90C, where as a good quality of insulating
material like ceramics, asbestos etc. can safely be used for temperatures
beyond 180C.
If the insulating material selected for the machine is of better quality,
higher total losses from the aspect of temperature rise can be allowed.
The increased limit of allowable losses indicates that higher values can be
assigned to specific loading which would mean a reduced size of the machine
with the reduction in its over-all cost.
In electrical machines of small sizes, class A insulating material are
normally used, where as class B insulation system is mostly used in case of
medium and large machines.
The insulating materials belonging to class B have hot spot with-stand
capability of 130C. Thus the machines with class B insulation system can
have a maximum temperature rise of 80C over an ambient temperature of
40C with a margin of 10C for difference between the hottest spot and
average temperature rise of the winding.
With the rapid progress in the material technology, new insulating
materials such as class F insulation system with much higher hot spot
temperature capability are now available which can replace the traditional
class B materials.
With proper design, the saving in copper can be as high as 15 percent and
in steel of the order of 8 to 10 percent.
When the performance of the two designed machines with the same
specifications but with class B and class F insulation systems are compared,
normally it is observed that the efficiency of the machine with class F
insulation system is marginally lower because of higher losses.
This marginal reduction in efficiency is not at all a detrimental factor
looking to the reduced cost of capitalized losses, reliability and over all
savings of materials.
In addition to above, the use of class F insulation system in electrical
machines gives the following advantages.
Excellent dissipation factor.
Longer life to the machines.
Better chemical resistance.
Higher flame resistance characteristics.
Imperviousness to moisture and humidity
Reduction in insulation thickness.
Better heat transfer in the coils of the winding.
Improved radiation resistance properties, thus suitable for nuclear
power station machines.
From the above discussion, it is concluded that the reliability of the
machine with class F insulation system is much more than with class B
system.
Hence the proper selection of the insulation system is very essential for
achieving best and economical design of electrical machines.
The improper selection of insulating material for the machine may
ultimately result into a machine which is disadvantageous from many
considerations.
GENERAL DESIGN PROCEDURE
The above discussion on various aspects of the design suggests the following
general design procedure.
Based on the given specifications of the machine, choose proper materials
conducting, insulating and magnetic. For the proper choice of these materials, the
designer should be conversant with the properties, availability and cost of the materials.
Basic design parameters such as specific magnetic 1oading, specific electric loading,
q, etc, is then assumed suitably, keeping in view the advantages and disadvantages of
higher values of specific loadings.
Design procedure is initiated for the calculation of various dimensions of magnetic
and electric circuits, using various design equations developed.
Based on the calculated dimensions of various circuits of the machine, performance
of the machine under no load and loaded conditions is predetermined. The temperature
rise of the machine, which is of utmost importance is then determined from the calculated
values of total losses and the cooling system adopted.
Calculated performance of the machine is compared with the limiting performance
values of customer s requirement. If the performance is not satisfactory, the designer has
to modify the basic assumptions of design parameters, so as to bring the final design
closer to the objective.
LIMITATIONS IN DESIGN
Apart from availability of suitable materials, facilities available for manufacture
of required machine parts and facilities required for transportation, the following
considerations impose limitation on design.
Saturation:
Electromagnetic machines use ferro-magnetic materials.
The maxi mum allowable flux density to be used is determined by the
saturation level of the ferro- magnetic material used.
A high value of flux density results in increased excitation resulting in
higher cost for the field system.
Temperature rise:
The most vulnerable part of a machine is its insulation.
The operating life of a machine depends upon the type of insulating
materials used in its construction and the life of the insulating materials
depends upon the temperature rise of the machine.
If an insulating material is operated beyond the maximum allowable
temperature, its life is drastically reduced.
Insulation:
The insulating materials used in a machine should be able to with
stand the electrical, mechanical and thermal stresses which are produced
in the machine.
The mechanical strength of insulation is particularly important in the
case of transformers.
Large axial and radial forces are produced when the secondary
winding of a transformer is short circuited with the primary on. Therefore,
while designing insulation for a transformer, consideration must be given
to the capability of the insulation to withstand large mechanical stresses
apart from electrical and thermal breakdown considerations.
The type of insulation is decided by the maximum operating
temperature of the machine parts where it is put.
The size of insulation is not only decided by the maximum voltage
stress but also by the mechanical stresses produced. For example, for the
same operating voltage, thicker insulation has to be used for large sized
conductors than for smaller sized ones.
Efficiency:
The efficiency of a machine should be as high as possible to reduce the
operating costs.
In order to design a highly efficient machine, the magnetic and electric
loadings used should be small and this requires the use of large amount of
material. Therefore, the capital cost of a machine designed for high
efficiency is high while its running Cost is low.
Mechanical parts:
The construction of an electrical machine has to satisfy numerous
technological requirements.
The construction should be as simple as possible and also it is
technologically good if it is carried out using simple and economical
means with as little labour as possible.
But the technological techniques should be consistent with the
requirements of performance, reliability and durability.
The design of mechanical parts is particularly important in the case of
high speed machines. For example, while designing a turbo-alternator, the
rotor slot dimensions are so selected that the mechanical stresses at the
bottom of rotor teeth do not exceed the maxi mum allowable limit.
In induction motors, the length of air gap is kept as small as
mechanically possible in order to have a high power factor.
The length of air gap and also that of the size of the shaft are mainly
decided by the mechanical considerations.
The size of the shaft should be such that it does not give rise to
excessive unbalanced magnetic pull when deflected.
The shaft of induction motors should be short and stiff so that there is
no significant deflection of the shaft and hence the unbalanced magnetic
pull is small and is within manageable proportions.
In large machines, the size of the shaft is decided by considering the
critical speed which depends on the deflection of the shaft.
Bearings of rotating machines are subjected to the action of rotor
weight, external loads, inertia forces due to unbalanced rotors and forces
on account of unbalanced magnetic pull.
The type of bearings to be used in a machine are decided by
considering the above mentioned forces and also the type of construction
whether the machine is horizontally or vertically mounted.
Commutation:
The problem of commutation is important in the case of commutator
machines as commutation conditions limit the maximum output that can
be taken from a machine.
For example, at present the maximum power output of a single unit
d.c. machine is approximately 10 MW and this limitation is solely on
account of commutation difficulties.
Power factor:
Poor power factor results in larger values of current for the same
power and therefore, larger conductor sizes have to be used. This problem
of power factor is particularly important in the case of induction motor.
The size and hence cost of induction motors can be reduced by using a
high value of flux density in the air gap but this results in saturation in iron
parts of machine and consequently a poor power factor.
Thus the value of flux density used depends upon the power factor and
hence power factor becomes a limiting factor. In fact, the length of air gap
to be provided in an induction motor is primarily determined by power
factor considerations.
Consumer s Specifications:
The limitations imposed by consumer s specifications on the design of
electric machinery are obvious.
The specifications as laid down in the consumer s order have to be met
and the design evolved should be such that it satisfies all the specifications
and also the economic constraints imposed on the manufacturer.
Standard specifications:
These specifications are the biggest strain on the design because both
the manufacturer as well as the consumer cannot get away from them
without satisfying them.
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Electrical Conducting Materials:
Materials serving as electrical conductors can be divided into two main groups,
namely,
1. High Conductivity Materials: These materials are used for making all types of
winding required in electrical machines, apparatus and devices, as well as for
transmission and distribution of electric energy. These materials should have the least
possible resistivity.
2. High Resistivity Materials: These materials are used for making resistances and
heating devices.
I. High Conductivity Materials:
The fundamental requirements to be met by high conductivity materials are
a. highest possible conductivity and hence least resistivity
b. least possible temperature coefficient of resistance
c. adequate mechanical strength, in particular, high tensile strength and
elongation characterizing to a certain degree of the flexibility, i.e.
absence of brittleness
d. rollability and drawability which is important in the manufacture of
wires of small and intricate sections
e. good weldability and solderability which ensure high reliability and
low electrical resistance of the joints
f. adequate resistance to corrosion
The following section gives a brief analysis on the values of resistivity, specific
weight, density, resistance temperature coefficient, co-efficient of thermal expansion,
thermal, conductivity specific heat and tensile strength of conducting materials used in
electrical machines.
a. Copper:
Copper is the most widely used electrical conductor combining, high electrical
conductivity with excellent mechanical properties and relative immunity from oxidation
and corrosion. It is highly malleable and ductile metal. It can be cast, forged, rolled,
drawn, and machined. Mechanical working hardens it but annealing restores it to soft
state.
Most electrical machines employ windings of annealed high conductivity copper.
The International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) has a temperature of 20C, a
resistivity 0.017241 x l0
-6
-m, a resistance temperature co-efficient of 0.00393 per C
and a tensile strength 220 250 MN/m
2
.Hard drawn copper wires are used in electrical
machines as wire drawing increases the mechanical strength although the resistivity also
increases a little. Copper is universally used for windings of electrical machines because
it is easily workable without any possibility of fracture. Further it can be soldered easily
which simplifies the jointing process. Copper is universally used for windings of
electrical machines because it is easily workable without any possibility of fracture.
Further it can be soldered easily which simplifies the jointing process
b. Aluminium:
The application of aluminium is increasing due to the high demand for conductor
materials which cannot be met by copper product alone. Therefore, aluminium which is
the conductor material next to copper is used. Also aluminium is available in abundance
on earth s surface. Pure aluminium is softer than copper and therefore, can be rolled into
thin sheets (foils). Aluminiun cannot be drawn into very fine wires on account of its low
mechanical strength. In replacing copper conductors with aluminium ones in electrical
machines due account should be taken of their differences in resistivity, density and
mechanical strength.
The following analysis helps in the comparison of copper and aluminium
conductors used in electrical machines. Let us consider a conductor having length 1, area
a, resistivity and mass density g. The conductor is carrying a current I.
Copper loss in conductor
P
c
= I
2
R = a)
2
l/a =
2
la
where = current density
.
.
.Copper loss per unit volume
p
c
=
2
la/ la =
2

and Copper loss per unit mass

p
c
' =
2
/g
Therefore, specific copper loss varies directly as resistivity and inversely as mass
density. The average temperature of conductors in electrical machines is approximately
75C. The resistivity of copper is 0.021 x l0
-6
-m at 75C, while that of aluminium is
0.034 x l0
-6
-m. The ratio of resistivities is 0.034/0.021= 1.62. Therefore, for the same
volume of conducting material, the I
2
R losses in a machine using aluminium conductors
are 162 times that in a machine using copper conductors.
The rating of a machine is determined by the temperature rise which in turn is
directly proportional to losses. Thus for the same temperature rise and same loss, the
current rating of a machine using aluminium conductors is 0.78 times that of a machine
using copper conductors. Hence, the use of aluminium conductors results in reduction of
rating by 22%.
Super-enamelled aluminium wires are used for stator windings of small induction
motors. Aluminium is also used for windings of transformers. Aluminium when adopted
as a conductor material in small transformers decreases the overall cost of the
transformer. But when used in large transformers it gives increased size and cost. A new
development in the field of transformer manufacture is the use of foil type windings. This
is because aluminium can be rolled to thinner and more flexible sheet than copper. Thin
sheets of aluminium (foils) are used to make bobbin type of coils of one turn per layer.
Foil type windings are often used for low voltage windings of small and medium rated
transformers. Aluminium is now used for the manufacture of transformer tanks because
of its light weight. Also use of aluminium tanks in place of steel tanks reduces the stray
load loss.
Aluminium oxidizes very quickly in normal atmospheric conditions and acquires
a thin film of oxide, which effectively protects it from further oxidation. By reason of the
high melting point of the aluminium oxide coating (of the order of 2000 C) and the
rapidity which a freshly exposed aluminium surface becomes oxidized, aluminium wire
cannot be soldered by conventional means. Now-a-days aluminium is successfully
soldered by using special ultrasonic soldering irons. The jointing of connectors in an
aluminium winding offers no difficulties.
The comparison of copper and aluminium used as conductors is given in the
following tables.
c. Iron and Steel:
Steel alloyed with chromium and aluminium is used for making starter rheostats
where lightness combined with robustness and good heat dissipation are important
considerations. Cast iron is used in the manufacture of resistance grids to be used in the
starters of large motors.
d. Alloys of Copper:
1. Bronze: Copper base alloys containing tin, cadmium, berryllium and certain
other metals are generally called bronzes and used as high conductivity materials. All
bronzes possess high mechanical strength as compared with copper, but have higher
resistivities.
Density
Melting point
Thermal conductivity
Resistivity
Resistance temperature co-efficient
Co-efficient of thermal expansion
Specific heat
Specific strength
8900
1083
350
0.01724x10
-6
0.00393
16.7x10
-6
390
220-250
2700
660
200
0.0287x10
-6
0.0039
25.5x10
-6
920
CHARACTERISTICS COPPER ALUMINIUM
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
S.No
Cost
Cross-section
Diameter
Volume
Weight
Breaking strength
1
1
1
1
1
1
0.49
1.62
1.27
2.04
0.49
0.64
ITEM COPPER ALUMINIUM
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
S.No
Beryllium Copper: It has been found that the addition of 12 per cent berryllium to
copper makes a hard alloy which is capable of being rolled and formed into springs and
contact strips. Therefore, it is used for current carrying springs, brush holders, sliding
contacts and knife switch blades. Its resistivity is 3 to 6 times that of copper.
Cadmium Copper: Alloys containing 1.1 percent cadmiurn give wires which are stiffer,
harder, and of higher tensile strength than hard-drawn copper. It is used for making
contact wires and commutator segments. Cadmium copper is also used for cage windings
because it can be flame brazed without deterioration.
2. Brass: This finds a very wide application in electrical engineering field. It
generally contains 66 percent copper and 34 percent zinc. It has greater mechanical
strength and wear resistance than copper, but considerably lower conductivity (high
resistivity). Brass is easily shaped by press forming methods, lends itself to deep drawing,
has good weldability, and solderability, and is fairly resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it
has gained wide use in the manufacture of electrical apparatus as current carrying and
structural materials.
3. Copper silver alloy: This alloy contains 99.10 % copper and 0.1 % silver. It
has a resistivity of 0.0184 x l0
-6
-m. Silver bearing copper is used in turbo-alternators
because of its resistance to thermal shortening and creep.
Properties of Copper Alloys
II. Materials of High Resistivity:
Conductors of high resistance are used where it is actually desired to dissipate
electrical energy as heat i.e., in starting and regulating devices for motors etc. In such
cases it is usual to call the high resistance conductors as resistors, resistance coils,
resistance elements or heating elements. Materials of high resistivity are primarily alloys
of different metals. Among metals that have been particularly important as basic
materials for making these alloys, the following may be mentioned: nickel, silver and
iron. They can be classified according to their purpose. Three categories are:
(i) The first group consists of materials used in precision measuring instruments
and in making standard resistances and resistance boxes.
(ii) The second group consists of materials from which resistance elements are
made for all kinds of rheostats and similar control devices.
Cadmium copper
(0.9% Cd)
Bronze
(0.8%Cd & 0.6%Sn)
Berryllium copper
(2.25%Be)
Brass
(70%Cu & 30%Zn)
MATERIAL
8900
1083
350
0.01724x10
-6
0.00393
16.7x10
-6
390
220-250
2700
660
200
0.0287x10
-6
0.0039
25.5x10
-6
920
COPPER ALUMINIUM
1.
2.
3.
4.
S.No
(iii) The third group consists of materials suitable for making high temperature
elements for electric furnaces, heating devices and loading rheostats.
a. Materials used for Precision Work:
An important requirement imposed on high resistivity materials intended for use
in precision electrical instruments and for making standard resistances is stability of
resistance over the period of time and during fluctuations of temperature. The latter
implies that the material should have a low resistance temperature co-efficient. The
thermo-electro-motive force resulting from contact of material with copper should be
minimum so as not to introduce errors into measurements. Cost is not of much
importance for these materials.
The most important material used for this class is Manganin. Its classical
composition is Cu 86 percent, Mn 12 percent and Ni 2 percent. Nickel serves to reduce
thermal emf of contact with copper to a very low value, of about 1.0 V/C. This alloy
has a resistivity of 0.43 x l0
-6
-m and resistance temperature coefficient of the order of
1 x l0 per C.
b. Materials used for Rheostats:
The resistance materials used in making rheostats can have a large thermo-emf
and a large resistance temperature co-efficient. But this material should meet special
requirements such as a high permissible working temperature and low cost, the latter
being dictated by the fact that these materials are required in large quantities in widely
used devices and equipment where large changes in resistance are allowed.
The principal alloy in this group is constantan, consisting of 60 to 65 percent
copper and 40 to 35 percent Nickel. Sometimes small amounts of Manganese and Iron
are also included. Soft constantan wire has resistivity of 0.46 to 0.53 x l0
-6
-m. The
resistance temperature coefficient is near zero. It has a thermo-emf of 39 V/C with
respect to copper. Constantan can be safely used upto a temperature of 500C. A voltage
of one volt per turn should be used when designing constantan wire rheostats.
c. Materials used for Heating Devices:
The primary requirement for high temperature resistance alloys intended for use
in electric furnaces and heating devices is a high working temperature. This requirement
is satisfied by a material which has a sufficiently high melting point and is either non-
corrosive or forms a surface layer of dense, high melting oxide protecting it from further
corrosion. Platinum is an incorrodible material with a high melting point (1710C) with a
resistivity 0.117 X 10
-6
-m. Platinum is used in laboratory electric furnaces with a
working temperature of 1300C.
The most extensively used high working temperature resistance materials are
alloys of nickel, chromium and iron called Nichrome and alloy of aluminium, iron and
chromium. The quality of these alloys, especially the working temperature strongly
depends upon the chromium content. The presence of chromium ensures a high melting
point of oxide coating. The resistivity of Nichrome varies from 1.1 to 1.27x 10
-6
-m.
Nichrome is available as round wire and strip, cold drawn with an oxidized surface and
also hot rolled with scale covered surface. The optimum working temperature for
Nichrome wire is 900 to 1000C.
III. Electrical Carbon Materials:
Electrical carbon materials are manufactured from graphite and other forms of
carbon coal etc. The conductivity of carbon used is slightly less than metals and alloys
and therefore it is used for making brushes for electrical machines.
Brush carbons are often graphited i.e. heat treated to increase the size of crystals.
Ibis raises the conductivity of the brushes and reduces their hardness. Carbon brushes
should acquire a mirror smooth surface soon after being put to service. This is because
they ride on commutators of electrical machines and, therefore, unless their surface is
smooth, they will cause wear of commutator and will wear it down rapidly.
IV. Super-Conductivity:
Very few practical electromechanical devices are built using only current carrying
conductors and no iron to act as magnetic circuit because of the relatively small forces or
torques that can be produced per unit of machine volume. This is because of weak
magnetic fields owing to absence of iron. While there is no limit on the value of flux
density that can exit in air or space but in order to produce a strong field in air, the
conductors have to carry a large value of current. The high value of this current can be
obtained by:
(1) adopting a large conductor area and thus using a small value of current
density,
(2) adopting a small conductor area and thus using a large value of current
density.
Now, if a low value of current density is used, the conductor area has to be large
which results in large volume of machine. On the other hand if a high value of current
density is used, smaller conductor areas are obtained. This results in reduction in the
volume of machine, but small conductor area results high resistance for the machine and
therefore, the I
2
R loss is high resulting in large temperature rise. Thus, it is clear that the
value of flux density is limited by current density in conductors producing the field. With
copper or aluminium conductors at normal operating temperature current densities must
generally be limited to about 1 to 10 A/mm
2
.
It is also clear from above that the limitations are not imposed by current density
as such but by the excessive temperature rise produced on account of high value of
resistance due to use of small conductor areas. The resistance also depends upon the
value of resistivity. Therefore, if we have a material of zero resistivity its resistance will
be zero (and hence I
2
R loss will also be zero) irrespective of the value of conductor area.
Thus with such a conductor we can use a very high value of current density (and hence a
very high value of flux density in air) giving very small machine volume and there will
be an added advantage of absence of iron parts in the machine.
Superconductors: Materials exhibiting zero value of resistivity are known as
superconductors. A large number of metals become super-conducting below a particular
temperature characteristic of the particular metal. This temperature is known as the
transition temperature. Super conducting compounds and alloys do not necessarily have
components which are themselves superconducting.
It is interesting to note that metals which are very good conductors at room
temperature i.e. copper, silver and gold etc. do not exhibit superconducting properties, on
the other hand the metals and alloys which are bad conductors at room temperature have
superconducting properties. Superconductivity will disappear if the temperature of
material is raised above its critical temperature or if a sufficiently strong magnetic field or
current density is employed. This critical magnetic field i.e. the field at which
superconductivity vanishes and the critical current density are a function of temperature
and are low for high temperatures. The transition from the superconducting state to
conducting state is reversible.
Coming back to electrical machines, with the introduction of superconducting
materials, much higher current densities are possible and practical machines working at
low temperatures may be developed. Supercooled coils can produce flux densities of
10 Wb/m
2
or higher. In comparison, it is only possible to produce a flux density of
0.1 Wb/m
2
in the absence of iron parts, by using normal coils at room temperature.
Therefore, it is clear from above that with the development of superconductors, the
machine sizes may be considerably reduced. Superconducting transformer windings and
rotor windings of large alternators have been developed but the experiments show that
they are not yet economically feasible. This is because the advantages of
superconductivity must be balanced against the capital, operating and energy-loss costs of
providing it
V. Magnetic Material:
All magnetic materials possess magnetic properties to a greater or a lesser degree.
The magnetic properties of materials are characterized by their relative permeability. In
accordance with the value of relative permeability, materials may be divided into three
broad classes.
a. Ferromagnetic materials: The relative permeabilities of these materials are
much greater than unity and these permeability values are dependent upon the
magnetizing force.
b. Paramagnetic materia1s: These materials have their relative permeabilities
only slightly greater than unity. The value of susceptibility is thus positive for these
materials.
c. Diamagnetic materials: These materials have their relative permeabilities
slightly less than unity. In both Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic materials the value of
permeability is independent of the magnetizing force.
When a paramagnetic or a diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the
distortion of field is negligible and, therefore, the force exerted by the magnetic field is
small.
When a ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, there is considerable
distortion and therefore, the force exerted is very large. This property makes
ferromagnetic materials very useful for electrical engineering applications. Iron, Nickel,
Cobalt and many of their alloys are ferromagnetic. To these substances certain other
ferromagnetic alloys and compounds containing aluminium, chromium, manganese,
copper and silver can be added.
Classification of Magnetic Materials on the basis of Hysteresis loss:
a. Soft magnetic material:
The hysteresis loss depends upon the area of hysteresis loop. For this
reason, magnetic cores used in alternating magnetic fields are made from materials whose
hysteresis loops are more or less narrow as shown in figure. These materials are called
soft magnetic materials. Soft magnetic materials are used in the manufacture of electrical
machines, transformers and many kinds of electrical apparatus, instruments and devices.
b. Hard magnetic materials:
Materials with broad hysteresis loops are celled hard magnetic materials.
These materials are used in certain types of electrical machines of low power rating, and
in all kinds of instruments and devices requiring permanent magnets which set up
magnetic fields of their own.
VI. Insulating Materials:
Insulating materials or Insulants are extremely diverse in origin and properties.
They are essentially nonmetallic, organic or inorganic, uniform or heterogeneous in
composition, natural or synthetic. Many of them are of natural origin as, for example,
paper, cloth, paraffin wax and natural resins. Wide use is made of many inorganic
insulating materials such as glass, ceramics and mica. Many of the insulating materials
are man-made products manufactured in the form of resins, insulating films etc. In recent
years wide use is made of new materials whose composition and properties place them in
an intermediate position between inorganic and organic substances. These are the
synthetic organo-silicon compounds, generally termed as silicones.
Electrical Properties of Insulating Materials:
There are many properties which determine the suitability of a material for use as
an insulating material.
1. Resistivity or specific resistance
2. electric strength or breakdown voltage,
3. permittivity and
4. dielectric hysteresis.
An ideal insulating material should have
(1) high dielectric strength, sustained at elevated temperatures
(2) high resistivity or specific resistance
(3) low dielectric hysteresis
(4) good thermal conductivity
(5) high degree of thermal stability i.e. it should not deteriorate at high
temperatures.
In addition to above the material should have good mechanical properties to
withstand moisture, it should be non-hygroscopic vibration, abrasion and bending. Also it
should be able to withstand chemical attack, heat and other adverse conditions of service.
Unfortunately, the electrical properties of insulating materials vary widely with many
factors including,
(1) dimensions of test piece
(2) r.m.s value, wave form and frequency of impressed voltage
(3) temperature and moisture content of test piece,
(4) mechanical pressure on test piece.
The data obtained by laboratory tests on specimens may be taken as typical value
and a high factor of safety must always be provided in electrical insulation to allow for
effect of moisture, heat, mechanical stress, and abnormal electrical voltage gradients
owing to surges. Allowance also must be made for burrs, sharp edges which produce
intense local voltage gradients.
Classification of Insulating Materials:
The classification covers seven classes of insulating materials generally used in
electrical machinery and apparatus in relation to their thermal stability in service. The
recognized classes of insulating materials and the temperature assigned to them are as
follows:
Y
A
E
B
F
H
C
90 C
105 C
120 C
130 C
155 C
180 C
>180 C
CLASS TEMP
Class of materials having a temperature limit lower than that for class Y is not
included in this classification. Since the materials falling in class are not widely used as
insulation for windings for machines, transformers or switchgear. Insulation may be
grouped into the following recognized classes:
Class Y:
This insulation Consists of materials, or combinations of materials, such as cotton,
silk and paper without impregnation. Other materials or combinations of materials can be
included in this class, if by experience or accepted tests they can be shown to be capable
of operating at class Y temperatures.
Examples: Cotton, silk, paper, cellulose, wood etc., neither impregnated nor
immersed in oil. Materials of class Y are unsuitable for electrical machines and apparatus
as they deteriorate rapidly and are extremely hygroscopic.
Class A:
This insulation consists of materials or combinations of materials such as cotton,
silk and paper when suitably impregnated or coated when immersed in a dielectric liquid
such as oil. Other materials or combinations of materials may be included in this class, if
by experience or accepted tests they can be shown to be capable of operation at class A
temperatures.
Examples: Materials of class Y impregnated with natural resins cellulose esters,
insulating oils, etc. Also included in this class are laminated wood, varnished papers.
Class E:
This insulation consists of materials or combinations of materials which by
experience or accepted tests can be shown to be capable of operating at class E
temperature (materials possessing a degree of thermal stability allowing them to be
operated at a temperature 15 C higher than class A materials).
Examples: Synthetic resin enamels, cotton and paper laminated with
formaldehyde bonding, etc.
Class B:
This insulation consists of materials or combinations of materials such as mica,
glass, fibre, asbestos, etc., with suitable bonding substances. Other materials or
combinations of materials, not necessarily inorganic, may be included in this class, if by
experience or accepted tests they can be shown to be capable of operation at class B
temperatures.
Examples: Mica, glass fibre, asbestos with suitable bonding substances, built up
mica, glass fibre, and asbestos laminates
Class F:
This insulation consists of materials or combinations of materials, such as mica,
glass, fibre, asbestos, etc., with suitable bonding substances as well as other materials or
combinations of materials, not necessarily inorganic, which by experience or accepted
tests can be shown to be capable of operation at class F temperatures (materials
possessing a degree of thermal stability allowing them to be operated at a temperature
95C higher than class B materials).
Examples: Materials of class B with bonding materials of higher thermal stability.
Class H:
This insulation consists of materials, such as silicon elastomer and combination of
materials such as mica glass fibre, asbestos, etc., with suitable bonding substances, such
as appropriate silicon resins. Other materials or combinations of materials may be
included in this class, if by experience or accepted tests they can be shown to be capable
of operation at class H temperature.
Examples: Glass fibre and asbestos materials, and built up mica, with silicon
resins.
Class C:
This insulation consists of materials or combinations of materials such a mica,
porcelain, glass and quartz with or without an inorganic binder. Other materials or
combinations of materials may be included in this class, if by experience or accepted tests
they can be shown to he capable of operation at temperatures above the class H limit.
Specific materials or combinations of materials in this class will have a temperature limit
which is dependent upon their physical, chemical and electrical properties.
Examples: Mica, ceramics, glass, quartz without binders or with silicon resins of
higher thermal stability. Class C materials are not directly involved in machine design.
Applications of Insulating Materials:
The major applications of the insulating materials are
(i) wires for magnet coil and windings of machines.
(ii) laminations.
(iii) machines and transformers.
TEMPERATURE GRADIENT
HEAT GENERATED BY MACHINES
Heat is generated in motors due to the electrical losses in different parts of the
machine, primarily because of the copper loss in the conductor and the iron loss in iron.
The heat generated by mechanical means, such as frictional losses at the motor bearings
and at the interface between the carbon brushes are relatively small compared with that of
the electrical losses. The electrical heat generated causes the temperature of the traction
motor to rise and the heat generated is dissipated to the ambient air by a combination of
conduction, radiation and essentially forced convection.
The electric current supplied to the motor varies with the travelling speed. The
copper loss equals to I
2
R and is therefore directly proportional to the square of the current
magnitude with the assumption that the electrical resistance of the conductors is constant.
The iron loss is composed of two components, namely, the eddy current loss and the
hysteresis loss. The iron loss is only a minor source of the total heat generated when
compared with that generated by the copper loss. It is acceptable to assume that the iron
loss is equivalent to a fraction of the copper loss. The copper loss is dependent on the
speed of the train and the magnitude of the traction input current, and the iron loss is of
similar nature.
HEAT TRANSFER INSIDE ELECTRIC MACHINES
The cooling method adopted by the traction motor is called the self-circulation
type in which the circulation of the cooling air is created by means of a fan mounted
directly on the armature shaft of the motor. When the armature rotates, the fan will drive
the cooling air through the air gap. The heat generated is moved essentially by forced
convection. Radiation will also take place at the machine surface but will not be regarded
as significant at the level of temperature encountered by the motor.
From the Newton's Law of cooling, the rate of heat transfer by heat convection (q)
between a heated surface (with surface area A) can be determined from q = hA(w -f).
The heat transfer coefficient h is a very complicated function which depends on the fluid
flow condition, fluid properties and geometrical configuration of the heat surface. For
forced convection, the heat transfer coefficient may be determined by the non-
dimensional expression, i.e. Nu = f(R, P). Different boundary surfaces will have different
value of heat transfer coefficients. However, due to geometrical similarity, two heat
transfer coefficients can be reasonably assumed. The first one is required on the surface
of the armature and the laminated iron, whereas the second one is required for the
surfaces of the field coil.
It is assumed that convective heat transfer on these surfaces occurs because of the
air flowing pass through a concentric annulus with the inner cylinder rotating.
HEAT TRANSFER AT THE FIELD COIL SURFACES
Geometry around the field coil surfaces is very complicated and cannot be
simulated exactly by a single shape. Thus the following three configurations have been
considered in order to arrive at a better approximation. These are, namely, (a) flow over a
flat plate; (b) flow through a parallel plate and (c) flow through a conduit with defined
cross section. The air flow through a triangular duct is considered as a better
approximation of the geometry under investigation. Effect of the duct length and the
cross-sectional dimension of the duct on the heat transfer coefficients have been taken
into account in the heat transfer analysis by the authors.
It is worth pointing out that turbulent flow will occur inside the air gaps because
of the relatively high fluid velocity. In fact, there is no suitable non-dimensional
expression to predict the heat transfer in a triangular duct in which turbulent flow exists.
Noting that the Prandtl number of air is about 0.697 at 350 K and is greater than 0.6, the
concept of hydraulic diameter can be applied.
MACHINE MODELLING
The shapes of the various parts of large electrical machine are too complicated for
exact analysis of the heat flow in different parts of the machine. This situation has led to
the use of the water models because there are serious difficulties in air models when
measuring windage losses and the relative gas velocity over rotor cooling surfaces. Water
model are preferred to air model in measuring (i) static pressures and (ii) pressure
differences, (iii) hydraulic resistance, (iv) flow rate in duct or in the modelling of hollow
conductor, (v) flow velocity vector fields over heat transfer surface, and (vi) windage
losses. Water model represents all parts of the machine which could have an essential
influence upon the flow of the cooling gas.
For the mixed flow case, the strength of rotation is identified by the ratio of
tangential velocity on the surface of the rotating shaft to the mean axial velocity. The
ratio, ( = V
o
/V
m
) is called the rotation ratio. It was found that at a fixed Reynolds
number, the Nusselt number increases with an increase in the rotation ratio, . Moreover,
the effect of on Nu is particularly strong at low Reynolds numbers and it becomes
negligible above R
e
= 50,000 for the highest rotation. A physical parameter that correlates
the mixed-mode friction coefficient and Nusselt number data by using the normal pure
axial flow relation can be defined as the rotation parameter. Moreover, it was common to
assume that the rotation of inner cylinder does not significantly affect the Nusselt number
until the rotation ratio reaches a value about 0.8.
The speed of rotation covers the range of the Taylor number up to about 10
6
, and
the range of the Reynolds number based on the axial velocity components and the gap
distance can be assumed to be valid up to 7000. It was found that rotation does not affect
the Nusselt number at low Taylor Numbers and the heat transfer is determined by the
axial Reynolds number. For a smooth rotor the Taylor number for the onset of vortex
flow increase firstly with increasing axial flow, and, after reaching a maximum, the
Taylor number appears to decrease slightly with further increases in axial flow. This
tendency towards
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
Types of Standards:
Different Types of Standard Distinction is made by differentiating three types of
standards:
Type A Standard (Basic safety standards):
Type A standard contain basic terms, design principles and general aspects that
can be used on all machinery.
Type B Standard (Safety group standards):
Type B standard address a safety aspect or an item of safety equipment that can
be used for a wide range of machinery.
1. Type B1 standards
2. Type B2 standards
Type B1 standards care on special safety aspects (e.g. safety distances, surface
temperature, noise) the electrical safety of machinery, the calculation of safety distances,
etc.
Type B2 standards care on safety equipments (e.g. two hand control, interlocking
equipment, pressure sensitive safety equipment, isolating safety equipment, electro-
sensitive protective equipment)
Type C Standard (Machinery safety standards):
Type C standards contain all safety requirements for a special machine or type of
machine. If this standard exists, it has priority over the A or B standard. Nevertheless, a C
standard can make reference to a type B or type A standard. If there is no C standard for a
machine, conformity can be established based on the type A or type B standard. In any
case the requirements of the Machinery Directive must be met.
JAYAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
DHARMAPURI 636 813
ASSIGNMENT DETAILS
ACADEMIC YEAR : 2005 2006
DEPARTMENT : ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
COURSE CODE & NAME : EE336DESIGN OF ELECTRICAL APPARATUS
YEAR / SEMESTER : III / V (ODD)
ASSIGNMENT - I
PART A (10 X 2 = 20 Marks)
1. Define space factor.
2. Classify magnetic materials on the basis of Hysterisis losses.
3. Define the term Dynamo grade steel.
4. What are pulsation losses?
5. Give the methods used for the determination of motor rating for variable drive
loads.
6. Mention the types of enclosures that are considered as standard in a three phase
induction motor.
7. What are the losses that are included while calculating the efficiency of DC
machines?
8. Define short-time rating and continuous time rating.
9. Name some of the special purpose alloys.
10. Express the life of class A type insulating materials by an empirical relation.
PART B (5 X 16 = 80 Marks)
1. (a). Explain in detail the major considerations in the design of Electrical
machines.
(b). Explain the limitations in the electrical machine design.
2. Explain the following.
(a) Electrical properties of insulating materials.
(b) Classification of insulating materials.
(c) Insulating materials used in modern Electrical machines.
(d) Applications of insulating materials.
3. Derive the expressions for
(a). Thermal Resistivity of the winding.
(b). Temperature Gradient in conductors placed in slots.
4. What are the types of Iron losses? Explain in detail.
5. Explain the types of duties and ratings.
____________________