1

WHAT IS SEAWEED?
Seaweed is a large marine algae that grow in the shallow waters at the edge of the
oceans. Seaweed provides home and food for many different sea animals. Its make
the underwater landscape more beautiful. Its also serves as food to human and
valuable industrial raw materials.
Seaweeds are categorized as plant because seaweed undergoes process called
photosynthesis. They are simpler than the land plants mainly because they absorb
the nutrients that they require from the surrounding water and have no need for roots
or complex conducting tissues. Large seaweeds such as the kelps have root-like
parts called holdfasts, to attach them to the rock. Most seaweed must attach to
something in order to survive, and only a few will grow while drifting loose in the sea.
Seaweed can include members of green, red or brown algae families, and there are
around 10,000 species within many marine habitats around the world. Some forms
appear as long strands and branches, while others look like sheets. A root-like part
called the holdfast is used to attach it to rocks and other marine objects, but does not
act like a true root since it does not contribute to its growth. This organism can grow
in massive quantities in various places from the poles to the equator. It is used by
other marine animals as a source of food as well as a location for mating.
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF SEAWEED
Seaweeds lack the true roots, leaves and stems of plants. The seaweed can be a
giant kelp, filament structure, or thin leafy sheet. The complete structure of the
seaweed is called thallus.
Seaweed has leaf-like structures called blades. Blades do not have veins, so they
are not considered as true leaves. Blades also have identical structures on both the
upper and lower surfaces. It has large surface area, and it is the main site of
photosynthesis. Blades have pneumatocysts, which are gas filled bladders that
help the blades close to the sea surface. Being close to the sea surface allows for
more exposure to sunlight.
2

The stem-like structure of the seaweed is called the stipe. Stipe provides support for
the seaweed. Blades are connected from the stipe. Stipe lack specialized tissue,
which are essential in true plants for water and nutrient transport. The root-like
structure of the seaweed is called holdfast. Holdfast attaches the thallus to the
bottom. Unlike the roots in true plants, holdfast does not absorb water and nutrients.
HISTORY
Seaweed was first consumed in Japan at least 1500 years ago. According to early
written records, seaweed farming began in Japan as early as 1670 in Tokyo Bay
.
In
autumn of each year, farmers would throw bamboo branches into shallow, muddy
water, where the spores of the seaweed would collect. A few weeks later these
branches would be moved to a river estuary. The nutrients from the river would help
the seaweed to grow.
In the 1940s, the Japanese improved this method by placing nets of synthetic
materials tied to bamboo poles. This effectively doubled the production. A cheaper
variant of this method is called the hibi method simple ropes stretched between
bamboo poles. In the early 1970s there was a recognized demand for seaweed and
seaweed products, outstripping supply, and cultivation was viewed as the best
means to increase productions.
Seaweed has formed a part of the diet of Irish and Scottish coastal dwellers for at
least 4,000 years. The earliest recorded account of its use is in a poem dated
around AD563 and attributed to St Columba, a native of Donegal, after his move to
Iona in the west of Scotland. From the later part of the 17th Century seaweed was
found to have a number of industrial uses. In Europe, burning kelp to produce an
alkaline ash probably started in France. It began in the British Isles in 1694, first in
Fife and later, around 1720, in the Orkneys. By the 1740s the practice was well
established in western Ireland and the Hebrides and by 1800 Scotland alone was
producing 20,000 tonnes p.a.



3

TYPES OF SEAWEED
Three groups of seaweeds are recognised, according to their pigments that absorb
light of particular wavelengths and give them their characteristic colours of green,
brown or red. Because they need light to survive, seaweeds are found only in the
relatively shallow parts of the oceans, which means around the shores. Here they
occur in a variety of shapes and sizes, from the large kelps (certain brown
seaweeds) that form forests on temperate (cooler) coasts, to the hard "encrusting
corallines" that look like pink icing, but are so important in building and cementing
coral reefs in the tropics. Some seaweed, especially many of the larger reds, are
showy and attractive, while others may be small and inconspicuous, and grow in a
low "turf" on the rocks.
Of the five to six thousand seaweed species that occur worldwide, about 720 have
been recorded on the coast of South Africa. Some of these grow only in the warm
waters of Natal, while others are restricted to the cool waters of the Western Cape.
Many occur only on South African shores, and the high proportion of these endemic
(occurs nowhere else) species makes our seaweed flora unique.
One big difference between the groups is the pigments that they have in their cells.
Green seaweeds have mainly chlorophyll. This green pigment captures
sunlight for photosynthesis (a process that uses sunlight to produce
food).
Brown and red seaweeds also contain chlorophyll, but their cells also
have other pigments that mask the green.

4

Brown Seaweeds

Long bladder kelp (Macrocystis integrifolia)
Most of the seaweeds that you see on the beach are brown seaweed. The group
includes the typical seaweeds that most people think ofbrown seaweeds can
look very plant-like.
Brown seaweeds live at fairly deep depths. They are usually larger than the other
kinds of seaweeds. One well-known example is the bull kelp that grows on the
west coast of North America. There, it grows so large and thick that it forms
forests (along with some other kinds of kelps).
Brown seaweeds have gold or brown pigments in their cells, which mask the
green of its chlorophyll. This makes the seaweeds look olive-green, gold, or even
dark brown.
5

Red Seaweeds

Species of red coral, (Corallina officinalis)
Red seaweeds are not as big as the largest brown seaweed, but there many,
many species.
They have pigments that hide the green chlorophyll and make them look pink, red,
purple, or brown.
Many grow in the deepest and coldest water of all, although they can also live in
shallow water.
Some resemble branches. Others are hard, crust-like organisms that cling to rocks
and were once thought to be a kind of coral.

6

Green Seaweeds

Dead man's fingers (Codium fragile)
Most green algae live in fresh water, so the saltwater-dwelling seaweeds make up
a small portion of this group. Green seaweeds represent only about 10% of all
green algae.
Green seaweeds live mostly in the shallowest seawater, including intertidal pools
that fill and drain with the tides. Some can live where salt water and fresh water
mix, where rivers empty into the ocean.
Green seaweeds often prefer warmer, tropical waters over cooler, temperate
ones.








7

USES OF SEAWEED
1. SEAWEED AS MEDICINE
Simply eating unprocessed dried seaweeds can yield many healing benefits.
Many physical ailments in both humans and their companion animals can be
regularly resolved with the simple addition of seaweeds to their respective
diets. Although therapeutic seaweed constituents can be extracted singly or in
clusters, in cases of chronic conditions, usually patients are recommended to
eat seaweeds, not extracts. Consequently, positive therapeutic changes
caused by eating seaweeds regularly may take several weeks to several
months to become obvious.
All essential minerals are provided by dietary seaweeds. No land plant even
remotely approaches seaweeds as sources of metabolically-required
minerals. Seaweeds can provide minerals often absent from freshwater and
food crops grown on mineral-depleted soils. In addition to eating seaweeds
regularly, those gardening for food can use copious amounts of seaweeds for
mulch and fertilizer (Traditional Irish fertilizer, see: Man of Aran, and The
Field), add seaweeds abundantly to compost, and even make seaweed tea
sprayed directly onto leaves for foliar feeding through the stomates , as ways
to therapeutically get trace elements into patients a trifle covertly.
2. SEAWEED KEPT THE LAND FERTILE
Their ability to concentrate minerals and trace elements from the sea render
them a potent source of nutrients for vegetable cultivation. Traditionally
storm-caste seaweeds were collected from the shore, especially in the
western coastal areas of Scotland and Ireland, briefly composted and dug into
the soil as a fertiliser and soil conditioner providing high levels of nitrogen and
potassium, particularly useful in the shallow, often low potassium, soils of
these west coast areas. Crofters still use this method to the present day.

8

Later, with increasing coastal population, lazy bed cultivation became
common place. Wide trenches were dug and the seaweed thrown up by
winter storms was laid on the earth piles for several weeks. Eventually the
piles of earth were turned back into the trenches and root crops, especially
potatoes, planted. No further fertilisation was undertaken, the seaweed
providing all necessary nutrients. Old areas of lazy beds are still visible on the
islands and in western coastal areas of both Ireland and Highland Scotland.
Species of Ascophyllum, Ecklonia and Fucus are the common ones. They are
sold as soil additives and function as both fertilizer and soil conditioner. They
have a suitable content of nitrogen and potassium, but are much lower in
phosphorus than traditional animal manures and the typical N:P:K ratios in
chemical fertilizers. The large amounts of insoluble carbohydrates in brown
seaweeds act as soil conditioners (improve aeration and soil structure,
especially in clay soils) and have good moisture retention properties. Their
effectiveness as fertilizers is also sometimes attributed to the trace elements
they contain, but the actual contribution they make is very small compared to
normal plant requirements.
3. ANIMAL FEED
For a long time, animals such as sheep, cattle and horses that lived in coastal
areas have eaten seaweed, especially in those European countries where
large brown seaweeds were washed ashore. Today the availability of
seaweed for animals has been increased with the production of seaweed
meal: dried seaweed that has been milled to a fine powder. Norway was
among the early producers of seaweed meal, using Ascophyllum nodosum,
seaweed that grows in the eulittoral zone so that it can be cut and collected
when exposed at low tide. France has used Laminaria digitata, Iceland
both Ascophyllum and Laminaria species, and the United Kingdom,
Ascophyllum.
Because Ascophyllum is so accessible, it is the main raw material for
seaweed meal and most experimental work to measure the effectiveness of
9

seaweed meal has been done on this seaweed. The seaweed used for meal
must be freshly cut, as drift seaweed is low in minerals and usually becomes
infected with mould. The wet seaweed is passed through hammer mills with
progressively smaller screens to reduce it to fine particles. These are passed
through a drum dryer starting at 700-800C and exiting at no more than 70C.
It should have a moisture level of about 15 percent. It is milled and stored in
sealed bags because it picks up moisture if exposed to air. It can be stored for
about a year.
4. FISH FEED
In fish farming, wet feed usually consists of meat waste and fish waste mixed
with dry additives containing extra nutrients, all formed together in a doughy
mass. When thrown into the fish ponds or cages it must hold together and not
disintegrate or dissolve in the water. A binder was needed, sometimes a
technical grade of alginate is used. It has also been used to bind formulated
feeds for shrimp and abalone. However, cheaper still is the use of finely
ground seaweed meal made from brown seaweeds; the alginate in the
seaweed acts as the binder. The binder may be a significant proportion of the
price of the feed so seaweed meal is a much better choice. However, since
the trend is to move to dry feed rather than wet, this market is not expected to
expand.
There is also a market for fresh seaweed as a feed for abalone. In Australia,
the brown seaweed Macrocystis pyrifera and the red seaweed Gracilaria
edulis have been used. In South Africa, Porphyra is in demand for abalone
feed and recommendations have been made for the management of the wild
population of the seaweed. Pacific dulse (Palmaria mollis) has been found to
be a valuable food for the red abalone, Haliotis rufescens, and development of
land-based cultivation has been undertaken with a view to producing
commercial quantities of the seaweed. The green seaweed, Ulva lactuca, has
been fed to Haliotis tuberculata and H. discus. Feeding trials showed that
abalone growth is greatly improved by high protein content, and this is
attained by culturing the seaweed with high levels of ammonia present. Much
10

of the work on seaweeds and abalone has been published in the
journals Aquaculture and Journal of Shellfish Research.
5. BIOMASS FOR FUEL
In 1974, the American Gas Association decided to look for a renewable
source of methane (natural gas) and sponsored a project to produce seaweed
on farms in the ocean, harvest it and convert it to methane by a process of
anaerobic fermentation. The project was divided into two parts: one the
production and harvesting of the seaweed (biomass), the other the conversion
of the biomass to energy (methane that could be burned to produce energy).
The seaweed chosen was the "giant kelp" that grows off the coast of
California, Macrocystis pyrifera, because of its high growth rate and ease of
harvesting by mechanical means. A test farm was built in the ocean, 8 km off
the coast of southern California, and 100 kelp plants, 12-22 m long and taken
from natural beds were placed on the farm test structure.
Several storms and the resulting waves and currents caused abrasion of the
kelp plants and many were lost. Further studies were made to find better ways
of attaching the kelp and to make engineering improvements to the farm
structure. However, it was eventually decided to move to smaller-scale, near-
shore trials, but the offshore experiments did show that kelp would grow
offshore and could utilize the nutrients in deep water upwelling by either
natural or artificial means.
6. COSMETICS
"Extract of seaweed" is often found on the list of ingredients on cosmetic
packages, particularly in face, hand and body creams or lotions. This usually
refers to the use of alginate or carrageenan in the product, and their uses in
cosmetics have already been discussed in earlier sections. More information
on the use of these two hydrocolloids, as well as agar, can be found in the
reference suggested below for further reading.
11

The use of seaweeds themselves in cosmetics, rather than extracts of them,
is rather limited. There appears to be no shortage of products with ingredients
and claims linked to seaweeds: creams, face masks, shampoos, body gels,
bath salts, and even a do-it-yourself body wrap kit. The efficacy of these
products must be judged by the user. One company recently pointed out that
the lifetime of cosmetic products has reduced over the years and now rarely
exceeds three or four years. Perhaps the seaweed products that are really
effective will live longer than this.
7. INTERGRATED AQUACULTURE
Cultivation of Gracilaria started in Taiwan Province of China in the 1960s as a
source of raw material for its agar industry. At first cultivation was on ropes in
ditches containing fish pond effluents, but by 1967 it was moved into the fish
ponds themselves. This had the twofold benefit of the seaweed using the fish
waste material as fertilizer and the fish eating the epiphytes, such
as Enteromorpha species, that would otherwise become serious pests for the
seaweeds. Control with tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) and milkfish
(Chanos chanos) was satisfactory as long as the fish were removed before
they started to eat the Gracilaria; larger fish were periodically removed and
replaced by small fish.
This concept of polyculture, or integrated aquaculture to use the more recent
terminology, has since been utilized in many situations where the effluent from
the aquaculture of one species, potentially threatening environmental
damage, can be utilized by another species to its advantage, with a reduction
in pollution.
8. WASTEWATER TREATMENT
There are two main areas where seaweeds have the potential for use in
wastewater treatment. The first is the treatment of sewage and some
agricultural wastes to reduce the total nitrogen- and phosphorus-containing
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compounds before release of these treated waters into rivers or oceans. The
second is for the removal of toxic metals from industrial wastewater.
8.1. Treatment of wastewater to reduce nitrogen- and phosphorus-
containing compounds
Eutrophication is the enrichment of waters with nutrients such as
minerals and nitrogen- and phosphorus-containing materials. This
frequently leads to unwanted and excessive growth of aquatic or
marine plants; blooms of blue-green algae are an example,
unfortunately becoming more common. Eutrophication can occur
naturally, but it can be accelerated by allowing water, rich in dissolved
fertilizers, to seep into nearby lakes and streams, or by the introduction
of sewage effluent into rivers and coastal waters.
8.2. Removal of toxic metals from industrial wastewater
The accumulation of heavy metals (such as copper, nickel, lead, zinc
and cadmium) by seaweeds became apparent when those seaweeds
used as human foods were first analysed. The heavy metal content,
especially of the large brown seaweeds, varied according to their
geographic source and sometimes to their proximity to industrial waste
outlets. From these studies came the idea of using seaweeds as
biological indicators of heavy metal pollution, either from natural
sources or from activities such as mining or disposal of industrial
wastes. This has been successfully implemented using brown
seaweeds such as Sargassum, Laminaria and Ecklonia, and the green
seaweeds Ulva andEnteromorpha.




13

TECHNIQUES IN SEAWEED CULTURE
1. SITE SELECTION
The first step in starting seaweed culture is to find a suitable site to locate the
seaweed farm. Finding an ideal and suitable area for culturing seaweed is a very
difficult task considering the delicate nature of the plant, and hence it is the key to
success in seaweed cultivation. There are a few factors that should be taken into
account in choosing a farming area; which are:
Water temperature
The area should have a water temperature ranging between 25C and 30C, as it is
the best temperature for growing seaweed.
As such, it is not advisable to plant seaweed in shallow water near the beach even
though it is good for securing the planting. This is because the water temperature
there can be quite high, especially during a sunny day, and that will kill the plants.
The best place to plant seaweed is away from the lowest tide mark (spring low tide
limit). Therefore, a good area to set a seaweed farm is between the spring low tide
limit and the reef edge. The area should also not dry up during the big low tides
which occur during full or new moon.
Water salinity
Seaweeds are purely marine organisms. Therefore, the salinity of the farm area
should range from 27 to 35 parts per thousand (ppt). Areas that are near the mouth
of rivers or where there is a heavy freshwater runoff should be avoided, as
freshwater will kill the seaweed.
Bottom Type
Farm bottom composition should be sandy or rocky depending upon the variety of
the seaweeds planted. However, the best place to cultivate seaweed is probably at a
white sandy bottom, but with the presence of a limited amount of natural seaweed.
Newly-planted seaweed would not have grow very well if it is planted on the bottom
that is covered by sea-grass as there might be competition from other seaweeds
14

which would absorb the nutrients from the water and leaving the planted seaweed to
starve. Furthermore, silt will quickly deposit on the seaweeds if they are covered with
unwanted seaweeds.
It is not advisable to have your farming site on a muddy sea bottom because of the
silt and mud which will cover the plants and reduce the seaweed growth. It will also
require some extra work to shake the seaweed in order to keep them clean. Apart
from that, murky water in a muddy sea bottom limits the amount of sunlight that
could reach the seaweeds.
A sea bottom with hard coral formations and coral heads is also not a good site to
establish a seaweed farm. The reasons for this are because, firstly, it is difficult to
secure the stakes in such areas the ground should permit easy installation of
stakes and secondly, plant-eating fish commonly live around coral heads and
these fishes will graze on the seaweeds there from time to time and eventually
damage the plants.
In view of all these, the best bottom type to set a seaweed farm is a nice white sandy
bottom, with limited amount of other seaweeds.
Water Movement
It is best to choose a location with a good water movement or where there is a rapid
water turnover, but make sure it is not heavy or strong enough that it could damage
the farm or wash away the planted lines and pull down the stakes. Furthermore, it is
also difficult to work in strong current areas. Therefore, moderate water movement is
mostly preferred to strong water current. Water current speed should be between 20
to 40 meters per minute.
Water movement is an important factor for seaweed growth also because the water
flow is the one that will bring the necessary nutrients to the plants for them to grow
healthily. It is important to ensure that the seaweed farm is placed in which the
direction of the water current flows into the farm, and not against it to bring all the
nutrients. The supply of nutrients is essential in seaweed cultivation, as of for any
other crops. Seaweed lines can also be bent or broken if set against the water
15

current. Therefore, the area chosen should be sheltered from very strong current
action, as well as wave and winds.

Figure 1: Seaweed farm should be placed so that the water current flows into
it.
Sunlight
Seaweed requires sufficient sunlight for growth and as a source of energy to
manufacture carbohydrates like carrageenan, the commercially valuable substance
inside the seaweed. Therefore, plenty of sunlight is vital for seaweed cultivation. As
such, it is best to plant seaweed in clear seawater to allow penetration of sunlight to
the plants more easily. Seaweed that is planted close to the surface grows faster and
healthier compared to those planted way deep to the sea water or in deep water as
plenty of sunlight can reach those closer to the sea surface.
Water Depth
Water depth is an important factor to consider in selecting the area of seaweed
cultivation because it is quite tricky to find the most suitable depth for the seaweed
planting. If the depth of cultivation is too deep, the seaweed might not receive
enough sunlight and if the depth is too shallow, the seaweed might be exposed to
direct sunlight and wind. Seaweed that do not receive enough sunlight will not have
a healthy growth, while seaweed that is exposed directly to the sun for too long (2 to
3 hours) will result in the whitening of the branches which is a sign that a part of the
16

seaweed has been killed. The tender tips of the plants could also be destroyed when
exposed to winds in shallow depth. So, it is important to find the most suitable water
depth in planting seaweeds. The preferred water depth in a seaweed farm should not
be less than 2 feet during the lowest tide and more than 7 feet during high tide.
Water pollution
As seaweed needs plenty of sunlight and hence clear water, it is wise to choose an
area that is not polluted as even muddy water could affect good seaweed growth.
Other than that, chemicals in the water will also kill the seaweed just as it would do
to most marine plants and animals. Therefore, the water should also be free of
chemical pollution.
It is suggested that a good thing to do after selecting a location to see whether the
area is ideal for farming or not is to plant several lines of seaweed in various spots
within the chosen area and observe its growth.
HANDLING AND TRANSPORTING SEAWEED
Sometimes, seaweed needs to be transported from one place to another; whether
taking the seeds to another village for trade or when taking the seaweed from home
to farming site. You should remember that seaweed is a living plant; therefore
particular care is needed in handling and transporting seaweed seeds from one
place to another in order for the seaweed to survive out of the water.
The first thing to do is to cover the seaweed, with tarpaulin or coconut leaves. The
seaweed needs to be covered to protect them from direct sunlight, wind and rain. If it
will take several hours of travelling in moving the seaweed, the seaweed can be put
in jute or onion bags. It is very important to keep the seaweed moist all the time so
the bag can be poured over with sea water at regular intervals or dipped in the sea
so that the seaweed will stay moist inside them. If the seaweed is not covered and
kept moist, the seaweed seeds will be spoiled.
Styrofoam boxes can also be used in transporting seaweed. When using Styrofoam
boxes, a few holes should be made on the upper edges of the box to facilitate
aeration. Seaweed must be kept moist as always. However, do not fill the seaweed
17

with seawater because this will make the seaweed rot rapidly unless the seawater is
constantly circulated.
2. PREPARATION OF CULTURED SITE
When a suitable site has been chosen to be a seaweed farm, a few steps need to be
followed and taken to prepare the cultured site before any planting could be done.
The steps are as follows:
1. Cut all grasses and remove all obstacles from the area.
2. Remove the rocks, stones, starfishes, sea urchins and other predators.
3. Construct a farm house with a drying platform on the selected site.

Figure 2: Farm house with a drying platform
4. Prepare baskets for holding seed stocks.
5. Prepare other culture materials such as nylon monoclines, nylon nets,
mangrove stakes, boats, digging bars, plastic twines, gas lamps, knives,
hammer/mallet, etc.
6. Clean seedlings thoroughly by removing dirt, epiphytes and other clinging
materials and rinse with seawater.
3. PLANTING AND CULTIVATE SEAWEED
There are at least three methods that can be used to plant and cultivate seaweed.
They are known as:
Off-bottom (fixed bottom) method
Raft or floating method
Longline method
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Off-bottom Method
In off-bottom method, wooden stakes are driven at least 0.5 meter into the sea
bottom to make them secure; 20 to 25 centimeters apart from each other in straight
rows. The stakes should be 5 to 10 cm in diameter and about 1 to 1.5 meter in
length. A polypropylene rope with 3 meter thickness and 5 meter long is firmly
stretched between the two stakes and about 30 pieces of raffia are attached to the
rope. The raffia strings should be 20 cm in length with both ends knotted to the rope
to prevent fraying. About 150 grams of planting material (seed) is tied to the each
raffia strings. To prevent the seaweed from being exposed directly to sunlight as it
could kill the exposed parts, the rope is suspended at least 20 to 30 cm below the
water surface at low tide. Stakes should be sharpened at one end so they can be
easily driven in the sand.
The lines can be prepared either on shore, in the shallow water at low tide or near
the farm. The seed needs to be kept moist if the lines are prepare on the shore.

Figure 3: Off-line method
Raft or Floating Method
In the raft or floating method, seaweed is attached to some device to keep the
seaweed float about 50 cm below the water surface. The floating device can be a
simple frame constructed from bamboos, or mangrove wood or any material that is
durable in seawater. The poles, four of them, about 2.5 m long, are tied together into
a square frame and 3 mm ropes are stretched inside the frame. In a 2.5 m square
19

frame, 15 ropes (or lines) can be stretched, 10 to 15 cm apart from each other. Each
line can carry 15 pieces of seaweed tied to the rope with raffia. In this case, about
225 pieces of seaweed can be cultured in on single frame.
The square floating frame should be anchored to the sea bottom. As seaweed starts
to grow and become heavier, the frame will sink. To avoid the frame from sinking
further, extra bamboos or floaters should be attached to the frame. Floaters can be
made of Styrofoam or bags filled with unhusked coconuts or other float materials to
ensure sufficient buoyancy.

Figure 4: Raft or floating method
Longline Method
In several ways, the logline method is a bit similar to the raft or floating method.
Seaweed is hung to a rope which is suspended by floaters, about 0.5 m below the
water surface so that the seaweed would receive sufficient sunlight. The main rope is
thicker in this method about 10 to 15 mm in diameter. The rope is tied to plastic
floaters or bamboo set at 4 to 5 m interval and anchored at each end.
The pieces of raffia holding the seaweed can be tied to the main rope in two ways:
20

1. By directly tying the raffia string to the main rope
2. By tying additional pieces of rope, 0.5 to 1 m long to the main line and then
tying the raffia strings to them
In longline method, if the lines are prepared on shore, it will be difficult to stretch then
as they are heavy and may tangle easily. Some seaweed seeds may be lost. It is
better to tie the seaweed seeds to the main line once the line is stretched and
suspended with floaters.

Figure 5: Longline method

The advantages and the disadvantages among the three culture methods:
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Off-bottom
Method
Simple to construct
Easy to manage
Lines can be prepared
on shore
Do not require much
money to start
Local wood can be used
to prepare the stakes
The farm is easy to
It is difficult to locate a
good area
Crop loss during rough
weather
Farm cannot be moved if
needed
More grazer fish might
be found around the
seaweed
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reach at low tide A drying rack needs to
be constructed
Raft or Floating
Method
Can be used in shallow
or deep waters
Do not need a sandy sea
bottom bed
Floating rafts can be
moved if needed
Planting can be done on
shore
Do not need to construct
a drying rack
Local wood can be used
to construct the frame
The seaweed seems to
grow faster
Difficulty to find
bamboos
Need to find float
materials
The frame might break
or sink during rough
weather
The frame can be
damaged by motor-
driven boats
Need help to handle the
frame
Longline Method Longline can be seen
almost anywhere
Seaweed seems to grow
faster
Longline can be moved
to another area
The ropes are costly
Planting and harvesting
cannot be easily done on
shore
Need to buy expensive
floaters
Longline can be
damaged by motor-
driven boats

4. HARVESTING SEAWEED
Seaweed is harvestable when they reached the weight between 750-850 g, which
usually takes about 6 to 8 weeks of growth depending on the culture method used.
Then, seaweed is harvested on a weekly basis. Harvesting is also a part of the
22

maintenance procedure by trimming the harvestable plants and allowing them to
regenerate.
Before harvesting, all the necessary harvesting materials should be prepared such
as baskets, sacks, knife and goggles, as well as the drying area.
The seaweed farmer is responsible to harvest the crop, dry the harvested seaweed
and keep it in a well protected place such as a storage shed until the buyer comes to
collect it.

Harvesting is actually a simple task to perform. It involves the following steps:
1. Remove the mature seaweed plants from the lines by pruning, unfastening
the raffia knots, or by breaking off the plants
2. Leave about 200 g on each plant for regeneration
3. Spread the seaweed plants over a drying rack
4. Remove raffia and other unwanted materials
5. DRYING SEAWEED
After harvesting, seaweed needs to be immediately transported to the drying area
and be dried.
23

The simplest way to dry seaweed is by spreading the harvested seaweed on the
ground over a net, a tarpaulin or coconut leaves. By using this way, however, only
the part of the seaweed that is exposed directly to sunlight would be dried efficiently
while the lower part that faced the ground will stay wet. Air ventilation is rather limited
if the seaweed is dried on the ground. Furthermore, when the seaweed is laid on the
ground for drying; sand, soil and other rubbish might mix with the seaweed, and this
would result in dirty products. Nevertheless, if this method is more preferred for its
convenience, it is important to ensure that the seaweed is partially dried before it is
laid, especially if tarpaulin cover is used as fresh seaweed cannot be placed directly
on tarpaulin for proper drying.
The best way to dry seaweed is by using a drying rack with the drying area made of
sarlon netting. The drying rack should be built in a way that air can easily circulate
through the seaweed to assure good ventilation and quick drying. Aeration is very
important in drying seaweed. The drying rack can be built near the farm or on shore
shore racks are easier to construct and require lower cost. Netting can be
expensive, so reeds or bamboos can be used instead to replace the netting.
The minimum moisture content that is required from the buyers is about 35%, but
farmers do not actually need to measure the moisture content. They just need to
ensure that the harvested seaweed is properly dried before packing, storing and
selling it.
In seaweed drying, precautions must be taken in case bad weather happens, such
as rain and storms. Therefore, the drying seaweed should be covered with tarpaulin
on top of it during rainy season or at night to prevent the seaweed from getting wet. If
the seaweed are being rain-washed, more time is required to dry it and further
weight loss of the seaweed will occur. This will bring disadvantages to the seaweed
farmer as the moisture content is lower in the seaweed which cause the seaweed to
become rigid and difficult to pack. Well dried seaweed is covered with plenty of salt
crystals and have rubber-like texture that when it is squeezed, no water should drip
from it. As such, farmers will make less money with rain-washed seaweed.
6. STORAGE OF DRIED SEAWEED
24

After drying, seaweed should be packed and stored in a dry area. It is very important
that the seaweed is stored properly. Before packing the seaweed, any rubbish
material, like raffia, pieces of nylon ropes, plastics, other unwanted seaweeds, etc.
should be removed from the seaweed to ensure clean and properly dried products.
Seaweed that is properly dried can be stored for a very long time up to 2 years
without getting spoil. The salt covering on the surface of well dried seaweed prevents
any spoilage of carrageenan.
Dried seaweed can be packed in polypropylene bags after drying and then stored in
a dry area. It is best to use polypropylene bags for the packing because it doesnt
soak up water, unlike jute bags.
Packed seaweed can be stored in homes or in a storage shed in the village.
7. BALING SEAWEED
After the seaweed has been dried and packed in bags, they should be transported to
the collection centers in the shortest time as to allow the buyer to bale the seaweed.
Even though this operation requires extra costs for material and labour, baling
seaweed is an important, efficient post-harvesting technique. It is done in order to
prevent moisture from being reabsorbed back into the seaweed as compared to
seaweed kept loosely in bags.
The advantages of performing baling technique are as follows:
Prolonged storage time without spoiling the seaweed
Reduced space necessary for storage
Easier handling of bales compared to seaweed kept loosely in polypropylene
bags
More efficient way to export seaweed overseas
25


Figure 6: A baling machine operated by a screw press
Seaweed is moved from the growing areas to the collection points for baling and
consolidating enough volume for export. From here, the bales are transported by sea
or road to the closest port with access to international shipping routes. Seaweed can
be sold in the market now.
8. MAINTENANCE OF SEAWEED FARM
Some of the steps that should be taken in order to maintain a seaweed farm include:
1. Constantly visiting and checking farm.
2. Keeping seaweeds clean shaking or raising the seaweed lines to remove
any unwanted seaweeds and rubbish
3. Removing silt or mud coating on the surface of the seaweed.
4. Fastening detached lines and tighten any loose nets
5. Replacing slow growing stains with fast growing stains
26

6. Harvesting seaweed as soon as it reaches harvesting size (6-8 weeks)
7. Replanting immediately after harvesting for a continuous harvesting and
replanting cycle.
8. Keeping away fish grazers bottom and coral dwelling species
9. Removing sea urchins, starfishes, rocks, dead corals and other obstacles
found inside the farm every day.
10. Replacing missing plants.
11. Harvesting completely all unhealthy and loose plants.
12. Repairing any broken lines and destroyed stakes.
13. Always keeping the record of the farm such as weekly test plant record, daily
harvest record (wet and dry), record of receipts and expenses, etc.

RISK FACTOR
Seaweed farming is one of the industries which requires low initial capital investment
and at the same time provides a rapid and high return on the investment made by
the farmers. However, same like other type of farming activities there are still several
risks which the farmers or the person who are involved with this sector have to face
on. They needed to think all this risk factors before they started taking the decision to
involve in this seaweed farming. If they are strong enough to face all the factors, the
profits which they get from this seaweed farming can be one of the advantages for
them. Problems which classified under risk factor from seaweed cultivation are
human problems, conflict problems, convenience factor and the risks on water
pollution.
First factor which become the risk in seaweed culture is human problems. Until
now, human problems have high effects to any part of industry especially for this
type of farming. In this seaweed culture, many poaching and intentional sabotage
commonly happened. Although the production for this seaweed are quite higher, but
the overall production of this seaweed the farmers still cannot totally get. This was
because too many persons who are like to harvest without cultured it by themselves.
These problems can be minimized by using appropriate management despite this
problem actually little bit difficult to overcome. To solve such of this problems, it
27

become pre-requisites to appear the skills and sound experience in handling human
problems.
The second risk factor is about conflicting problems between the common users
of the sea. This type of problems is caused by the conflicting activities which
happened around the part of sea. As we know, the farmers who are interested in this
seaweed farming needed to find the suitable sites for them to start culturing it
because this type of species have specific area which they can inhabit. The potential
sites which suit for seaweed farming are the area that free from conflicting activities.
Conflicting activities such as capture fisheries and ornamental fish collecting
activities are not so good and harmful toward the seaweed farming which only
damaging the culture ground, culture facilities as well affecting the crop itself.
The third factor which the farmers need to consider is the convenience factor.
Convenience is closely related with the quality which being suitable to ones comfort,
needs and purposes. For the farmers to take the priority in keeping the constant
watch on their crops and facilities around their site of seaweed farming is one of the
essential parts they need to consider. As their consideration, it is most suitable if
they could find the area which opposite or near the residence of the culturist.
Furthermore, it also important to find the sites which are ready accessibility to the
roads and markets which the farmers also needed to highlight during the process of
site selection. It was because the transportation of the seaweed to the consumers
can be easily done with the development in this aspect. Thats why the selection of
site also became one of the important aspects which have to consider before start to
culture the seaweed. Effectiveness in the selection of site can be seen through the
availability of the following kinds of services or facilities other than time and cost to
obtain them. Regarding to the consideration toward family welfare, the services
which provided by the government and private sectors such as schools, past
office/communication centre, electricity, aquaculture extension services, roads, water
supply, medical care for the person who are involved in every seaweed farms and
other necessities like public or private transport also need to be focused.
Another risk factor to take consideration is the aspect of water pollution. Water
pollution can be happened through the pollutants which are contaminated the water
28

bodies without any treatments are taken to remove the harmful compounds. It is not
only affected the species or any population but the effects can be felt by the whole
natural biological communities. In this seaweed farming, most of the seaweed
species have tendency to grow in the area which has clear water and plenty sunlight.
They are more prefers to the area which are free from pollution. One of the species
is Eucheuma sp. As the result, the good seaweed growth cannot be sustained even
placing them inside the turbid water (muddy). Seaweed farming is absolutely
required no use of any chemicals included on its fertilizer. It was because chemical
pollution exactly can kill the seaweed population as well in the case of whole marine
plants and animals. Using any chemical substances in the food production are
strictly monitored by the government because it was related to the human health.
Selection of site was very important in seaweed farming. It was advised to select one
location to plant the seaweed and try to observe its growth. When they grow in good
conditions, it commonly became the ideal area for the farmers to start progressing
their seaweed farming. In certain varieties of seaweed species, there have the
species which can actually reduce the water pollution. In certain case like the case of
limited water supply for the average seaweed farms and leading to the raising levels
of nitrogen, brown seaweed surprisingly found can absorb this potentially toxic
substance. Furthermore, water pollution is frequently caused from several sources.
Examples of source are from agriculture sector, industry like factory and processing
sector, ship traffic and settlements.

29


Figure 7-Seaweed farming become popular due its higher profits. Credit given to
Sara Frocklin for her photo and cited from
http://genderaquafish.org/category/geography/regional/africa/

Figure 8-Water pollution problem has immediately overcome before started to culture
the seaweed cited from http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/water_pollution.aspx






30

ECOLOGICAL FACTOR
In seaweed farming, the most important factor to ensure the success of farming
operation is the ecological factors. As our general knowledge, ecology is the
knowledge where there is the interaction of living organisms with each other and
their environment. In the discussion about seaweed culture, ecological parameters
necessary to be assessed in this farming are availability of seed, shelter, water
movement, water temperature, indicator species, salinity, light penetration and depth
of that area selected to culture the seaweed.
Availability of seed became the first ecological factor which has to be highlighted. It
became good indicator which determines the ecological conditions of the site that
favorable for the growth and development of species by referring to the availability of
local stocks of the species which want to be cultured. The problem of seed
acquisition can easily been eliminated by the presence of stocks at the selected site
or in nearby areas from the site that chosen for the purpose of seaweed farming. To
determine the growth rate of the seaweed species like Eucheuma sp, test plants
should be conducted for a period of 2-6 weeks when there is no wild Eucheuma sp is
growing for the farming areas.
The second factor is shelter area. The culture site which suitable enough for the
seaweed farming is the site where is well-protected from tidal waves and strong
winds that come from the open sea monsoonal weather conditions. Due to the
destructive effects of waves on the seaweed farming, wave-exposed areas are
exactly not good sites for the individual who want to find the favorable sites for them
to do seaweed culture. Not only removing the significant amount of seaweed from
culture facilities, waves can give a severe impact to the operation of seaweed culture
including totally damages the culture facilities. As the aim to prevent the destruction
and disturbance of seaweed farming, a good site which is bared during low tide
covering the area is a lagoon sited between an island and coral reefs.
Next is the water movement factor. The growth of seaweed is influenced and
controlled by the factor of water movement. It closely related to prevent any increase
in pH which frequently happened by the consumption of carbon dioxide and in
supplying nutrient. Moreover, water movement also plays other important roles such
31

as water aeration, and involved in preventing the rise in water temperature. Seaweed
cannot be planted when there is higher temperature. If it compared with the wave,
water movement is considered as better water motion that caused by the currents. It
is something that more we can predicted and less destructive. The common current
is about 20 cm/sec considered as suitable for seaweed farming if there is in ordinary
site. The current became slow as 10 cm/sec when that site is rich with the nutrients.
However, if that site is deficient of nutrients, the faster current is required but usually
it will not exceed until 30 cm/sec. By the strong current, it probably damages plant
and washes away planted lines by pulling down the stakes as well can makes it
difficult to work in the farming site.
Water temperature is very important parameter to identify the health of the
environment. Basically the best water temperature for Eucheuma sp to growing is
ranging from 25-30 C. During the day, the water temperature nearby beach will be
increase drastically especially during the sunny day. Therefore, this kind of place did
not suitable to planting the seaweeds. The best place to planting the seaweed is at
between the spring low tide limit and the reef edge because this place did not dry up
during the extreme low tide that happening during full or new moon.
By referring to the presence of indicator species, it also contributed to the
ecological factor of seaweed culture. A good indicator of ecological suitability of the
site is the presence of wild stocks of seaweed at the site or in nearby areas. At the
same time, the problem of seed acquisition can be eliminated. In supporting the
suitability of the site for seaweed species, the presence of some species of benthic
coelenterate also become the indicator in terms of good water movement, salinity,
level of phosphate, dissolved oxygen and high transparency. As the indicator of good
water movement, the abundance of soft corals in certain areas can be used.
Salinity is also become the ecological factor needed to be focused during the
farming of seaweed. Salinity is the dissolved salt contents (sodium chloride,
magnesium, calcium sulfates and bicarbonate) inside the water bodies. Before
started to practice this type of farming, there are some aspect that have to give an
attention. An example is the areas that are selected. As the precaution way, try to
avoid the areas which are near the mouth of rivers or the area where there have a
32

higher rate of heavy freshwater runoff. The salinity of seawater may be decreased to
the level where is detrimental to the growth of the seaweed by the freshwater from
the rivers. Example of the optimum salinity that required for Eucheuma sp is about
28-34 parts per thousand (ppt).
Then, other ecological factor is the light penetration at the farming site. Seaweeds
required sufficient light for the synthesis of organic products which necessary for
their normal growth and development as a source of energy. The good site for
seaweed culture is the area which has the water with the good transparency.
Sunlight can be easily penetrated to the plants in the clear seawater. Seaweed
grows faster and healthier when it cultivated close to the sea surface compared with
those planted close to the bottom of sea or in deeper water. Water which contains
higher silt load is not good for seaweed growing. Light penetration will hindered by
the silt and the algal will accumulated which finally effects the plant growth and
development.
Depth of water also is an important factor to consider during the site selection for the
establishment of seaweed culture. Less working periods at a farm when there is
greater ranges of tidal. The working periods are reduced due to the diving which is
not efficient in the areas with too high tides. It also been reminded to avoid the areas
with too low tides and which are consistently exposed. However, the range of tidal
depends on the water motion. Generally, the areas which have water depth between
45 and 90cm during extreme tides are preferred. The farmer can stand or walk on
his knee for him to waist-deep water at this depth of water compared to the case in
deeper areas which required of swimming and diving.
33


Figure 9-A woman carry the seed of seaweed to plant it at selected site of farming
cited at http://eyesonindonesia.photoshelter.com/image/I0000KJuveyRjNYI

Figure 10-Light penetration also the important ecological factor in seaweed farming.
Cited at http://explorers.neaq.org/2010/01/parting-waters-of-red-sea.php

Figure 11-Water movement affecting the growth of seaweed. Cited at
http://www.saltwater-aquarium-online-guide.com/aquarium-water-movement.html
34


Figure 12-Water depth that suitable for seaweed farming. Cited at
http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/003/AB738E/AB738E04.htm
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Nowadays, the impact on the aquaculture to the environment and the effects of
environment to the aquaculture production already become the issues that always
being discussed by the people who are interested with this sector. Environmental
deterioration became the major threat to the aquaculture production and the food
quality. Marine and freshwater aquaculture have tendency to cause the changes of
environmental which some time can give adversely effects to long-term viability
operation of aquaculture or can result seriously conflict between the users of aquatic
resources. All the effects are from many forms of aquaculture and the impacts vary
considerably depending on the culture system, the cultured species and the
environment where the culture system is located.
Frankly, seaweed farming already has expanded widely around the world due to its
low capital investment but results the high profits. With this expansion, there are
many benefits in terms of income, employments and the foreign exchange. However,
there still have the conflicts from the users of coastal zones and the people who
always concerned over the potential environmental impacts. In this section, there are
several considerations about the environmental impacts which resulting from the
seaweed farming and some way how to resolve that implications. The environmental
impacts which commonly happened are water movement, physical structure for
35

aquatic and terrestrial habitat, aesthetic effects, change in water quality, affects with
the primary and secondary productivity and toward the native fisheries. Seaweed
farming is practicing varieties methods of culture but all the methods usually
interacted with the different ways of environment aspects. The interaction is usually
depending on the method of culture, the surface area of the farm and the site where
the farms are located.
First impact to the environment is the effect on water movement. Basically, currents
are large-scale horizontal movements of water which formed by prevailing winds.
Most current can be slow and sometimes can be unpredictable. Tides influences the
great amounts of water to move inshore and offshore, the effects of tides exactly can
be seen in water for many hundreds of feet down. Generally, most farmers is more
prefer to plant their seaweed during low tides. It was because seaweed can be
damaged due to the strong current during high tides. By the planting of this
seaweed, little bit the water current for that area is facing changes.
Secondly is physical structure of terrestrial and aquatic habitat implication. By
the cultivation of seaweed, it can change the structure for that site of plantation. The
main impact of seaweed farming is the space used for ponds because some ponds
which are used are unlikely to cause significant harm where the ponds located in
unfertile and underutilized land. On other hand, site preparation for some seaweed
farming induces to the removal of rocks and other obstructions as well to the
potentially competitive grasses or predators. Some seaweed cultivations which there
are no consideration about the environmental and ecological aspect by some
farmers also provide damage with the coastal ecosystems. Additional damage
through trampling and accidental damage may happened when there still have the
routine management of seaweed farms in shallow waters such as in the farms where
cultivating Gracilaria and Eucheuma sp.
Third is closely related with the aesthetic effect. Aesthetic can be defined as the
branch that mentioned about the nature of art, beauty, and taste toward the creation
as well about the appreciation of beauty. The issue about the potential aesthetic
impact of aquaculture already dominated arguments over the development of
aquaculture in some countries and the individuals who are planning to get involved in
36

this sector. This was because they want to ensure that there still has consideration
about the potential aesthetic changes during the development of seaweed culture in
order to avoid any conflicts with other users. An example is in seaweed farming on
Tubbataha Reef, Philippines where there has a conflict between some users that
actually derived from the concern over potential aesthetic impacts to the
environment. Thats why the social responsibility should be practiced while in the
operation of any aquaculture sector. It is to prevent any conflict between the
communities there. The large area which required for the seaweed farming provides
the significant conflict with the visual impact of that area. However, there still have
the techniques which can improve the visual impacts. By using of submerged culture
techniques or the site selection carefully managed, the visual impact in sensitive
locations can be avoided. Other ways that can be taken in reducing the conflicts to
be happened are by making more efficient use of offshore resources and developing
of offshore culture zones.
Next, environmental impact from seaweed farming is change in water quality. Water
quality always been emphasized in aquaculture sector to maintain the biosecurity
and ensure the food safety from the production of farming products. When the water
quality is being deteriorated in some coastal locations, it became the threat to
present and future seaweed farming. This problem happened through many aspect
such as the result of increasing turbidity, pollution which caused by heavy metals
and organic pollutants. As a fact, seaweeds are very efficient in absorbing heavy
metals. To maintain the food safety during the consumption of seaweed, it is very
important to make sure that the area which selected as the site for seaweed farming
are free from any pollutions and disease outbreaks. Heavy metals are very harmful
when consuming.
Another environmental impact is toward the primary and secondary productivity.
It can be seen through the food chain which occurred around the seaweed cultivation
site. Seaweed culture has influence with the benthic communities. It was potentially
reduced the productivity of benthic communities in shallow inshore areas with the
shading or smothering by large scale of seaweed farming. When there is increase
sedimentation of organic matter from the seaweed cultivation and associated
organism, it can potentially increase the production of benthic communities in areas
37

with low current velocity despite there may be changes in some community there.
Production of other aquatic animals can positively give space in the area below of
seaweed culture. Some countries like Republic of Korea, Japan and China applying
the way to use the benthic area below seaweed farms for culturing of some
invertebrates such as abalone or sea cucumber with the same time try to maximize
the production and profit per unit area they have. Seaweed plantation also gives
impact on coastal invertebrates and vertebrate populations. Due of increasing the
availability of shelter and food sources, the productivity of invertebrates and fish are
enhanced by the introduction of seaweed and its structures. However, attractiveness
toward seaweed farms by the invertebrates and finfish which predate on the
seaweed also may provide the problems to the farmers of seaweed plantation.
The impact of seaweed farming also can be found to native fisheries. Seaweed
cultivation also has been worried to give a problem in the competition with native
species there. The selective breeding of aquatic organisms including seaweed has
been an important factor in the aquacultures success but if there has increasingly
selective breeding of this seaweed, it may result of losses in native species on that
area. Decreasing population of native species there may happened through the
competition or genetic changes but until now, the effects still not been studied
anymore.


Figure 13-Aesthetic effect always been considered by the users of aquatic
ecosystem.
38


Figure 14-Seaweed as the habitat for some aquatic organisms. Cited at
http://newenergyandfuel.com/http:/newenergyandfuel/com/2012/03/09/starting-
seaweed-cultivation-research












39

REFERENCES
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