"Energy Meters"

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

In partial fulflment fr t!e a"ar# f t!e #egree
$f
%a&!elr f Te&!nlgy
In
Ele&trni&s an# 'mmuni&atin Engineering
Su(mitte# (y
Supriya
)))))*+$*,
'!- De.i Lal State Institute Of
Engg- / Te&!nlgy
Panni"ala Mta 0Sirsa1
Guru 2am(!es!"ar Uni.ersity
Of
S&ien&e an# Te&!nlgy 3 4isar
'!- De.i Lal State Institute Of
Engg- / Te&!- Panni"ala Mta
0Sirsa1
'ERTI5I'ATE
This is to certify that industrial training report
entitled Energy Meters by Sanjay
(11111531!"# sub$itted in partial ful%l$ent
of the re&uire$ent of the degree of 'achelor of
Technology in Electronics and (o$$unication
Engineering during the acade$ic year )!1* is
a bona %de record of +or, carried out under
guidance and super-ision.
/.0.1.
Electronics and (o$$unication
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude
and deep regards to my guide Mr. Rakesh Chanrdra
Notiyal for his exemplary and guidance, monitoring and
constant encouragement throughout the course of this
thesis. The blessing, help and guidance given by him time
to time shall carry me a long way in the journey of life on
which I am about to embark.
I am obliged to staff members of Creative Electronix, for
the valuable information provided by them in their
respective fields. I am grateful for their cooperation during
the period of my assignment.
Lastly, I thank almighty, my parents, brother, sisters and
friends for their constant encouragement without which this
assignment would not be possible.

Sanjay
Electronics & Communication Engg.
4
th
year

TABLE OF CONTENTS
T!"CS !#$E N%M&ER
!"#$%&L'()'*'$T
"'+TI,I"!T' -
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"%*0!$1 0+%,IL' 2
'$'+)1 *'T'+3 4
Introduction to 'nergy *eters
.nits of *easurement
T10'3 of *'T'+356
o E'ECTR(MEC)#N"C#'
o E'ECTRN"C
Testing %f *eters
Tampering of *eters
,.T.+' T+'$(3 /2
!utomatic *eter +eading 7#MR8
"ommon *eter +eading Instrument 7CMR"8
%T9'+ 0+%(."T3 %, T9' "%*0!$1 2:
"eiling ,ans
*";<s
3tar6(elta *otor 3tarters
*onoblock 0umps
3.**!+1 24
-
'"ST * *"$%RES


Fig 1. - Meters
Fig 2.-electromechanical Meters
Fig 3.-Moving Sstem
Fig !.-"egistration Sstem
Fig #.-Electronic Meters
Fig $.-Bloc% &ig . o' &irect connection o' (ol (hase
meter
Fig ).-Electricit Meter Bloc% &ig.
Fig *.-Electricit Meter
Fig +.-A,tomatic metering
Fig 1-.-.sm mo&em
Fig 11.-o,tla 'or .sm mo&em
Fig 12.-A"M architect,re
Fig 13.-/ata connector
/
'"ST * T#&'ES
Ta+le ,.( Some Ty-ical readings .ith electromechanical
meters
=
S/N ( &ENTE0 $R%! * CM!#N"ES
COMPANY PROFILE:
SKN-BENTEX group started operatios !" #ears $a%& at 'e()i* t)e %apita( state o+ Idia
,it) -au+a%turig o+ E(e%tri%a( ite-s. C)opra Brot)ers Mr. Satis) C)opra* Mr. Kapi(
C)opra / Mr. Nis)it C)opra )as pro-oted t)e group.
SKN-BENTEX0 1roup produ%ts are at t)e +ore+rot o+ io2atio i idustria( ad
agri%u(tura( +ie(d +or prote%tio ad %otro( o+ E(e%tri% Motor. It is t)e pioeers ad (eaders
i t)e +ie(d ,it) (atest iteratioa( egieerig produ%ts $ased o t)e ,or(d3s $est
te%)o(og# si%e (ast +our de%ades. 4SKN-BENTEX 0 1roup )as a ri%) )istor# o+ su%%ess*
,)i%) )as $ee a%)ie2ed t)roug) dedi%atio* tea-,or& ad 2isioar# t)i&ig ad
si%ere ser2i%e o+ pride i resu(t orieted per+or-a%e. 4SKN-BENTEX0 1roup )as $ee
%otiuous(# restru%turig to set up state-o+-t)e-art e(e%tri%a( produ%ts -au+a%tured at
t)eir o, p(ats uder stri%t 5ua(it# %otro( stadard. I t)is t)rust * -ost o+ group
%o-paies adopted Iteratioa( 6ua(it# Stadard ad )a2e $ee %erti+ied +or ISO-7""8
Certi+i%atio ad produ%ts are a(so a2ai(a$(e o ISI-Mar&ed. T)e SKN-BENTEX 1roup o+
Co-paies egaged i ,ide rage o+ produ%ts ad )as -ai(# t)ree su$groups o+
e(e%tri%a( produ%t rage su%) as 4 SKN0* 4SKN0 Bete9 Liger 4BENTEX-Liger0 ,it) t)eir
separate produ%ts (ie ad 4SKN-BENTEX 0 1roup is a %o((e%tio o+ s-a((er %o-paies
spe%ia(ist i a spe%i+i% rage o+ produ%ts. Besides t)is 4SKN-BENTEX 0 group egaged i
t)e +ie(d o+* LP1 :o-e App(ia%es* LP1 Regu(ators* Bui(dig Costru%tio ad E9port
A%ti2ities.
:o-e App(ia%es: LP1 1as Sto2e * Coo&ig Rage ;OT1 / O2e<* LP1 Burer* LP1
Regu(ator / Adaptor* 1as Sto2e ,it) Copper Bra=ed C#(ider* :ote( E5uip-ets: Kit%)e
E5uip-ets* Ser2i%e Tro((e#s* 'eep / >erti%a( Free=ers* Idia Rai(,a#s: ?ater Ta&s*
Luggage Ra%&s* 'oors* Patr# E5uip-ets +or Coa%)es.
E(e%tri%a( App(ia%es: MCB* MCCB* ELCB* Eerg# Meter* Motor Starters / Co-p(ete Rage
o+ E(e%tri%a( Produ%ts.
Moo B(o%& Pu-p* E9)aust Fa* Auto LP1 Co2ersio Kit ,it) C#(ider* CN1 Co2ersio
Kit* Bui(dig Costru%tio To,s)ip 'e2e(op-et* :ote( / C(u$s* Retai( S)oppig Ma((s*
LP1 'ispesig Statio To uderta&e Tur&e# Pro@e%t +or ista((atio / Co--issioig.
:ar#aa Cit# 1as To Aderta&e Tur&e# Pro@e%t +or distri$utio o+ Natura( 1as to
'o-esti%* Co--er%ia(* Idustria( ad Trasport se%tor.
Firm Type
Nature of Business
Level to Expand
:Proprietors)ip
:Mau+a%turer*E9portBI-port
:Iteratioa(
Toda#* ,it) t)e a$o2e ,ide rage o+ produ%ts SKN-Bete9 group is a ,e((-re%ogi=ed
a-e i Idia :ouse)o(d. 1roup )as a(read# a%)ie2ed turo2er o+ AS' !"."" M ad
)as e-p(o#ed -ore t)a 8""" e-p(o#ees i C -au+a%turig (o%atios i Natioa( Capita(
2
ENER$1 METERS
>
"NTR2%CT"N T ENER$1 METERS3
!n electric meter or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electrical
energy supplied to or produced by a residence, business or machine.
'lectricity is a clean, convenient way to deliver energy. The electricity meter is how
electricity providers measure billable services.
The most common type of meter measures kilo.att hours. &hen used in electricity
retailing, the utilities record the values measured by these meters to generate an invoice
for the electricity. They may also record other variables including the time when the
electricity was used.
3ince it is expensive to store large amounts of electricity, it must usually be generated as
it is needed. *ore electricity re?uires more generators, and so providers want consumers
to avoid causing peaks in consumption. 'lectricity meters have therefore been devised
that that encourage users to shift their consumption of power away from peak times, such
as mid6afternoon, when many buildings turn on air6conditioning.
,or these applications, meters measure demand, the maximum use of power in some
interval. In some areas, the meters charge more money at certain times of day, to reduce
use. !lso, in some areas meters have relays to turn off nonessential e?uipment.
0roviders are also concerned about efficient use of their distribution network. 3o, they try
to maximi@e the delivery of billable power. This includes methods to reduce tampering
with the meters.
!lso, the network has to be upgraded with thicker wires, larger transformers, or more
generators if parts of it become too hot from excessive currents. The currents can be
caused by either real power, in which the waves of voltage and current coincide, or
apparent power, in which the waves of current and voltage do not overlap, and so cannot
deliver power.
3ince providers can only collect money for real power, they try to maximi@e the amount
of real power delivered by their networks. Therefore, distribution networks always
incorporate electricity meters that measure apparent power, usually by displaying or
recording power factors or volt6amp6reactive6hours. *any industrial power meters can
measure volt6amp6reactive hours.
4
%N"TS * ME#S%REMENT3
The most common unit of measurement on the electricity meter is the kilo.att hour,
which is e?ual to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt over a period of
one hour, or ,=AA,AAA joules. 3ome electricity companies use the 3I megajoule instead.
(emand is normally measured in watts, but averaged over a period, most often a ?uarter
or half hour.
+eactive power is measured in B4olt(am-eres reactiveB, 7varh8 in kilovar6hours. !
BlaggingB or inductive load, such as a motor, will have negative reactive power. !
BleadingB, or capacitive load, will have positive reactive power.
Colt6amperes measures all power passed through a distribution network, including
reactive and actual. This is e?ual to the product of root6mean6s?uare volts and amperes.
(istortion of the electric current by loads is measured in several ways. 0ower factor is the
ratio of resistive 7or real power8 to volt6amperes. ! capacitive load has a leading power
factor, and an inductive load has a lagging power factor. ! purely resistive load 7such as a
fillament lamp, heater or kettle8 exhibits a power factor of :. "urrent harmonics are a
measure of distortion of the wave form. ,or example, electronic loads such as computer
power supplies draw their current at the voltage peak to fill their internal storage
elements. This can lead to a significant voltage drop near the supply voltage peak which
shows as a flattening of the voltage waveform. This flattening causes odd harmonics
which are not permissible if they exceed specific limits, as they are not only wasteful, but
may interfere with the operation of other e?uipment. 9armonic emissions are mandated
by law in '. and other countries to fall within specified limits.
%ther units of measurement5
In addition to metering based on the amount of energy used, other types of metering are
available.
*eters which measured the amount of charge 7coulombs8 used, known as ampere6hour
meters, were used in the early days of electrification. These were dependent upon the
supply voltage remaining constant for accurate measurement of energy usage, which was
not a likely circumstance with most supplies.
3ome meters measured only the length of time for which current flowed, with no
measurement of the magnitude of voltage or current being made. These were only suited
for constant load applications. $either type is likely to be used today.
T1!ES * METERS3
*odern electricity meters operate by continuously measuring the instantaneous voltage
7volts8 and current 7amperes8 and finding the product of these to give instantaneous
electrical power 7watts8 which is then integrated against time to give energy used 7joules,
kilowatt6hours etc8. The meters fall into two basic categories, Electromechanical and
Electronic.
:A
E'ECTRMEC)#N"C#'
METERS
::
E'ECTR(MEC)#N"C#' METERS
"NTR2%CT"N3
The most common type of electricity meter is the Thomson or electromechanical
induction watt6hour meter, invented by 'lihu Thomson in :>>>.
The electromechanical induction meter operates by counting the revolutions of an
aluminium disc which is made to rotate at a speed proportional to the power. The number
of revolutions is thus proportional to the energy usage. It consumes a small amount of
power, typically around 2 watts.
The metallic disc is acted upon by two coils. %ne coil is connected in such a way that it
produces a magnetic flux in proportion to the voltage and the other produces a magnetic
flux in proportion to the current. The field of the voltage coil is delayed by 4A degrees
using a lag coil. This produces eddy currents in the disc and the effect is such that a force
is exerted on the disc in proportion to the product of the instantaneous current and
voltage. ! permanent magnet exerts an opposing force proportional to the speed of
rotation of the disc. The e?uilibrium between these two opposing forces results in the disc
rotating at a speed proportional to the power being used. The disc drives a register
mechanism which integrates the speed of the disc over time by counting revolutions,
much like the odometer in a car, in order to render a measurement of the total energy used
over a period of time.
The type of meter described above is used on a single6phase !" supply. (ifferent phase
configurations use additional voltage and current coils.
:2
CNSTR%CT"N3
The construction varies in details from one manufacturer<s product to the next. 9owever,
the differences are very minor in nature.
There are four main parts of the operating mechanism5
,. 2riving System 5. &raking System
6. Moving System 4. Registering System
Driving System
The driving system of the meter consists of two electromagnets. The core of the
electromagnets are made up of silicon6steel laminations. The core of one of the
electromagnets is excited by the load current. This coil is called the current coil. The coil
of second electromagnet is connected across the supply and, therefore, carries a current
proportional to the supply voltage. This coil is called the pressure coil. "onse?uently the
two electromagnets are known as series and shunt magnets respectively.
"opper shading bands are provided on the central limb. The position of these bands is
adjustable. The function of these bands is to bring the flux produced by the shunt magnet
exactly in ?uadrature with the applied voltage.
Moving Sstem
This consists of an aluminium disc mounted on a light alloy shaft. This disc is positioned
in the air gap between series and shunt magnets. The upper bearing of the rotor 7moving
system8 is a steel pin located in a hole in the bearing cap fixed to the top of the shaft. The
rotor runs on a hardened steel pivot, screwed to the foot of the shaft. The pivot is
supported by a jewel bearing. The pinion engages the shaft with the counting or
registering mechanism.
! uni?ue design for the suspension of the disc is used in the floating shaft energy
meter. 9ere the rotating shaft has a small magnet at each end, where the upper magnet of
the shaft is attracted to a magnet in the upper bearing and the lower magnet of the shaft is
attracted to a magnet in the lower bearing. The moving system thus floats without
touching either bearing surface, and the only contact with the movement is that of the
gear connecting the shaft with the gear of the train, thus the friction is drastically reduced.
:
Bra%ing Sstem
The permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the of the !luminium disc forms the
braking system. The aluminium disc moves in the field of this magnet and thus provides a
braking tor?ue. The position of the permanent magnet is adjustable, and therefore,
braking tor?ue can be adjusted by shifting the permanent magnet to different radial
positions.
"egistering Sstem
The function of a registering or a counting mechanism is to record continuously a number
which is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving system. ;y a suitable
system, a train of reduction gears the pinion on the rotor shaft drives a series of five or six
pointers. These rotate on round dials which are marked with ten e?ual divisions.
!ER#T"N
The supply voltage is applied across the pressure coil. The pressure coil winding is highly
inductive as it has very large number of turns and the reluctance of its magnetic circuit is
very small owing to presence of air gaps of very small length. Thus the current I through
the pressure coil is proportional to the supply voltage and lags it by a few degrees less
than 4A. This is because the winding has a small resistance and there are iron losses in the
magnetic circuit."urrent produces a flux. This flux divides itself into two parts. The
major portion of it flows across the side gaps as reluctance of this path is small. The
reluctance to the path of flux is large and hence its magnitude is small. This flux goes
across aluminium disc and hence is responsible for production of driving tor?ue. ,lux is
in phase with current I and is proportional to it. Therefore flux is proportional to voltage
C and lags it by an angle a few degrees less than 4A. 3ince flux is alternating in nature, it
induces an eddy emf ' in the disc which inturn produces eddy currents.The load current I
flows through the current coil and produces a flux. This flux is proportional to the load
current and is in phase with it. This flux produces eddy current Ies in the disc. $ow the
eddy current Ies interacts with flux to produce a tor?ue and eddy current interacts with
flux to produce another tor?ue. These two tor?ues are in opposite direction and the net
tor?ue is the difference of these.
:-
Some 0m(ortant "ea&ings1
ERRRS "N S"N$'E !)#SE ENER$1 METERS
The errors caused by the driving system are5
:. Incorrect magnitude of fluxes : This maybe due to abnormal values of current or
voltage. The shunt magnet flux maybe in error due to changes in resistance of coil
or due to abnormal fre?uencies.
2. Incorrect phase angles : There may not be proper relationship between the
various phasors. This maybe due to improper lag adjustments, abnormal
fre?uencies. "hange in resistance with temperature etc.
. Lack of Symmetry in magnetic circuit : In case the magnetic circuit is not
symmetrical, a driving to?ue is produced which makes the meter creep.
The errors caused by the ;raking system are5
1. Changes in strength of brake magnet
2. Changes in disc resistance
3. Self braking effect of series magnet flux
. !bnormal friction of mo"ing parts
#27%STMENT "N S"N$'E !)#SE ENER$1 METERS
:/
3ome adjustments are carried out in energy meters so that they read correctly and their
errors are within allowable limits. The se?uence of these adjustments are5
:. #reliminary Light Load !d$ustment : The disc is so positioned that the holes are
not underneath the electromagnets. +ated voltage is applied to the potential coil
with no current through the current coil. The light load device is adjusted until the
disc just fails to start.
2. %ull Load &nit %actor !d$ustment : The pressure coil is connected across the
rated supply voltage and rated full load current at unity power factor is passed
through the current coils.
. Lag !d$ustment'Lo( #o(er factor ad$ustment) : The pressure coil is connected
across rated supply voltage and rated full load current is passed through the
current coil at A./ p.f. lagging. The lag device is adjusted till the meter runs at
correct speed.
-. &ith rated supply voltage, rated full load current and unity power factor, the
speed of the meter is checked and full load unity p.f. and low p.f. adjustments are
repeated until the desired accuracy limits are reached for both conditions.
/. Light Load !d$ustment : This is done so that meter runs at correct speed.
=. %ull load unity po(er factor and light load ad$ustments are again done until
speed is correct for both loads i.e full load as well aslight load.
2. *he performance is rechecked at +./ p.f. lagging.
,. Creep !d$ustment
RE#2"N$ E'ECTRMEC)#N"C#' METERS
The aluminium disc is supported by a spindle which has a worm gear which drives the
register. The register is a series of dials which record the amount of energy used. The
dials may be of the cyclometer type, an odometer6like display that is easy to read where
for each dial a single digit is shown through a window in the face of the meter, or of the
pointer type where a pointer indicates each digit. It should be noted that with the dial
pointer type, adjacent pointers generally rotate in opposite directions due to the gearing
mechanism.
The amount of energy represented by one revolution of the disc is denoted by the symbol
#h which is given in units of watt6hours per revolution. The value 2.2 is commonly seen.
.sing the value of #h, one can determine their power consumption at any given time by
timing the disc with a stopwatch. If the time in seconds taken by the disc to complete one
revolution is t, then the power in watts is

0 D =AA. #h
t
:=
,or example, if #h D 2.2, as above, and one revolution took place in :-.- seconds, the
power is :>AA watts. This method can be used to determine the power consumption of
household devices by switching them on one by one.
*ost domestic electricity meters must be read manually, whether by a representative of
the power company or by the customer. &here the customer reads the meter, the reading
may be supplied to the power company by telephone, post or over the internet. The
electricity company will normally re?uire a visit by a company representative at least
annually in order to verify customer6supplied readings and to make a basic safety check
of the meter.
:2
E'ECTRN"C METERS
:>
"NTR2%CT"N
'lectronic meters compared to traditional mechanical solutions in use offer several
additional advantages to the utility market. The metering utilities that can be replaced are
gas, water and electricity. The advantages are5
E ;etter reliability
E ;etter accuracy
E 'ase of calibration
E !nti6tampering protection
E !utomated meter reading
E 3ecurity
E !dvanced billing
%f particular importance to the utility company is the tampering of meters. It is estimated
that millions of dollars are lost due to the tampering of these meters. !mong the
tampering are temporary meter disconnect for a period of time before the readings are
taken, the use of permanent magnets to saturate current transformers and insertion of
mechanical devices to slow down the mechanical turning of the disc.
'lectronic energy meters are replacing traditional electromechanical meters in
many residential, commercial and industrial applications because of the versatility and
low6cost afforded by electronic meter designs. 3ingle6 and multi6chip meter designs are
helping meter manufacturers and their customers reali@e these benefits. Thanks to these
continually evolving metering I"s, meter builders can implement many features that were
impractical with the older mechanical designs.
,or example, an electronic design can protect against meter tampering and theft of
service. It also can measure and record energy usage at different times of the day, so
utilities can bill customers for energy based on time of usage. !n electronic energy meter
also can enable automatic meter reading 7!*+8, whereby energy metering data is
transmitted to the utility over an +,, power line or even infrared communications link.
,urthermore, electronic meters pave the way for FsubmeteringG of smaller operating units
7for example, metering each apartment rather than just the building8.
Improved accuracy and lower power consumption are other benefits of electronic
metering. &ith a mechanical meter, the error in the basic energy usage measurement is on
the order of :H. ;ut with an electronic implementation, it is possible to reduce that error
to less than A.:H. *oreover, running the mechanical meter with its continuously spinning
dial may re?uire hundreds of milliamps. That power consumption can be reduced to a
couple milliamps in an electronic energy meter, producing big power savings for the
utility.'lectronic meter designs also change the economics of manufacturing energy
meters. ! single hardware design may be customi@ed for different customers and markets
through changes in software. In addition, calibrating the finished meter at the factory is
much easier with an electronic meter design.!nother consideration is the demand for
:4
mechanical6meter replacements that are as inexpensive as possible. In parts of the
developing world where many new customers are being connected to the grid, the low
cost of the electronic meter is its main attraction.
"C 2evelo-ment3
3ince the late :44As, semiconductor vendors with mixed6signal and data conversion
expertise have been developing I"s for electronic energy metering applications.
In varying degrees, these components have integrated the energy measurement,
calculation and communication functions re?uired to build electronic energy meters
ranging from simple function, mechanical6meter replacements to advanced function all
solid6state designs.
!s in most areas of silicon development, the level of integration for these components
grows with time, so that newer I"s offer more functionality andIor less cost.
"onse?uently, the cost of electronic metering is coming down, which, in turn, is affecting
the types of meters that are being built. !s the metering I"s evolve, there is also a trend
to higher accuracy, which is reflected in the energy measurement linearity of the new I"s.
The energy metering market is far from monolithic, so metering I"s target different
applications. %ne way to differentiate these chips is by the number of phases that must be
measured. 3ome I"s target single6phase applications, while others are crafted for
multiphase 7or poly6phase8 applications. &ithin these categories, the chips also are
distinguished according to whether they target residential, commercial or industrial
applications. !nother way to segment the energy metering I"s is according to the desired
level of meter functionality.
2A
2:
CNSTR%CT"N3
!s in the block diagram, the meter has a power supply, a metering engine, ! processing
and communication engine 7i.e. a microcontroller8, and other add6on modules such as
+T", L"( display, communication portsImodules and so on.
The metering engine is given the voltage and current inputs and has a voltage
reference, samplers and ?uantisers followed by an !(" section to yield the digitised
e?uivalents of all the inputs. These inputs are then processed using a (igital 3ignal
0rocessor to calculate the various metering parameters such as powers, energies etc.
The largest source of long6term errors in the meter is drift in the preamp, followed
by the precision of the voltage reference. ;oth of these vary with temperature as well,
and vary wildly because most meters are outdoors. "haracteri@ing and compensating for
these is a major part of meter design.
The processing and communication section has the responsibility of calculating
the various derived ?uantities from the digital values generated by the metering engine.
This also has the responsibility of communication using various protocols and interface
with other addon modules connected as slaves to it.
+T" and other add6on modules are attached as slaves to the processing and
communication section for various inputIoutput functions. %n a modern meter most if not
all of this will be implemented inside the microprocessor, such as the +eal Time "lock
7+T"8, L"( controller, temperature sensor, memory and analog to digital converters.
22
2
8R/"N$3
#ilowatt6hour meter for determining, from voltage and current signals, the total energy
passing through an alternating electrical supply circuit comprises a clock signal generator
for generating timing signals at a fre?uency which is a multiple of the alternating supply
fre?uency, the timing signals being synchronised in phase with the incoming supply
fre?uency, pulse sampling means controlled by said clock signal generator and arranged
to sample simultaneously the magnitude of the voltage on and the current in said supply
circuit at a predetermined time instant or instants in each cycle and digital data processing
means arranged to process the sampled data to determine energy consumption during
successive predetermined periods of time and to integrate the successive determinations
of energy consumption.
3uch an arrangement may be used with a three phase supply in which case the
three phase voltages and phase currents are separately sampled or it may be used with a
single phase supply in which case only a single voltage and current has to be sampled.
The digital data processing means, which is typically a microprocessor system, effects the
re?uired computations from the sampled values.
If a single phase supply is considered with the circuit carrying a current I at a
voltage C and with a phase lag 7or phase lead8 between the current and voltage of J, then
if the waveforms were sinusoidal, the power consumption is CI cos J. "onveniently, this
can be measured by pulse sampling during the peak of one of the waveforms. 0referably
the measurement is made at the peak of the voltage waveform, so as to determine the
instantaneous peak value of C and of I cos J. The r.m.s. product can be readily
determined by processing of this information. It may be preferred to average successive
determinations of C and of I cos J separately over a number of cycles of the alternating
supply fre?uency, typically a few hundred cycles, before determining the product and
hence the energy consumption during this period.
The output from the clock signal generator may be integrated, e.g. counted in a
digital counter to provide clock time. If a data link is provided, the aforementioned clock
signal generator may be utili@ed to provide clock timing for time6controlled operations,
e.g. for example, the customerKs data processing means may compute monetary chargesL
to ensure correct clock time, the integrated output from the clock signal generator may be
periodically updated over the data link. It will be understood that such periodic updating
is re?uired to correct the clock in the event of any interruption of the supply. 3uch a clock
may be used, for example, for effecting changes in the data processing related to absolute
timeL e.g. variation of charging rates in accordance with time.
The traditional method of detecting the current open or by pass tamper was to measure
current imbalance. !s some current imbalance is always there in the system, current
imbalance tampers, which can be caused by partial bypassing of current, is difficult to
detect.
"ertain intelligent logics have been developed to detect this type of tamper. This method
is generally used for phase wire meters only, as for phase - wire meters the current
bypass logic is suffice.
2-
#%TM#T"C METER
RE#2"N$
9#MR:
2/
8hat is #utomatic Meter Reading;
!utomated *eter +eading 7!*+8 refers to the technology used for automating
collection of water and energy 7electricity or gas8 consumption data for the purposes of
real6time billing and consumption analysis. !t any given time, the !*+ system gathers
real6time data and transfers the information gathered to the central database through
networking technology.
This advance mainly saves utility providers the expense of periodic trips to each physical
location to read a meter. !nother advantage is billing can be based on near real time
consumption rather than on estimates based on previous or predicted consumption. This
timely information coupled with analysis, can help both utility providers and customers
better control the use and production of electric energy, gas usage, or water consumption.
!*+ technologies include handheld, mobile and network technologies based on
telephony platforms 7wired and wireless8, radio fre?uency 7+,8, or power line
transmission.
"ssues .ith Stand #lone Meter Reading3(
















2=
E 9ighly 0erson dependant.
E 9uman errors cannot be avoided.
E !ccessibility of meters in ruralI !gricultural @ones.
E 'nergy !udits performed based on bill collection which is highly inaccurate.
E ;illing done mainly on estimatedI monthly average basis
E Inability to monitor and control discrete loads
E ;illing cycle re?uires excessive time.
E *eter data used only for billing, cannot help in analysis like demand analysis, energy audit etc.

















22
Smart Metering and IT: An opportunity to Leapfrog
!#ST
!#ST
ELECT"O-MEC2AN0CAL
Low !ccuracy
"ontrol M $IL
"ommunications 6 'xpensive
Theft (etection M 0oor
ELECT"O-MEC2AN0CAL
Low !ccuracy
"ontrol M $IL
"ommunications 6 'xpensive
Theft (etection M 0oor
C%RRENT
C%RRENT
/0.0TAL SOL0/ STATE
9igh !ccuracy
"ontrol M LI*IT'(
"ommunications M 'xternal through +etrofit
Theft (etection M $ode only
/0.0TAL SOL0/ STATE
9igh !ccuracy
"ontrol M LI*IT'(
"ommunications M 'xternal through +etrofit
Theft (etection M $ode only
'E#!*R$
'E#!*R$
NE3T .EN SMA"T METE" 4 0T S5STEM
Cery 9igh !ccuracy
"ontrol M ,.LL
"ommunications M ;uilt in 7on chip I 0";8
Theft (etection M 9igh 7$etwork level8
NE3T .EN SMA"T METE" 4 0T S5STEM
Cery 9igh !ccuracy
"ontrol M ,.LL
"ommunications M ;uilt in 7on chip I 0";8
Theft (etection M 9igh 7$etwork level8
Autom
atic
Meter
eadin
g
Autom
atic
Meter
eadin
g
Outage
Manage
ment
!re"
payment
Sub-
Metering
Revenue
Protetion
Automatic
Metering
Acti#e
Load
Contro$
)o. #utomated Meter Reading 8orks

!*+ operations are simple on the surface but rather complex underneath. ,irst, the
meter must be read by the meter interface. !fter that, this same interface has to translate
the data into digital information to facilitate transmission. There must also be a code
added to the meter data reading so that the data can be attributed to the correct subscriber.
%nce the data is ready, the data has to be picked up by a meter person. 0icking up meter
data, however, involves digital transfer from the meter interface to a device that the meter
reader controls. !fter that, data collected is downloaded in the office. (ata can also be
automatically transmitted to the database through automatic data transmission protocols.
Technological advances have expanded the scope of !*+ activities. %ther possible uses
for the !*+ include monitoring for leaks and theft and detecting meter tampering.
"onsumer profiling 7especially on such points as peak and lean periods of use8, providing
empirical data on the effects of energy saving devices and mindsets, and so on can also be
done.
The Elements o< #utomatic Reading
!n !*+ system has a meter interface apparatus. This is generally an integrated
component containing power supply, sensors, and control electronics and
communications programming. !t its heart, the meter interface module aims to translate
data gathered from the movement of mechanical dials into digital data as well as to
properly identify data for the purposes of correct billing.
!n !*+ system also has a transmission and communications protocol in place
for transferring or transmitting data from the meter to the central office. !mong the
systems developed for !*+ are handheld devices 7utility company personnel merely
have to touch or point their stylus to the meter interface for data to be KreadK8 or vehicle6
mounted devices 7the meter readers need to pass by the meter for data to be picked up
and transmitted8. (ata is temporarily stored in their device until itKs downloaded at the
office. (ata transmission may also be sent to the office through wires 7data is transmitted
through 'thernet cables, broadcasting cable, or power lines8.
,inally, the central office must have the software and hardware for transmitted
meter data reception, allocation, analysis and automatic billing.
TEC)N'$"ES3
,. Touch Technology
6. Radio *re=uency Net.ork
5. !o.er 'ine Communication
2>
T%C) TEC)N'$13
&ith touch based !*+, a meter reader carries a handheld computer or data collection
device with a wand or probe. The device automatically collects the readings from a meter
by touching or placing the read probe in close proximity to a reading coil enclosed in the
touchpad. &hen a button is pressed, the probe sends an interrogate signal to the touch
module to collect the meter reading. The software in the device matches the serial number
to one in the route database, and saves the meter reading for later download to a billing or
data collection computer. 3ince the meter reader still has to go to the site of the meter,
this is sometimes referred to as Bon(siteB !*+.
R#2" *RE>%ENC1 NET8R/3
+adio fre?uency based !*+ can take many forms. The more common ones are
handheld, mobile, and fixed network. There are both two6way +, systems and one6way
+, systems in use that use both licensed and unlicensed +, bands.
In a two6way or Bwake upB system, a radio transceiver normally sends a signal to a
particular transmitter serial number, telling it to wake up from a resting state and transmit
its data. The meter attached transceiver and the reading transceiver both send and receive
radio signals and data. In a one6way Fbubble6upG or continuous broadcast type system,
the transmitter broadcasts readings continuously every few seconds. This means the
reading device can be a receiver only, and the meter !*+ device a transmitter only. (ata
goes one way, from the meter !*+ transmitter to the meter reading receiver. There are
also hybrid systems that combine one6way and two6way technologies, using one6way
communication for reading and two way communication for programming functions.
+, based meter reading usually eliminates the need for the meter reader to enter the
property or home, or to locate and open an underground meter pit. The utility saves
money by increased speed of reading, has lower liability from entering private property,
and has less chance of missing reads because of being locked out from meter access.
The technology based on +, is not readily accepted everywhere. In several !sian
countries the technology faces a barrier of regulations in place pertaining to use of the
radio fre?uency of any radiated power. ,or example in India the radio fre?uency which is
generally in I3* band is not free to use even for low power radio of :A m&. The
majority of manufacturers of electricity meters have radio fre?uency devices in the
fre?uency band of -I>=> *9@ for large scale deployment in 'uropean countries.The
fre?uency band of 2.- )9@ can be now used in India for outdoor as well as indoor
applications but few maufacturers have shown products within this fre?uency band.
Initiatives in radio fre?uency !*+ in such countries are being taken up with regulators
wherever the cost of licensing outweighs the benefits of !*+.
24
)andheld3
In handheld !*+, a meter reader carries a handheld computer with a built6in or attached
receiverItransceiver 7radio fre?uency or touch8 to collect meter readings from an !*+
capable meter. This is sometimes referred to as Bwalk6byB meter reading since the meter
reader walks by the locations where meters are installed as they go through their meter
reading route. 9andheld computers may also be used to manually enter readings without
the use of !*+ technology as an alternate but this will not support exhaustive data which
can be accurately read using the meter reading electronically.
Mo+ile3
*obile or Bdrive6byB meter reading is where a reading device is installed in a vehicle.
The meter reader drives the vehicle while the reading device automatically collects the
meter readings. %ften for mobile meter reading the reading e?uipment includes
navigational and mapping features provided by )03 and mapping software. &ith mobile
meter reading, the reader does not normally have to read the meters in any particular
route order, but just drives the service area until all meters are read. "omponents often
consist of a laptop or proprietary computer, software, +, receiverItransceiver, and
external vehicle antennas.
*ixed Net.ork
,ixed $etwork !*+ is a method where a network is permanently installed to capture
meter readings. This method can consist of a series of antennas, towers, collectors,
repeaters, or other permanently installed infrastructure to collect transmissions of meter
readings from !*+ capable meters and get the data to a central computer without a
person in the field to collect it.
There are several types of network topologies in use to get the meter data back to
a central computer. ! star network is the most common, where a meter transmits its data
to a central collector or repeater. 3ome systems use only collectors which receive and
store data for processing. %thers also use a repeater which forwards a reading from a
more remote area back to a main collector without actually storing it. ! repeater may be
forwarded by R* signal or sometimes is converted to a wired network such as telephone
or I0 network to get the data back to a collector.
3ome manufacturers are developing mesh networks where meters themselves act
as repeaters passing the data to nearby meters until it makes it to a main collector. The
3wedish city of )othenburg is having their electric meters connected in this manner,
using the Nig;ee protocol.! mesh network may save the infrastructure of many
collection points, but is more data intensive on the meters. %ne issue with mesh networks
it that battery operated ones may need more power for the increased fre?uency of
transmitting. It also re?uires that the meter devices be receivers as well as transmitters
potentially making individual transceiver cost higher. 9owever, the additional cost may
be outweighed by the savings of multiple collectors and repeater antennas and finding
A
places to mount them.
3ome fixed network systems are also capable of being installed as a hybrid !*+ system
where mobile and fixed network are intermixed by design. In a hybrid system, part of the
system is read by fixed network, and parts may read by mobile or other technology, or
both. .tilities with low density rural areas may not cost justify the fixed network
infrastructure for parts of their service area, using it only for higher density @ones or
commercial accounts. 3ome hybrid networks allow reading of a meter by both methods
concurrently as a source of redundancy. In the event of a failure of the network due a
natural disaster, sabotage, power failure, or other network interruption, the mobile
reading system is available in their disaster recovery plan as an alternative means of data
collection to the fixed network.
R* technologies commonly used <or #MR
$arrow ;and 7single fixed radio fre?uency8
3pread 3pectrum
o (irect6se?uence spread spectrum 7(3338
o ,re?uency6hopping spread spectrum 7,9338
There are also meters using !*+ with +, technologies such as cellular phone data
systems, @igbee, blue tooth, &avenis and others. 3ome systems operate with ,""
licensed fre?uencies and others under ,"" 0art :/ which allows use of unlicensed radio
fre?uencies.
8i(*i
The city of "orpus "hristi became one of the first cities in the .nited 3tates to implement
city wide &i ,i, which had been free until *ay :, 2AA2, mainly to facilitate !*+ after a
meter reader was attacked by a dog.Today many meters are designed to transmit using &i
,i, even if a &i ,i network is not available, and they are read using a drive6by local &i ,i
hand held receiver.The meters installed in "orpus "hristi are not directly &i6,i enabled,
but rather transmit narrow6band burst telemetry on the -=A *9@ band. This narrow6
banded signal has a much greater range than &i6,i, so the number of receivers re?uired
for the project are far fewer than the number of &i6,i access points covering the same
area. These special receiver stations then take in the narrow6band signal and report their
data via &i6,i. *ost of the automated utility meters installed in the "orpus "hristi area
are battery powered. "ompared to narrow6band burst telemetry, &i6,i technology uses
far too much power for long6term battery6powered operation.
!o.er 'ine Communication
70L"8 !*+ is a method where electronic data is transmitted over power lines back to the
substation, then relayed to a central computer in the utilityKs main office. This would be
considered a type of fixed network systemOthe network being the distribution network
which the utility has built and maintains to deliver electric power. 3uch systems are
:
primarily used for electric meter reading. 3ome providers have interfaced gas and water
meters to feed into a 0L" type system.
#MR NET8R/ #RC)"TECT%RE
Connectivity in #MR #rchitecture3
Two stages of communication in !*+ 3ystem56
:. )3* ;ased "ommunication
3ingle stage communication between *eter and central station through )3* *odem
2. 9ybrid "ommunication
$SM &ased Communication3
9as mainly two components ie )3* *odem and !ntennae
$SM Modem



2
E (ual ;and or Triband )3* )0+3 modem 7')3*
4AAI:>AA*9@8 I 7')3* 4AAI:>AA I :4AA *9@ 8
E (esigned for )0+3, data, fax, 3*3 and voice
applications
E ,ully compliant with 'T3I )3* 0hase 2P specifications
7$ormal *38
E "nter<aces
E +3622 through (6T10' 4 pin connector
E 0ower supply through *olex - pin connector
E 3*! antenna connector
E Toggle spring 3I* holder
E +ed L'( 0ower on
E )reen L'( status of )3* I )0+3 module

%T'#1 <or $SM Net.orking3(



















)1&R"2 CMM%N"C#T"N3
: Two stages of communication in !*+ 3ystem
M *eters and (ata "oncentrator .nit 7(".85 "ommunication
channel used between meters and (". is 0ower Line.
M (". and 9ost "entral 3tation 79"385 "ommunication channel
used between (". and 9"3 is the standard )3*, "(*!, +,
or 03T$ $etwork.

%T'#13




















-
/



AMR ARCHITECTURE







R*I !STN ? Modem R*?!STN ? Modem











*eter : *eter : *eter :

*eter 2 *eter 2 *eter 2
*eter *eter *eter

*eter - *eter - *eter -

*eter / *eter / *eter /

*eter n *eter n *eter n

Central O''ice
2ost Com(,ter
Station.
Distribution
Transformer 2.
Distribution
Transformer 3.

Distribution
Transformer 1.
Data Coentrator
Unit DCU 2

Data Coentrator
Unit DCU 3

Data Coentrator
Unit DCU 1
!
'
C
C

!
'
C
C

!
'
C
C

#MR System vervie.3
The remote Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) System is a host driven, multi-level network system
consisting of a Host entral Station (HS), !ata oncentrator "nits (!") and Meter #nterfacing
"nits (M#"), with $uilt-in fle%i$ility and e%&anda$ility' (ach HS, while working inde&endently, can
also $e integrated with an e%isting cor&orate information management system through software
interface' )ith additional hardware and software su&&ort, the HS can function as a workstation
in an e%isting *ocal Area +etwork (*A+) and $ecomes a mem$er of the entire system, or several
HS can $e connected together to form a network of their own'
Archnet Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) system can $e connected to any (lectricity, ,as, )ater
and flow Meters with &ulse out&ut for Meter Readings'
%LOCK DIAGAM
The !" and all the M#"s and meters connected to it can $e considered as a su$-system of the
HS' The su$-system is set u& with a !" monitoring the low voltage &ower -one downstream
of a !istri$ution Transformer' The !" can $e viewed as the front end of the su$-system,
collecting meter readings from all the M#"s connected to it through the low voltage &ower line
carrier (.*) and communicating with the HS through the communication channel' There are
=
two ty&es of M#"s, a single-channel ty&e connected to a single meter only, and a multi-channel
ty&e, which can $e connected u& to /0 meters' #n &ro1ects where meters are scattered around in
an o&en area, single-channel M#"s are usually used for individual meters' 2ut for &ro1ects where
meters are grou&ed together in a meter room or ca$inet, Multi-channel Meter #nterface "nits
(MM#") are more cost effective'
There are $asically two stages of communication in the system, namely, that $etween the M#"s
and the !", and that $etween the !"s and the HS' The communication channel or medium
used $etween M#" and !" is the .ower *ine3 and the channel used $etween !" and HS
can $e the .u$lic Switched Tele&hone +etwork (.ST+), ,SM network, radio network, or directly
with handheld terminals 4 note$ook .s with standard RS-565 interface or through a modem'
!LCC Communication:
The communication device for the .* communication system is a $uilt-in .ower *ine Modem
(.*M), which transmits and receives data over the &ower line' 2oth the M#" and the !" contain
the .*M device' The $inary data stream is keyed onto a carrier signal $y means of the 7re8uency
Shift 9eying (7S9) techni8ue' The central fre8uency is shifted :;'69H- to re&resent / or ; of the
$inary data stream' This signal is then cou&led onto the &ower line $y the .*M' At the receiving
end, an identical .*M will detect the signal and convert it $ack to a $inary data stream' The .*Ms
o&erate in a Half !u&le%, two-way, Time !ivision Multi&le% communication mode' Two-way
communication $etween !" and M#" is essential in esta$lishing a &ro&er communication
channel, for system synchroni-ation and status re&orting'
#n AMRS, transmission s&eed is not a great concern $ut relia$ility is im&ortant' The data
rate of the .* channel is set at 0;; $&s, to ensure communication over a longer distance and
reduced transmission error' (very M#" is also e8ui&&ed with re&eater function' #f re8uired, the
!" can designate any M#" in the su$-system as a re&eater to enhance communication with a
&articular M#"' )ith the sensitive signal detection and so&histicated digital filtering techni8ue, this
.* communication is highly immune to electrical noise and interference'

0L" 3chematics5

2
3ignal, (ata and Information ,low5
The M#" is an intelligent device, which can collect, &rocess, and record &ower consum&tion data
from the electric meter' #t &icks u& the &ulse out&ut of the meter and converts the measurement of
the meter into a digital format suita$le for data &rocessing' Thus it is &ossi$le to monitor the
electrical load in real time' The M#" saves the data collected in non-volatile memory, and all data
and settings are &rotected against &ower failure' #t will automatically resume normal o&eration
when &ower returns after a &ower failure' After receiving a Multi-rate Tariff command and loading
the time-of-use ta$le from the !", the M#" will &rocess energy consum&tion data according to
&re-set time intervals' #t will u&date the &eak values and their time of occurrence at each tariff rate
&roviding real time information of electrical consum&tion for the information management system'
!ata stored in the M#" are transmitted to the !" via the &ower line through the $uilt-in
.ower *ine Modems (.*M)' ommunication is initiated $y the !", which &olls the M#" $y
calling its address' !ata received from different M#"s are stored in the corres&onding *oad !ata
Records in the 7lash memory of the !"' The !" su&&orts communication with any u&ward
e8ui&ment in conformity with RS-565 standard, e'g' a handheld com&uter' #n most cases, the
!" communicates with the remote Host entral Station through standard modem via the
e%isting tele&hone line or the ,SM network'
The Host entral Station (HS) is the control center of the system, where all the functions of
the system are controlled and monitored' The HS &asses instructions and information re8uests
onto the !ata oncentrator "nits (!") $y calling their addresses (or the tele&hone num$ers in
case of a &u$lic switched network), and the !" will res&ond accordingly' The address codes
(tele&hone num$er) of the !"s are stored in the HS' )ith sufficient mass storage,
theoretically all !"s can $e covered $y the HS, in actual fact the ma%imum num$er of !"s
can $e connected to a HS is a$out /;;; as it will $e limited $y the re8uired res&onse time and
efficiency of data management' #n case of failures in self-diagnostics or any a$normal $ehavior of
the M#"s, the !" can also make re8uests to re&ort $y dialing to the HS' The HS will convert
the data received into a te%t file com&ati$le with the cor&oration<s e%isting Meter Reading
Management System, and store it in the Hard !isk !rive' 7ile transfer $etween the HS and the
or&oration<s M#S system can $e done through standard in&ut=out&ut &orts, such as RS-565'
Data Concentrator &nit 'DC&(
>








!R"M#R1 CM!NENTS * #MR3

Meter inter<ace module
:. The !*+ system starts at the meter. 3ome means of translating
readings from rotating meter dials, or cyclometer style meter dials,
into digital form is necessary in order to send digital metering data
from the customer site to a central point.
2. 'lectro 6 optical interface
. 3ignal 0rocessing 'lectronics
-. +!* Q 0rogram *emory
Communication System
.sed for the transmission, or telemetry, of data and control send signals
4
E The (ata "oncentrator sits on the loop of secondary of the distribution
transformer. "ollects meter readings from all the meters using 0ower Line
"ommunication 3ystem at predefined intervals.
E The (". and all the meters connected to it can be considered as a sub6
system of the 9"3. The sub6system is set up with a (". monitoring the
low voltage power @one downstream of a (istribution Transformer.
E *eter Interface *odule
E "ommunication 3ystem
E "entral %ffice '?uipment
between the meter interface units and the central office.
E )3* $etwork
E 0ower Line
Central <<ice Systems
: "entral office systems e?uipment includes5
M *odems
M "entral server
M "lient 3oftware for data ac?uisition and data analysis
#24#NT#$ES * #MR
-A
E'ECTR"C CM!#N1 &ENE*"TS
".3T%*'+ ;'$',IT3 3




















-:
.recise consum&tion information
lear and accurate $illing
Automatic outage information and faster recovery
2etter and faster customer service
7lag &otential high consum&tion $efore customer gets a high $ill'
CMMN METER
RE#2"N$ "NSTR%MENT
-2
INTRODUCTION
Analogic's CMRI is a State-of-the-art product for Meter Reading needs. CMRI is a Light
Weight, Compact Instrument that is 100% compatible to a desktop DOS PC added with
portability and ruggedness. The CMRI is compatible with all types of existing Electronic
Tri Vector Energy Meters in the market.
Analogic's CMRI is designed to run MS-DOS and the vast majority of DOS Based PC
applications comes with superlative features like LCD with monochrome CGA text and
graphics, high-speed serial ports, 2 MB system RAM, 2MB system
FLASH for programs and 2MB static RAM for Data Storage which is expandable upto
16 MB.
-
FEATURES
100% PC Compatibility in a Rugged Hand Held
Runs MS-DOS and Virtually any PC Program
Fully PC Compatible High Speed two Serial Ports with baud rates upto 115.2
kbps
Single or Dual key operation for any meter reading
CGA monochrome video with Virtual Screen enables to view phasor or load
survey graphs on the spot
Supertwist Liquid Crystal Display Screen with EL Backlight (16 Rows of 24
Characters, 192 by 128 pixel graphics)
Write protected memory area for permanent storage of program files with
guaranteed 1 million operations
50 years calendar Lithium Battery backed Real Time Clock
Latest and State-of-the-art NiMH battery 1.7 Ahr for operating more than 10 hrs
in the field.
Membrane Keypad (optional Elastomeric)
45, 32, 30, 20 or 15 keys Standard or Custom Keypad layouts
Rugged Cycolac ABS Case with rubber boot for extra protection
CBIP compliant
Customized to your Specification
SPECIFICATIONS:
Power : Battery Power 6 Volts, Nickel Metal Hydride with no charge
memory, 3 hrs or less recharge time, 8 hrs (8 Mhz no backlight) charge
Environment:
Storage Temperature : -20 C to +70 C
Operating Temperature : 0 to +50 C
Humidity : 5-95% (.
--
SUMMARY
1uring this co$plete training# 2 got +ell -ersed +ith -arious
electrical de-ices and circuits. 'esides this# 2 did a deep
study about the -arious $ethods of theft of electricity and
also the techni&ues used to control such theft# the -arious
latest trends in technology used for energy $eters to get an
accurate energy $easure$ent.
0nce the Energy $eters +ere deeply studied# 2 gained
,no+ledge about -arious other products $anufactured by
the co$pany li,e M('3s# Monobloc, 4u$ps# (eiling 5ans and
Motor Starters etc.
6ll in all this training has been really bene%cial for $e in
gaining -ital practical ,no+ledge about -arious de-ices and
circuits in the %eld of Electrical and Electronics.
-/