EFFECTS OF WATER I NTRODUCTI ON ON DI ESEL ENGI NE

COMBUSTI ON AND EMI SSI ONS

G. GREEVES, I. M. KHAN, AND G. ONION
Research Department, CA V Limited, Acton, London, England
Experimental results are presented for the effect of water injection on fuel economy and
ignition delay and on exhaust emissions of smoke, CO, NO and HC for a direct injection
diesel engine. Results are given for a range of water/fuel ratios and for three methods
of water injection. Compared with fuel injection only, NO is reduced by up to 70% by
using water injection in the air inlet or with the fuel. But while the former method increases
smoke and CO, the latter method reduces CO and smoke by up to 50% together with small
improvements in specific fuel consumption. However due to an increase of HC beyond
a water/fuel ratio of 0.6 the NO reduction would be limited to 50% when injecting water
with the fuel, though this situation could be improved by increasing the engine compression
ratio. The results obtained by the authors are compared with those available in the literature.
Experimental data are presented on droplet size distributions for water, fuel and all spray
droplets and there is a change in the state of the water/fuel spray for water/fuel ratios
greater than 0.2..Also a previously developed computer model of the diesel combustion
process is used to predict the effect of water injection on NO, smoke and fuel economy.
The calculations over-estinaate some of the trends but show that, in addition to the thermal
effect of water injection, water injection affects the rates of air entrainment and fuel/air
mixing. In particular, water injected with the fuel is an additional source of injected momentum
for fuel/air mixing.
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n
The i nt roduct i on of water i nt o heteroge-
neous l i qui d hydr ocar bon/ ai r combust i on
systems offers a number of possi bl e benefits.
These i ncl ude reduced system temperatures,
i mproved at omi sat i on and a reduct i on i n the
emissions of soot and ni t rogen oxides. In oil
fired furnaces the i nt r oduct i on of wat er / f uel
emul si on can be very effective i n reduci ng
smoke emi ssi ons wi t h resi dual fuels I t hough
not necessarily with lighter fuel oils 2 where
atomisation is a less domi nant factor. The
reduced smoke emi ssi ons have been at t ri but ed
to the oecurence of ' mi cro-expl osi ons' caused
by the di srupt i ve effect of water vapori si ng
wi t hi n the fuel droplets dur i ng the droplet
heat i ng period. The mi cro-expl osi on phenom-
enon has been observed under laboratory
condi t i ons and a review of the literature to-
gether wi t h details of some recent work are
given i n reference 3.
I n the aut omot i ve appl i cat i on of the di esel
engi ne there is renewed interest i n water injec-
t i on wi t h the prospect of more severe emissions
l egi sl at i on together wi t h the need to conserve
or i mprove fuel economy. Previous experi-
ment al studies on the effect of water i nj ect i on
i n diesel engi nes have been reported i n refer-
ences 4-10 and t he results show that NO
reduct i ons of at least 50% can be achieved.
However there is little comprehensi ve in-
format i on on the relative advantages of the
vari ous methods by whi ch water can be inject-
ed i nt o the diesel combust i on system.
Work has been carried out at the authors'
laboratory to det ermi ne t he effect of water
i nj ect i on i n aut omot i ve type diesel engines.
The experimental work was ai med at provi di ng
comprehensi ve data on the effects of water
i nj ect i on on engi ne performance, i gni t i on
delay and on emi ssi ons of smoke, NO, CO
and unbur nt hydrocarbons. I n particular
various methods of i nt r oduci ng the water were
explored. I n addi t i on to engi ne performance
and emi ssi ons experiments, the state of the
321
322 POWER SYSTEMS
wa t e r / f u e l s pr a y us e d i n t he e ngi ne exper i -
ment s was d e t e r mi n e d e xpe r i me nt a l l y. Al s o a
pr e vi ous l y d e v e l o p e d mode l of t he di e s e l com-
bus t i on pr oces s has be e n us ed t o i nt e r pr e t t he
e ngi ne p e r f o r ma n c e a nd emi s s i ons r es ul t s .
2. De t a i l s of the En g i n e Ex p e r i me n t s
The e ngi ne us e d for t he i nve s t i ga t i on is a
na t ur a l l y a s p i r a t e d a ut omot i ve t ype f our -
c yl i nde r f our - s t r oke di r ect i nj ect i on engi ne.
Cy l i n d e r s we pt v o l u me is 0. 97 l i t r es pe r cyl -
i nder , c o mp r e s s i o n r at i o 16:1, a nd an i nj e c t i on
nozzl e wi t h a c onf i gur a t i on of 4 x 0. 28 (4
hol es of 0. 28 mm di amet er ) a nd wi t h a noz z l e
o p e n i n g pr e s s ur e of 175 at m is n o r ma l l y us ed.
The wat er i nj e c t i on t est s wer e c o n f i n e d t o a
s i ngl e c y l i n d e r of t he f our c yl i nde r e n g i n e t o
al l ow t he t est c y l i n d e r t o be mot or e d a n d t o
gi ve gr eat est f l e xi bi l i t y i n t he use of t he i nj ec-
t i on e q u i p me n t f or t he var i ous t e c hni que s of
wat er i nj ect i on. Two of t he r e ma i n i n g c yl i n-
der s wer e s u p p l i e d b y a s epar at e f u e l i n g sys-
t em at f i xed f u e l i n g a nd t i mi ng a nd t he c yl i n-
der adj acent t o t he t est c yl i nde r was mot or e d.
The i n d i c a t e d p o we r out put a nd cor r e-
s p o n d i n g s pe c i f i c f uel c o n s u mp t i o n of t he t est
c yl i nde r wer e c a l c ul a t e d di r e c t l y f r om t he
di f f e r e nc e of t he e ngi ne out put t or ques mea-
s ur e d for f i r i ng a nd mot or i ng c ondi t i ons of
t he t est c yl i nde r .
Recor ds wer e t a ke n of t he c y l i n d e r pr e s s ur e
a nd of t he l i f t of t he nozzl e needl e val ve. Th e
t i mi ng of i nj e c t i on is d e f i n e d as t he c r a nk a ngl e
at whi c h t he n e e d l e st ar t s t o l i f t a nd t he i g n i t i o n
de l a y was me a s u r e d f r om t he st art of t he n e e d l e
l i f t t o t he st ar t of c o mb u s t i o n pr e s s ur e r i se.
Conc e nt r a t i ons of CO a nd NO i n t he e ngi ne
exhaus t wer e me a s u r e d wi t h n o n - d i s p e r s i v e
i nf r a- r ed gas a na l ys e r s a nd HC c onc e nt r a t i on
was me a s ur e d wi t h a he a t e d f l ame i oni s a t i on
det ect or a nd h e a t e d s a mpl e l i ne. The e mi s s i o n
anal ys i s e q u i p me n t a nd pr oc e dur e s f ol l ow
t hos e r e c o mme n d e d i n SAE J177 a n d J215
a nd i n t he case of t he NDI R anal ys er s t he
s a mpl e is d r i e d i n a t hr ee st age pr oc e s s so
t hat a ny r e ma i n i n g H 2 0 has ne gl i gi bl e ef f ect
(I)
(2)
i n j e c t o r /
Inlet
manifold
Fuel ~
/ i n j m o r I I
rnjection
Inlet val ve
\
Exhaust valve
pumps
Cc_ of bore
_ ~ Fuel nozzle
~ . ~ \ \ \ ~ /T- piece w i t h
(3bl ~ ~-~0,-woy vo,ws
Injection p u m p s
FIG. 1. Water injection system; (1) air inlet mani fol d water injection system, (2) two pump two i nj ect or.
system, (3b) two pump one injector system.
EFFECTS OF WATER INTRODUCTION 323
on t he me a s ur e me nt s . Th e me a s ur e me nt s of
exhaus t s moke wer e c o n v e r t e d t o mas s con-
cent r at i ons b y us i ng a p r e v i o u s l y e s t a bl i s he d
cor r el at i on 15 whi c h is a p p l i c a b l e t o a ut omot i ve
di es el engi nes f ue l e d wi t h gas oi l . Th e va l i di t y
of t he s moke n u mb e r / ma s s cor r el at i on for
wat er i nj ect i on e xpe r i me nt s is pe r ha ps s ubj ect
t o s ome doubt s i nce i t was de r i ve d f r om f uel
onl y engi ne dat a. Howe ve r , as di s c us s e d l at er ,
t her e ar e good r eas ons t o be l i e ve t hat soot
f or ma t i on is a gas pha s e pr oces s i n t he au-
t omot i ve di es el e ngi ne so t hat a ddi t i ona l H 2 0
va pour s houl d not d r a ma t i c a l l y af f ect t he ba s i c
soot par t i cl e si ze ( di a me t e r --- 250A) nor t he
pr oces s of a g g l o me r a t i o n i nt o l ar ger par t i cl es
( di amet er = 1- 2t xm) J 6 Co n s e q u e n t l y t he
s moke n u mb e r / ma s s c or r e l a t i on s houl d not
be s er i ous l y i n error.
Th e f uel us ed was an a ut omot i ve gas oi l
wi t h I. B. P. = 180~ 50% B. P. = 260~ F. B. P.
-- 360~ a nd eet ane n u mb e r = 56. Thr e e
t e c hni que s of wat er a d d i t i o n wer e i nve s t i ga t e d
a nd ar e i l l us t r at ed i n Fi g. 1.
1. Wat er i nj ect i on i nt o t he ai r i nl et ma ni f ol d.
The wat er i nj ect i on noz z l e ha d a s i ngl e hol e
of 0. 58 mm di a me t e r a n d was set t o a nozzl e
o p e n i n g pr e s s ur e of 175 at m. Wa t e r i nj ec-
t i on was p h a s e d t o oc c ur at t op de a d cent r e
of t he non- f i r i ng s t r oke a nd t est s wer e
car r i ed out for a r a nge of wa t e r / f u e l r at i os
up t o t he mi s f i r e l i mi t .
2. Wa t e r i nj ect i on d i r e c t l y i nt o t he c y l i n d e r
t hr ough a s epar at e i nj e c t i on p u mp a nd i n-
j ect i on nozzl e. The wa t e r i nj ect i on nozzl e
was set t o a nozzl e o p e n i n g pr e s s ur e of 165
at m a nd ha d 3 hol es of 0. 32 mm di a me t e r
or i e nt a t e d as s hown i n Fi g. 1. Wi t h t hi s
me t h o d t he p h a s i n g of t he t i mi n g of wat er
i nj ect i on wi t h r e s pe c t t o t he t i mi n g of f uel
i nj ect i on was va r i e d i n a d d i t i o n t o t he
va r i a t i on of wa t e r / f u e l r at i o.
3. Wat er i nj ect i on di r e c t l y i nt o t he c y l i n d e r
wi t h t he f uel a n d t h r o u g h t he f uel i nj ect i on
nozzl e. Set s of e xpe r i me nt s wer e p e r f o r me d
us i ng:
a) A me c h a n i c a l l y p r e p a r e d wa t e r / f u e l
di s pe r s i on f ed t o t he f uel i nj ect i on pump.
The wat er / f uel d i s p e r s i o n was p r o d u c e d
i n a s u p p l y t a nk b y us i ng an e l e c t r i c a l l y
dr i ve n gear p u mp t o p r o v i d e c ont i nuous
r eci r cul at i on of t he wa t e r / f u e l mi xt ur e
i mme d i a t e l y u p s t r e a m of t he i nj ect i on
pump.
b) A s epar at e i nj e c t i on p u mp t o i nt r oduc e
t he wat er i nt o t he h i g h pr e s s ur e f uel l i ne
b e t we e n t he f uel i nj e c t i on p u mp a nd t he
nozzl e.
I n or der t o s i mp l i f y t he pr e s e nt a t i on, onl y
r e pr e s e nt a t i ve r es ul t s ar e pr e s e nt e d here. A
f u e l i n g l evel of 60- 65 mm3 / s t r o k e a nd an
e ngi ne s pe e d of 2000 r e v / mi n wer e chos en
as a r ef er ence c ondi t i on. Th i s c ondi t i on corre-
s p o n d e d t o f ul l l oa d f u e l i n g at 70% of t he
r a t e d e ngi ne s peed. A f uel i nj ect i on t i mi ng
of 20 cr ank degr ees be f or e t op de a d cent r e
(~ woul d n o r ma l l y be us e d t o gi ve
be s t f uel e c o n o my but mor e r e t a r de d t i mi ngs
of i 5 ~ a nd 10 ~ B. T. D. C. wer e al so expl or ed
s i nc e t hes e are r e l e va nt i n t he cont ext of
r e d u c i n g NO emi s s i ons .
3. Co mp a r i s o n of t he Va r i ous Me t h o d s of
Wa t e r I n j e c t i o n
Fi gur e s 2 a nd 3 s how a c ompa r i s on of
r e pr e s e nt a t i ve r es ul t s o b t a i n e d for t he t hr ee
t e c hni que s of wat er i nj ect i on. The r es ul t s ar e
e xpr e s s e d as t he f act or i al change, t hat is t he
r es ul t s obs e r ve d wi t h wat er i nj ect i on d i v i d e d
b y t he r es ul t obs e r ve d wi t h no wat er i nj ect i on,
a n d ar e pl ot t e d as a f u n c t i o n of t he vol ume t r i c
wa t e r / f u e l r at i o (fuel d e n s i t y = 0. 83 g / c c ) .
Technique (1)
The r es ul t s for wat er i nj ect i on i n t he ai r
i nl et ma n i f o l d s how t hat NO decr eas es pr o-
gr e s s i ve l y wi t h i ncr eas e of wa t e r / f u e l r at i o.
At W/ F = 0. 5 t he NO r e d u c t i o n is 30% wh i c h
is i n good a gr e e me nt wi t h t he r esul t s of ot her s
s uch as 6 a nd 8. Smoke, CO a nd i gni t i on de l a y
i ncr eas e t oget her wi t h s mal l i ncr eas es i n spe-
c i f i c f uel c ons umpt i on.
Technique (2)
Th e dat a for wat er i nj e c t i on vi a a s epar at e
i nj ect or i nt o t he c y l i n d e r ar e for a t i mi n g of
20 ~ B. T. D. C. for i nj e c t i on of bot h wat er a n d
f uel , t hat is wi t h 0 ~ p h a s i n g b e t we e n wat er
a n d f uel . Thi s s ys t em gi ves ver y s i mi l ar r educ-
t i ons of NO t o t hos e o b t a i n e d wi t h wat er
i nj e c t i on i n t he i nl et ma n i f o l d but t her e is
a gr eat er i ncr eas e of s moke wi t h i ncr eas e of
wa t e r / f u e l r at i o. Ot he r r es ul t s , obt a i ne d f or
t he ef f ect of p h a s i n g wi t h t hi s syst em, s h o we d
t hat ear l y t i mi ngs of wa t e r i nj ect i on gave t he
l eas t i ncr eas e i n s moke a n d s i mi l ar r esul t s t o
t hos e s hown for i nj e c t i on of wat er i n t he i nl et
ma n i f o l d wer e t he n obt a i ne d.
Technique (3b)
Th e r es ul t s s hown f or wat er i nj ect i on wi t h
t he f uel wer e o b t a i n e d wi t h a s ys t em us i ng
s e pa r a t e i nj ect i on p u mp s c onne c t e d t o t he f uel
324 POWER SYSTEMS
I I I I
1 . 8
/ \ co . . . .
" / \ "-~
tA I \ . . / . . . . ~ "
1 . 0
O~ ~ o . _ _ . . o
U 3
t . 9
NO
U
Q6 ~ ~ 1 7 6 ~ - "~
3.0 ~I ~'
2..5 SMOKE - " "
p
2 D I " A _ . . ~ -- -- -- A-- # 1 1
~ o__.__o_ _
ID U"C --0 " ~ T "-- " 0--' -"0--' --0
0.5 ~ o ~ ~
I I I t
0 O . S 1.0 1.5
WATER/ FUEL . ( by vol ume)
FIG. 2. Compari son of three techniques of water injection, square = water injection in air inlet (system
1), triangle = water injection with separate injector (system 2), circle = water injection with the fuel
(system 3b). Fuel i ng = 60-65 mma/ st roke, fuel nozzle had 4 holes x 0.28 mm diameter, nozzle openi ng
pressure = 175 atm, fuel timing = 20-15~
i nj ect or b y a T- p i e c e a n d p h a s e d so t hat f uel
a nd wat er p u mp i n g c o mme n c e d at t he s a me
t i me. For a gi ve n W/ F r at i o, i nj ect i on of wa t e r
wi t h t he f uel gi ves a gr eat er r e duc t i on of NO
t han for t he ot he r t e c hni que s of wat er i nj e c t i on.
I n a d d i t i o n r e d u c t i o n s of s moke a nd CO a n d
i n s ome cases s ma l l r e duc t i ons of S F C ar e
obs er ved. I g n i t i o n de l a y i ncr eas es mor e r a pi d-
l y wi t h i ncr eas e of W/ F r at i o a nd b e y o n d W/ F
= 0. 6 t he u n b u r n t hydr oc a r bons i ncr eas e.
Me a s ur e me nt s of HC wer e not t aken f or t he
ot her s ys t ems b u t i t is expect ed t hat a s i mi l a r
r el at i on b e t we e n HC a n d i gni t i on d e l a y wi l l
a ppl y. Th e r es ul t s s how t hat i gni t i on d e l a y
i s l onger for wa t e r i nj e c t i on wi t h t he f uel t ha n
for i nj ect i on i n t he ai r i nl et even wh e n W/ F
r at i o is a dj us t e d f or c o mp a r a b l e NO r e duc -
t i ons.
4. Further Results for Injecti on of Water
wi th the Fuel
Su b s e q u e n t t o t est s wi t h t he s t a nda r d i nj ec-
t i on nozzl e of 4 x 0. 28 c onf i gur a t i on, t est s
wer e car r i ed out wi t h a 4 x 0. 33 noz z l e a n d
for nozzl e o p e n i n g pr es s ur es ( NOP) of 175
a nd 300 at m. Th e r es ul t s ar e s hown i n Fi gs .
4 a n d 5 whe r e t he r es ul t s for t he 4 x 0. 28
nozzl e a n d 175 a t m NOP c or r e s pond t o t he
r esul t s for wa t e r i nj ect i on wi t h f uel s h o wn
i n Fi gs. 2 a n d 3. Ref er ence t o t he c ur ve for
i nj ect i on p e r i o d i n Fi g. 5 shows t hat i nj e c t i on
p e r i o d i ncr eas es wi t h i nc r e a s i ng wa t e r / f u e l
r at i o. No r ma l l y , wi t h f uel onl y, an i nc r e a s e
of i nj ect i on p e r i o d wi l l i ncr eas e s moke a n d
CO c onc e nt r a t i ons , n Wi t h wat er i nj e c t i on,
s moke a nd CO r e duc t i ons ar e a c hi e ve d i n s pi t e
EFFECTS OF WATER INTRODUCTION 325
IA
u.I
~D
z
"v
U
.A 1.8
n"
o
I--
u 1.4
LG
I I + r
IGNITION /
DE L A Y / ~
~ 0 ~ r l ~
o
0 0
0
S F C / o ~ - - - o - - - - - o
. . 6 ,
, . 04 / o ~ / " . . . - -
,o L - - - \ . . . . . . . . . . .
~E] - - " " ~" o 1
~o~
0 . 9 6 I i I I
0 0.5 I.O 1.5
WATER/FUEL (by volume)
FIG. 3. Comparison of three techniques of water injection, square = water injection in air inlet (system
1), triangle = water injection wi t h separate injector (system 2), circle = water injection wi t h the fuel
(system 3b). Test conditions as in Fig. 2.
of s ubs t ant i al i ncr eas es i n i nj ect i on pe r i od
us i ng t he s t a nda r d noz z l e a n d NOP. Fi g u r e
4 shows t hat s moke a n d CO can be r e d u c e d
st i l l f ur t her b y i nc r e a s i ng nozzl e hol e si ze or
by i nc r e a s i ng NOP. Ho we v e r HC i ncr eas es
wi t h t he i ncr eas e of nozzl e hol e si ze a nd t her e
i s s ome i ncr eas e of NO wi t h t he use of t he
hi ghe r i nj ect i on r at e s ys t ems .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t he gener al pa t t e r ns for t he
ef f ect of W/ I V r at i o i n Fi gs . 4 a nd 5 t her e
is an a ppa r e nt i r r e gul a r i t y wh i c h wi l l be re-
f er r ed t o l at er for t he r es ul t s wi t h W/ I V =
0.1. NO is l ow, s moke, CO a nd SFC ar e h i g h
whi l e i gni t i on de l a y i s unaf f ect ed. Fu r t h e r
e xpe r i me nt s not r e por t e d he r e wer e c a r r i e d out
for s mal l i nc r e me nt s of W/ I V r at i o i n t he r a nge
0. 0- 0. 2, t he r es ul t s of wh i c h c onf i r m t hos e
gi ven i n Fi gs. 4 a nd 5.
Al l t he r esul t s i n Fi gs . 4 a nd 5 are f or t he
me t hod 3(b) r ef er r ed t o ear l i er , t hat is us i ng
a s epar at e i nj ect i on p u mp t o i nt r oduc e t he
wat er i nt o t he hi gh pr e s s ur e f uel l i ne. Ta bl e
I s hows a c o mp a r i s o n of t he r es ul t s o b t a i n e d
wi t h t he me t hods 3(a) a n d 3( b) whe n i nj ect i ng
wa t e r wi t h t he f uel f or W/ I V = 0.8. The s e
r es ul t s s how t hat s i mi l a r r es ul t s f or NO a nd
i gni t i on de l a y are o b t a i n e d wi t h t he t wo met h-
ods a nd for a r a nge of e n g i n e f ue l i ngs a nd
i nj ect i on t i mi ngs . The r e ar e s ome di f f e r e nc e s
i n CO, s moke a n d SIVC, wh i c h can be pa r t l y
a t t r i but e d t o di f f e r e nt i nj e c t i on pe r i ods a nd
h e n c e rat es of i nj ect i on a c hi e ve d wi t h t he t wo
s ys t ems . At t he l owe r f u e l i n g l evel s of 40, 30
a nd 20 mm3 / s t r o k e t he s moke l evel s ar e i nsi g-
ni f i c a nt ( and t he va l ue s have been omi t t ed)
b u t CO i ncr eas es d r a ma t i c a l l y t oget her wi t h
i nc r e a s e d i gni t i on de l a ys at t hi s W/ I v rat i o.
5. Spr ay Cha r a c t e r i s t i c s f or t he Wa t e r / F u e l
Mi xt ur e
The st at es of t he wa t e r / f u e l mi xt ur e i n t he
h i g h pr e s s ur e f eed p i p e t o t he i nj ect or a nd
al s o i n t he wa t e r / f u e l s pr a y wer e e xa mi ne d
f or t he wat er i nj ect i on t e c h n i q u e 3(a) used i n
t he e ngi ne e xpe r i me nt s . I n t he t e c h n i q u e 3(a)
( and 3(b)) no e mu l s i f y i n g agent s wer e us ed
326 POWER SYSTEMS
1.2
1.0
. 8
s s .6
0 .4
s
. 2
0
. 6
.4
,z
0
.3
to
.2
.I
0
1400
12OO
0 800
7-
6O0
4(20
20o
0
I I I i I
NOZZLE OPENING
PRESSURE
9 {ATM}
/ ~ ' I K o 4 x .28 175
/ ! ~X ., 4 x .28 300
/ ~ g . o__ Z~4x. 33 175
I / ' ~X \ , , 4 x 33 3 0 0
~ c o
., - - - ~ , . ~ ~ ; : : . ~ . ? . _ _ . _ . . o _
,I " ~ ' 2 . 9 ~ ' ~
A
q
~ \ ~ , ~ . < Z . . N O
. . . .
.80..---0 ~ o "~'~ "\~
i i i i
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
WATER/FUEL, (by volume)
FIG. 4. Ef f ect of wat er i nj ect i on wi t h t he f uel
(system 3b). Engi ne speed = 2000 r ev/ mi n, fue]ing
= 60 mma/ st roke, injection timing = 15 ~ B.T.D.C.
r I t I I
!
/
25 NOZZLE OPENING I t
PRESSURE / #
(ATM) / i /
"~u o 4 x . 2 8 , 7 s / / /
o 20 9 4 x. 28 3 0 0 IV' ~
zx 4x . 33 175 .,~/1/
9 4x33 300 Z&/
~, . , , & " y
O Z 15 I G N I T I O N / ' ~ ' ~ ' -~
r- u /
_ DEL,,~ / ~" t
,OOOr A / / " / t
804 , / / , " / 4
404
2 o o L I~_" = - - - - - 0 - - o
| !
I
"~ .22 9 /
,,d o , , / - ~ . ' - ~ - , o _ _ Z , , ' i .
t o . 2 o i - , ~ 0 . . . . ~ - ~ - = 7 ~ , ~ " - -
-~ 32- ~ .
I o ,
i - o 24 --A- INJECTION
tu 20 PERIOD
I O . 2 . 4 . 6 . 8 I.O
WATER / FUEL(by volume)
FIc. 5. Ef f ect of wat er i nj ect i on wi t h t he rue]
(system 3b). Test conditions as in Fig. 4.
TABLE I
Results obtained with two methods of injecting water with the fuel. Factorial change is the value relative
to that with fuel only case at corresponding fueling and timing. 4 x 0.28 nozzle, 175 atm NOP, 2000
r ev/ mi n.
Technique Fuel
of water Fuel i ng timing
addition (mm 3 / str) (~
Factorial change with water
addition: W/ F = 0.8
NO Smoke CO SFC Delay Period
3(a) 70 20 0.37 0.55 0.49 0.95 1.90 1.56
60 20 0.34 0.63 0.40 0.98 1.70 1.72
50 20 0.29 0.54 1.00 0.99 2.05 1.74
40 20 0.25 2.25 0.97 2.09 1.81
30 20 0.23 10.00 1.02 2.08 1.73
20 20 0.40 19.00 1.64 2.62 1.56
3(b) 65 10 0.46 0.54 1.30 1.04 1.75 1.52
65 20 0.29 0.44 0.78 1.06 1.75 1.87
60 15 0.31 0.23 0.47 1.02 2.21 1.43
EFFECTS OF WATER INTRODUCTION 327
so that t he final spray state was det er mi ned
by mechani cal forces and by chemi cal speci es
whi ch occur nat ur al l y in t he fuel. The mi xt ure
(a)
89
(b)
2O0 ~n
Fro. 6. (a) Photomicrograph of all separate spray
droplets captured with liquid nitrogen, W/ F = 0.2,
fueling = 40 mma/stroke. (b) Photomicrograph of
water droplets containing fuel droplets, sample taken
from high pressure pipe, W/ F = 1.0.
in t he hi gh pressure feed pi pe was first exam-
i ned by r unni ng t he i nj ect i on syst em on a rig
wi t h t he injector di sconnect ed. Fi gur e 6b is
a phot omi cr ogr aph of a sampl e of t he fl ui d
del i ver ed from t he feed pi pe and shows large
wat er dropl et s cont ai ni ng fuel dropl et s. Thi s
confi rms that for W/ F = 1 the wat er / f uel
mi xt ure fed to t he i nj ect or was a fuel in water
in fuel emul si on, that is fuel dropl et s were
wi t hi n wat er dropl et s whi ch in t urn were
sur r ounded by fuel.
Wi t h t he i nj ect i on nozzl e reconnect ed to t he
feed pi pe, the spray state was exami ned by
t hree separat e met hods when i nj ect i ng into
at mospher i c pressure. I n t he first met hod one
of t he four sprays is ai med i nt o an open- t opped
fl ask cont ai ni ng boi l i ng l i qui d ni t rogen. Wi t h
t hi s t echni que t he spray ent rai ns cool N 2 gas
whi ch freezes all t he spray dropl et s. The di-
mensi on from t he nozzl e t i p to t he l i qui d N 2
surface cont rol s t he di st ance of spray travel
before freezing. Wi t h a smal l di st ance (4") fuel
fi l ament s and dropl et s wi t h tails were ob-
served so greater sampl i ng di st ances (6-8")
were used to ensure t hat at omi sat i on was
compl et e. The frozen separat e dropl et s col-
l ect ed i n t he l i qui d N 2 bel ow the nozzl e and
a sampl e of the l i qui d was t ransferred to a
speci al l y const ruct ed mi cr oscope sl i de where
t he frozen separat e dropl et s were phot o-
graphed. Fi gur e 6a shows an exampl e of t he
phot omi cr ogr aphs obt ai ned for all separat e
dropl et s in t he spray, consi st i ng of wat er drop-
lets wi t h or wi t hout encl osed fuel dropl et s and
fuel dropl et s wi t h or wi t hout encl osed wat er
dropl et s. The size di st r i but i ons obt ai ned by
t hi s met hod are in agr eement wi t h those ob-
t ai ned by other met hods for a fuel onl y spray.
In the seeond met hod t he fuel spray is agai n
di r ect ed into an open- t opped fl ask but this
t i me eont ai ni ng wat er t reat ed wi t h a det ergent
(2% Teepol ) i nst ead of t he l i qui d N' 2. Thi s
met hod capt ures all fuel dropl et s, i rrespect i ve
of whet her t hey are or i gi nal l y encl osed by
wat er or not. In t hi s ease t he spray ent rai ns
ambi ent air and t he di st ance from t he nozzl e
t i p to t he surface of t he sampl i ng l i qui d is
chosen so that t he dr opl et i mpact forces on
t he l i qui d surface are smal l compar ed to t he
forces i nvol ved in at omi sat i on and dropl et
format i on. In addi t i on t he concent rat i on of
dr opl et fl ui d col l ect ed i n t he sampl i ng l i qui d
is kept l ow (<1%) to mi ni mi se coal escence
of dropl et s and also to pr ovi de a sui t abl y di l ut e
sampl e for phot omi cr ogr aphs.
The t hi rd met hod is desi gned to capt ure all
wat er dropl et s, i r r espect i ve of whet her t hey
are ori gi nal l y encl osed by fuel dropl et s or not.
Thi s i nvol ves usi ng a si mi l ar t echni que to t he
second met hod but usi ng a sampl i ng l i qui d
328 POWER SYSTEMS
c ons i s t i ng of di e s e l f uel pr e s a t ur a t e d wi t h
di s s ol ve d wa t e r a n d c ont a i ni ng 1% of a di s pe r -
sant a ddi t i ve ( Ho n e y wi l l BR1J30).
The p h o t o mi c r o g r a p h s obt a i ne d wi t h t he
t hr ee s a mp l i n g me t hods wer e a na l ys e d t o gi ve
dr opl e t si ze di s t r i but i ons . I t is not p o s s i b l e
t o gi ve f ul l de t a i l s her e of t he dr opl e t s t udi e s ,
whi c h i n c l u d e r e s ul t s for W/ F = 0 t o W/ F
= 1, but Fi g. 7 s hows s ome r esul t s f or W/ F
= 0. 2 a nd 1.0. Th e si ze di s t r i but i ons ar e
expr es s ed i n t e r ms of t he di f f e r e nt i a l i n c r e me n t
of t he d r o p l e t v o l u me f r act i on F v ( wh i c h is
vol ume of t he dr opl e t s d i v i d e d b y v o l u me of
al l t he dr opl e t s i n t he s pr ay) pe r mi c r o n i ncr e-
ment of d r o p l e t di a me t e r d. Co n s e q u e n t l y t he
ar ea unde r a c ur ve i n Fi g. 7 b e t we e n a ny
c hos e n r ange of d r o p l e t di amt er s is e qua l t o
t he vol ume f r a c t i on of t he dr opl e t s o e c u r i n g
i n t hat si ze r ange. Thi s me t h o d of p r e s e n t a t i o n
hi ghl i ght s t he di f f e r e nt mode s of t he d i s t r i b u -
t i on cur ves o b t a i n e d wi t h t he t hr ee s a mp l i n g
me t hods . By d e f i n i t i o n t he d i s t r i b u t i o n f or al l
s epar at e d r o p l e t s mus t i n c l u d e al l wa t e r a n d
al l f uel dr opl e t s ei t her i n d i v i d u a l l y or b y
c o mb i n a t i o n of one dr opl e t wi t hi n anot her .
The dat a f or W/ F = 0. 2 wer e o b t a i n e d be f or e
t he t e c h n i q u e f or me a s u r i n g al l f uel d r o p l e t s
ha d been d e v e l o p e d . Howe ve r t he cur ves for
wat er dr opl e t s a n d al l s epar at e dr opl e t s s how
t hat t her e ar e ma n y mor e wat er dr opl e t s s ma l l e r
t ha n 5txm t ha n f or t he s epar at e dr opl e t s wi t h i n
t he s pr ay: at 31xm, for i ns t ance, t her e a r e mor e
t ha n t en t i me s as ma n y wat er d r o p l e t s as
s epar at e dr opl e t s . I t is obvi ous t he r e f or e t hat
mos t of t he s ma l l e r wat er dr opl e t s mu s t have
be e n c ont a i ne d wi t h i n f uel dr opl e t s i n t he
spr ay. I t can r e a d i l y be d e d u c e d f r om c u mu l a -
t i ve vol ume t r i c d r o p l e t si ze d i s t r i b u t i o n s ( not
s hown her e) t hat at l east 35% of t he wa t e r
vol ume mus t ha ve be e n so c ont a i ne d, a n d t her e
is no e vi de nc e t hat t her e wer e a ny s e pa r a t e
wat er dr opl e t s i n t he s pr ay. Resul t s t a ke n f or
W/ F > 0. 2 s how t hat t he s pr a y st at e changes .
For e xa mpl e at W/ F = 1 i n Fi g. 7 bot h
wat er a nd f uel d i s t r i b u t i o n s are b i - mo d a l
wh i c h is due t o t wo i n d e p e n d e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n s
I 0 i i i f
\ / " , , :
0 -.-.-"-
o ~ ~ o
x ; , / /
# , .
L)
o Z
Q2 w
2~
U.I
/ l WATER / FUEL RATIO e
0.1 / I BY VOLUME = 1,0 u._
l
0.05 _U
2 ` 0 , A..-& ~ &
2 7 2 ~ "~ 9
\o
0 >
o _
x
9 v O.! o ~
- u I . v
~ o
0.2. / WATER/ FUEL RATI O
0.1 9 BY VOL UME : 0 . 2
I I
2 5 IfO 210 5 0
DROPLET DI AMETER ( pr o)
FIG. 7. Observed dropl et size distributions at two wat er / f uel ratios. Sol i d triangles = all separate spray
droplets, solid circles = fuel droplets, open circles = water droplets. Volumetric frequency is expressed
in terms of fraction by volume (Fv) per micron increment of diameter (d). Fuel i ng = 40 mma/ st roke.
EFFECTS OF WATER INTRODUCTION 329
for e nc l os e d a nd s e pa r a t e dr opl et s . Ana l ys i s
of t hes e di s t r i but i ons t oge t he r wi t h obs er va- ~ ,31,
t i on of t he p h o t o mi c r o g r a p h s l ead t o t he f ol - 6 ~ .30
l owi ng concl us i ons . Th e v o l u me of e nc l os e d ~ ~ .29
wat er dr opl e t s is ne gl i gi bl e , t hat is t he ar ea 26oc
unde r t he wat er d r o p l e t c ur ve for di amet er s
l ess t ha n t he s ma l l e s t s e pa r a t e dr opl e t is neg- ~ 2soo
l i gi bl e. On l y 20% of t he v o l u me of t he f uel
dr opl e t s ar e e nc l os e d wi t h i n wat er dr opl e t s ~-
a nd t hes e f uel dr opl e t s ar e s ma l l e r t han 5txm 24o0
whi l e t he r e ma i n i n g 80% of t he f uel v o l u me ~o
is i n t he f or m of a l mos t pur e f uel dr opl et s . ~ .8
So t o s umma r i s e t he ma i n c onc l us i ons of ~ g 6
t he s pr a y dr opl e t s t udi e s ; f or W/ F = 0. 2- o =
1.0 t he f uel dr opl e t s c o n t a i n al mos t no wat er ~ ~ .4
whi l e for W/ F = 0. 1- 0. 2 t he l ar ger f uel .2
2o0o
dr opl e t s c ont a i n wa t e r dr opl e t s . Al so a ddi t i on-
al r es ul t s not s hown i n Fi g. 7 s how t hat for
W/ F = 0.1 t o 1.0 t he Saut er me a n di a me t e r ~.~ igoo
(S. M. D. ) of al l s e pa r a t e dr opl e t s is a bout 35%
s ma l l e r t ha n t he S. M. D. for t he dr opl e t s i n 18oo
a f uel onl y spr ay, t . o
. 8
- - . 6
0
6. Cal c ul at i ons on t he Ef f e c t of Water
I nj e c t i o n
Some c a l c ul a t i ons f or t he ef f ect of wat er
i nj ect i on have be e n c a r r i e d out us i ng t he
c omput e r mode l d e s c r i b e d i n Ap p e n d i x I. Fo r
f uel i nj ect i on onl y, t he mo d e l has be e n ext en-
s i vel y c he c ke d a ga i ns t e xpe r i me nt a l dat a f or
t he ef f ect of a r a nge of c o mb u s t i o n s ys t em
pa r a me t e r s on NO a n d s oot c onc e nt r a t i ons
e mi t t e d i n t he e ngi ne exhaus t . The qua l i t a t i ve
a gr e e me nt of t he or y a n d e xpe r i me nt is s uc h
t hat t her e is a hi gh de gr e e of c onf i de nc e t hat
t he maj or c ont r ol l i ng me c h a n i s ms f or soot a nd
NO f or ma t i on are r e p r e s e n t e d i n t he mode l
t h o u g h a mor e d e t a i l e d mo d e l is n e e d e d t o
i mpr ove qua nt i t a t i ve a c c ur a c y. For t he a ddi -
t i on of wat er , t he p h y s i c a l ef f ect s of t he a d d e d
wat er ar e mo d e l l e d a n d t he a d d e d wat er is
t r eat ed as a c h e mi c a l l y i ner t f l ui d. Th e v a l i d i t y
of t he l at t er a s s u mp t i o n i s i nve s t i ga t e d her e
b y c he c ki ng whe t he r t he mo d e l l e d phys i c a l
ef f ect s of wat er a d d i t i o n ar e s uf f i ci ent t o ex-
pl a i n t he obs e r ve d e xpe r i me nt a l t r ends. Th e
r es ul t s of p r e l i mi n a r y c a l c ul a t i ons on t he ef f ect
of wat er i nj ect i on ar e s h o wn i n Fi g. 8 for t he
t est c ondi t i ons c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t hos e i n Fi gs .
2 a nd 3.
Th e t r ends for r e d u c t i o n of NO a nd t he
gr eat er r e duc t i on a c h i e v e d wh e n t he wat er is
i nj ect ed wi t h t he f uel ar e c or r e c t l y p r e d i c t e d
t h o u g h t he changes ar e s o me wh a t exagger at ed.
The r e duc t i on of p r o d u c t zone t e mpe r a t ur e
whi c h is c a l c ul a t e d b y t he mode l ma y be
over - es t i mat ed be c a us e of a n u mb e r of si r e-
fO- N
d " - - O ~ ~ - - - - 0
/
r - . - : =: ===~ - - ~
S FC.
a s a a ~
EM .
"~" " ~ ' ' 0 FORMATION
ZONE
"O
NO.IN
EXHAUST
%'"
MAXTEMP
o ~ . ~ ~N SOOT
FORMATION
~" -- ~ ZONE
O O.~
~' ~O
l ~ ' ~ =
"~~ ~o~ SOOT,N
D ~ o EXHAUST
N
~O~
6 o'.~ o~ 2 c ; 3 - - o - 9 4 o : s
WATERI FUELRATIO( BYVOLUME)
FIG. 8. Calculated effect of water injection. Open
circles = water injection with t he fuel, open squares
= water injection in air inlet, sol i d squares = revised
calculation for water injection in air inlet. Engine
speed = 2000 rev/ rni n, fuel i ng = 60 mm3/ st roke,
injection timing = 20~
p l i f y i n g a s s umpt i ons . I n pa r t i c ul a r t he r educ-
t i on of r a di a t i ve heat l os s es wh i c h wi l l occur
wi t h any r e duc t i on of l ocal zone t e mpe r a t ur e s
has not be e n t aken i nt o account . A r e duc t i on
of soot c onc e nt r a t i on is cor r ect l y p r e d i c t e d
wh e n i nj ect i ng wat er wi t h t he f uel t h o u g h t he
ef f ect is exagger at ed, p r o b a b l y due t o an over -
e s t i ma t e of t he r e d u c t i o n of zone t e mpe r a t ur e .
Al s o for wat er i nj e c t i on wi t h t he f uel t he
c a l c ul a t i on shows t hat f or W/ F r at i os i n t he
r a nge 0- 0. 2 t her e i s a c h a n g e i n t r e nd f or BSFC,
NO a nd s moke r el at i ve t o t he gener al pa t t e r n
c a l c ul a t e d for W/ F r at i o gr eat er t ha n 0.2. As
me n t i o n e d ear l i er t hi s c h a n g e is al so obs e r ve d
i n t he e xpe r i me nt a l r es ul t s . Th e r eas on for t he
c h a n g e i n t he c a l c ul a t e d t r e n d is t hat t he i nput
i nj e c t i on pe r i od is t hat s h o wn b y t he ope n
ci r cl es i n Fi g. 5 a nd e xhi bi t s a r e l a t i ve l y r a pi d
i nc r e a s e for W/ F r at i o of 0- 0. 1 f ol l owe d b y
a l ess r a p i d i ncr eas e wi t h f ur t her i ncr eas e of
W / F r at i o.
Fo r wat er i nj ect i on i n t he i nl et ma n i f o l d
330 POWER SYSTEMS
a smoke reduct i on is obt ai ned from t he cal-
cul at i on correspondi ng to the open squares.
I n this cal cul at i on the water is assumed to
vaporise after the i nl et valve closes and also
the effect of water vapour on the rate of air
ent rai nment is not taken into account. The
cal cul at i on correspondi ng to the solid squares
takes the latter i nt o account and i n addi t i on
it is assumed that the injected water vaporizes
to equi l i br i um saturated condi t i ons before the
inlet valve closes. These revisions to the cal-
cul at i on reduce the mass of air t rapped i n the
cyl i nder and also the rate at whi ch air is
ent rai ned i nt o the fuel spray. The cal cul at ed
smoke (solid squares) t hen increases wi t h wa-
t er / f uel ratio i n a similar way to the experi-
ment al l y observed results.
A more det ai l ed cal cul at i on to det ermi ne the
i nduct i on condi t i ons for the injected water
together wi t h a more precise t reat ment of heat
losses coul d lead to good agreement of calcu-
lated and experi ment al trends for the effect
of water injected i nt o the air inlet and for the
effect of water i nj ect ed wi t h the fuel.
The last st at ement suggests that the effects
of water i nj ect i on on bot h NO and smoke can
be expl ai ned ent i rel y by the changes of tem-
perature and rates of f uel / ai r mixing. Whi l e
the t emperat ure effect is readily appreci at ed
i n Fig. 8, the i nf l uence on rates of f uel / ai r
mi xi ng is best demonst rat ed by compari ng t he
rates of air ent r ai nment . Increased rates of air
ent rai nment have a benefi ci al effect on engi ne
performance and emi ssi ons and are especi al l y
effective i n r educi ng soot emissions. U The
ent r ai nment model of reference l i has been
further devel oped 12 to provi de a more det ai l ed
t reat ment of the f uel / ai r mi xi ng processes and
can be used to calculate the air ent rai ned by
each el ement of t he injected fuel. The ent rai n-
ment is compl et e when all fuel el ement s have
attained the overall equi val ence ratio. Fi gure
9 shows that i nj ect i on of water i n t he i nl et
mani fol d reduces the rate of air ' ent r ai nment
relative to the ' fuel onl y' case since it di l ut es
the air suppl y to the fuel spray and will reduce
the rate at whi ch oxygen reaches the fuel.
However i nj ect i on of water wi t h the fuel in-
creases the moment um of the injected fl ui d
relative to its oxygen requi rement for compl et e
combust i on. For example assumi ng a 7 x 0.28
nozzle, the nozzl e flow area is i ncreased i n
proport i on to the increase of fl ui d vol ume due
to the water and the rate of air ent r ai nment
is greatly i ncreased for the same pressure drop
across the nozzl e holes as for the ' fuel onl y'
case. The air ent r ai nment curves for water wi t h
the fuel, and t he i nj ect i on periods act ual l y
observed i n the experiments show that t he 4
x 0.33 nozzl e gives almost as good a result
as the 7 x 0.28 nozzl e since the hi gher pres-
sures compensat e for the increased i nj ect i on
hO
uJ
Z
.75
t---
Z
UJ
u_ .50
O
Z
_O
I -
L)
<
.25
0
I I I I
r / / ~ O m m 3 1 s t . 2OOOrev/min. 20~
/ / / " F U E L MEAN WATER
/ ~ NOZZLE PERIOD PRESSURE INTRODUCTION
/~'/" (~ DROP
~ / y (ATM)
4 xO.28 22 ~ 147.5 none
4 x O2 8 2 2 ~ 147.5 inlet monifold
4 x 0 2 8 3 6 ~ 194. 8 wi t h f uel
- - - - 4 x 0 . 3 3 2 6 * 193. 5 wi t h f uel
7 x 0 . 2 8 2 3 . 6 147. 5 wi t h f uel
io 20 30 40 50
~ AFTER START OF INJECTION
Fro. 9. Comparison of calculated rates of air entrainment. Values are cumulative for all injected fuel
elements relative to total air in cylinder.
EFFECTS OF WATER INTRODUCTION 331
period. But for the 4 0.28 nozzle the ent rai n-
ment is slower and is compl et e i n a similar
period to the fuel onl y case.
7. Di scussi on
7.1 Water Injection in the Inl et Mani f ol d
The injection of water i n the air inlet mani -
fold reduces cycle t emperat ures which, ac-
cordi ng to the cal cul at i on model, is the domi -
nant effect i n reduci ng the rate of format i on
of NO. Smoke increases slightly wi t h water
i nj ect i on i n the i nl et mani fol d. The smoke is
affected by bot h the lower t emperat ure whi ch
reduces it and by the poorer f uel / ai r mixing,
previ ousl y discussed, whi ch increases it. The
comput er model indicates that bot h of these
effects are significant.
A compari son of the data obt ai ned from
different sources for mani f ol d water i nj ect i on
i n diesel engines is shown i n Tabl e II. The
factorial changes are the ratio of the val ue wi t h
water i nj ect i on to that wi t h no water i nj ect i on
and i n the case of smoke the values are ex-
pressed i n terms of a mass ratio usi ng the
correlation 15 whi ch was previ ousl y ment i oned.
Data for direct i nj ect i on engi nes (DI), indirect
i nj ect i on engi nes (IDI), and t urbocharged en-
gines (TC) are i ncl uded. Whi l e the NO reduc-
t i ons wi t h water i nj ect i on are broadl y similar
this is not true of smoke and CO. For example
i n the data obt ai ned by the present authors
and also by Wi l son et al (DI engine) smoke
and CO increase whi l e the data of others show
a decrease or no change. Differences in the
at omi sat i on of the i nj ect ed water are one
possi bl e explanation. For example wi t h hi gh
pressure at omi sat i on as used i n the present
work the rates of vapori sat i on may be suffi-
ci ent l y rapid to di spl ace some of the air charge
before the inlet valve closes whi l e low pressure
at omi sat i on may delay vapori sat i on unt i l after
valve closure. As shown earlier i n the calcula-
t i on model, this can greatly affect smoke con-
centrations.
The water droplet size and vapori sat i on may
TABLE II
Comparison of selected experimental data on water injection in the inlet manifold, full load conditions,
constant fuel injection timing
Engine W/ F
Souree of Combustion speed ratio
data system (rev/min) (by vol.)
Factorial changes
NO HC Smoke CO SFC Delay
Present DI 2000 0.5 0.70 1.25 1.20 1.01 1.10
Authors 1.0 0.49 1.25 1.45 1.06 1.33
1.4 0.38 1.20 1.61 1.06 1.37
Wilson DI 2100 0.42 0.55 1.10 0.99
et al s 0.83 0.38 1.20 0.99
1.24 0.28 1.14 1.01
Valdmanis DI 2600 0.5 0.68 1.70 0.81 0.84
Wulfhorst 6 1.0 0.52 2.10 0.78 0.74
Vichnievsky DI 2000 0.5 0.77 0.41 0.60 0.96
et al lo 1.0 0.64 0.64 0.70 0.97
Marshall DI TC 2100 0.36 0.73
Hurn 5 1.08 0.32
Wilson IDI 1500 0.42 0.70 0.64 0.97
et al s 0.83 0.53 0.43 1.00
1.24 0.48 0.30 1.00
Torpey IDI 1500 0.5 0.90 1.0 1.0 1.01
et al 9 1.0 0.71 1.0 1.0 1.01
1.5 0.63 1.0 1.0 1.02
332 POWER SYSTEMS
also be important in the practical probl em of
dilution of the engine lubricating oil by water.
No data were obt ai ned on this aspect but the
severity of the probl em is indicated by Torpey
et al 9 where 10% dilution of the l ubri cat i ng
oil occurred in 50 hours of engine running.
This is one of the disadvantages of water
injection in the inlet manifold since it is
inevitable that some water droplets will contact
the cylinder surfaces which are exposed duri ng
induction and compression processes. In this
respect water injection with the fuel should
reduce the oil di l ut i on problem but practical
problems are then transferred to the fuel / water
injection equipment.
7.2 Water Inj ect i on with the Fuel
Greater reductions of NO are achieved for
a given wat er / f uel ratio when injecting the
water with the fuel and the calculations show
that this is largely the additional thermal effect
clue to the increased water concentrations in
the zones where NO forms. Unlike mani fol d
injection, water injection with the fuel reduces
soot concentration above a certain wat er / f uel
ratio. The calculations suggest that this is
partly due to the thermal effect combi ned with
the maintenance of similar or increased rates
of fuel / air mixing. The injected water provides
an additional source of injected moment um
for air entrainment and f uel / ai r mixing. Fur-
ther opt i mi sat i on of nozzle hole size and
number of holes would be required to exploit
this effect fully.
For W/ F ratios in the range 0-0.2 there is
a reversal of the trends observed at higher W/ F
ratios. The calculation model shows that this
is partly attributable to the variation of injec-
tion period wi t h W/ F ratio for the t echni que
3b. The changes in engine performance and
emissions may also be partly explained by the
observed changes in state of the wat er / f uel
spray since micro-explosions could occur for
W/ F < 0.2 but not for W/ F > 0.2. However,
as discussed later, this presupposes that
micro-explosions are sufficiently violent to
affect the rates of gas phase turbulent diffu-
sion. Another possi bl e effect is that with the
technique 3b the pumpi ng period for the water
becomes short relative to that for the fuel at
low W/ F ratio. But, because of the many
changes of section between T-piece and nozzle
and the hi ghl y turbulent flow, the water and
fuel should be well mixed before reaching the
nozzle holes. At this stage it is not clear as
to whether the reversal of trends is due solely
to the effect of injection period or part l y due
to the change of spray state.
For W/ F > 0.2 the fuel droplets contain
almost no water so that the micro-explosion
phenomena should not occur. The calculation
model shows that changes in temperature and
in the gas phase turbulent mixing rates are
quite sufficient to account for the observed
reduct i ons of NO and smoke with water injec-
tion. Also it is the author' s experience that,
at full load conditions, gas phase t urbul ent
mixing processes dominate the situation in that
appreciable changes in NO, smoke and fuel
economy are produced by factors affecting jet
mixing such as variation of fuel spray momen-
tum and air charge motion rather than by
changes which further improve atomisation
and reduce mean droplet size. We woul d
therefore doubt that the droplet micro-explo-
sion phenomena could produce dramatic im-
provements in automotive diesel engines as
suggested by Dryer 3 unless the micro-explo-
sions are sufficiently violent to affect t urbul ent
mixing on a scale comparable to the fuel spray
width. The situation could be quite different
for combustion systems using heavy fuel oils
such as furnaces, industrial boilers and low
speed diesel engines where atomisation and
droplet size may be controlling. Micro-explo-
sions within fuel droplets could well be ben-
eficial in such systems. Indeed observation
of the soot particle structure in some of these
systems confirms l i qui d phase pyrolysis while
the soot particle structure observed in the
automotive diesel exhaust confirms gas phase
soot formation reactions. 16
The possi bi l i t y that the added water modi-
fies the chemistry (for example by increasing
OH radical concentration, oxidising the soot
precursors and hence reducing soot formation)
cannot be ruled out but it is likely to be a
second order effect. Also it can be argued that
some H 20 vapour is always present from the
initial oxidation reactions and from combus-
tion products so that additional quantities
should not have dramatic effects on the chem-
istry.
A comparison of experimental data from
different sources for injection of water with
the fuel is shown in Table III. The data is
given in factorial form and the smoke is a
mass ratio as descri bed for the previous table.
In some cases a small degree of extrapolation
was required to ensure that the factorial change
with and without water injection was at a
constant injection timing.
In qualitative terms the reductions of NO,
smoke, and CO observed in the present work
are confirmed by the data for four other DI
engines though the results for the IDI engine
show some increase in CO. Quantitatively,
EFFECTS OF WATER INTRODUCTION 333
TABLE III
Comparison of selected experimental data on water injection with the fuel, constant full load or full fueling
conditions, constant fuel injection timing, (*fuel injection timing optimised for best fuel economy)
Engine W/ F
Factorial changes
Source of Combustion speed ratio
data system (rev/min) (by vol.) NO HC Smoke CO SFC Delay
Present DI (3b) 2000 0.21 0.62 1.0 1.3 1.50 1.00 1.2
Authors (3b) 0.5 0.53 1.0 0.5 0.60 0.98 1.5
(3b) 0.8 0.32 2.0 0.25 0.45 1.02 2.2
(3a) 0.8 0.34 0.63 0.40 0.98 1.7
Valdmanis
et al ~ DI 2600 0.5 0.72 2.8 0.63 0.69
Vichnievsky DI 2000 0.21 0.81
et al lo (Mono 520) 0.55 0.59
Vichnievsky DI 2000 0.21 0.67 0.25 0.77 0.96 1.04
et al 1~ (Mono 520) 0.55 0.28 0.12 0.81 0.94 1.56
Vichnievsky DI 1500 0.21 0.68 0.64 0.60 0.98 1.13
et allo (Poyaud
6L85)
Vichnievsky DI 2500 0.21 0.76 0.35
et a110 (Agrom) 2000 0.21 0.83 0.68
472) 1500 0.21 0.85 1.0
Vichnievsky IDI 2500 0.21 0.62 1.67 1.00 1.09
et al 1~ 0.36 0.51 1.73 1.00 1.27
there are some vari at i ons i n the reduct i on of
NO, but i n the case of smoke and CO there
are greater variations. Thi s is to be expected
since smoke and CO are much more sensitive
(in % terms) to changes of combust i on system
parameters t han is NO. For example the smoke
and CO results obt ai ned wi l l to some extent
depend on the increase of i nj ect i on period wi t h
W/ F ratio for the part i cul ar i nj ect i on system
used. There are also appreci abl e engi ne to
engi ne differences, for example the Mono 520
engi ne used by Vi chni evsky is likely to have
a relatively low rate of air swirl rotation
compared wi t h the medi um swirl engi ne used
i n the present work.
Both Val dmani s 6 and Vi chni evsky 1~ used
emul si fyi ng agents to prepare their injected
water-fuel mixtures whi l e i n the present work
no emul si fyi ng agents were used. There is no
concl usi ve evi dence from Tabl e III that the
different methods of prepari ng the water fuel
mixtures affect the NO, smoke or CO reduc-
tions. It shoul d be not ed that, i n all of the
systems used there must be consi derabl e
homogeni sat i on forces 3 as the f uel / wat er mix-
ture passes t hrough the hi gh pressure passages
of the i nj ect i on system to the nozzle holes.
It is possible, therefore, that similar spray
states were achieved for all of the data shown
i n Tabl e III.
7.3 Ignition Dela~ and Limiting Water~Fuel
Ratio
Igni t i on delay i ncreased wi t h all of the
met hods of water i nj ect i on whi ch were tried
and this leads to a large fraction of premi xed
bur ni ng, higher rates of cyl i nder pressure
rise, ~~ and increased combust i on noise. I n
addi t i on when i gni t i on del ay exceeds a critical
val ue the HC emi ssi ons will increase. The
results show that wi t h water i nj ect i on i n t he
inlet mani fol d there is less increase i n i gni t i on
delay t han that for water i nj ect i on with t he
fuel even when wat er / f uel ratios are chosen
to give the same NO reduct i on (Figs. 2, 3).
If we assume that some increase i n combus-
t i on noise can be tolerated t hen increase of
334 POWER SYSTEMS
i gni t i on de l a y t o t he cr i t i cal va l ue for HC l i mi t s
t he ma x i mu m us e f ul W/ F r at i o t o 0. 6 f or t he
t est c ondi t i ons of Fi g. 5. I n t he eas e of a
t ur boc ha r ge d di r e c t i nj ect i on di es el e n g i n e t he
l i mi t i ng W/ F r at i o wi l l be hi gher s i nc e i gni -
t i on del ays ar e s hor t e r a nd f ur t her f r om mar -
gi nal i gni t i on c ondi t i ons . 9 Eve n for n a t u r a l l y
as pi r at ed di r e c t i nj e c t i on engi nes i t s h o u l d be
pos s i bl e t o use W/ F r at i o of at l east 0. 8 b y
i ncr eas i ng e n g i n e c ompr e s s i on r at i o. At par t
l oad, however , i g n i t i o n c ondi t i ons ar e u s u a l l y
cl oser t o cr i t i cal c ondi t i ons a n d r e d u c e d W/ F
r at i o woul d be r e q u i r e d t o cont r ol not o n l y
c ombus t i on noi s e a n d HC but al so CO ( see
Ta bl e I a nd r e f e r e nc e 10).
7.4 Water Inj ect i on f or Emi ssi ons Control
Wi t h an i nc r e a s e d c ompr e s s i on r at i o a n d
var i abl e wa t e r / f u e l r at i o t o cont r ol i g n i t i o n
del ay at par t l oa d i t s houl d be p o s s i b l e t o
achi eve NO r e d u c t i o n s of up t o 70% f or l i t t l e
or no i ncr eas e i n S F C t oget her wi t h a s i gni f i -
cant i mp r o v e me n t i n s moke l i mi t e d p o we r
out put . The NO r e duc t i ons a c hi e ve d wi t h
wat er i nj ect i on ar e l i kel y t o be c o n s i d e r a b l y
great er t han can be a c hi e ve d wi t h e xha us t gas
r eci r cul at i on f or t he s ame s moke l i mi t e d p o we r
out put . I n pr act i ce, however , t her e ar e ma j or
pr obl e ms wi t h wa t e r i nj ect i on s uch as an
i ncr ease of c o mb u s t i o n noi se, t he ef f ect of
wat er on i nj e c t i on e q u i p me n t a nd e ngi ne ,
pr obl ems wi t h ope r a t i on i n s ub- zer o t e mpe r a -
t ures, a nd t he cos t of t he neces s ar y a d d i t i o n a l
equi pment . I t is d o u b t f u l i f wat er i nj e c t i on
has a pr act i cal f ut ur e for e mi s s i ons c ont r ol
on a ut omot i ve di e s e l engi nes .
8. Ap p e n d i x I
Model of the Di esel Combust i on Process
The c o mp u t e r mo d e l of di es el c o mb u s t i o n
des cr i bed i n r e f e r e nc e 11 has been p r e v i o u s l y
used t o c a l c ul a t e f uel e c o n o my a nd soot a n d
NO f or mat i on f or f uel onl y i nj ect i on i n di r e c t
i nj ect i on di es el e ngi ne s . Thi s mode l c a l c ul a t e s
t he t i me hi s t or i es f or t he c o mb u s t i o n pa r t of
t he engi ne cycl e. An e mpi r i c a l c or r e l a t i on is
used to c a l c ul a t e t he de l a y of i gni t i on f r om
t he st art of i nj e c t i on a nd af t er i gni t i on i t i s
as s umed t hat d r o p l e t va por i s a t i on t i me s ar e
short r el at i ve t o t i me s for gas pha s e t u r b u l e n t
mi xi ng. The t u r b u l e n t mi xi ng pr oces s es ar e
quant i f i ed b y t he e n t r a i n me n t of ai r i nt o t he
fuel s pr ay v o l u me a n d b y mi c r o mi x i n g wi t h i n
t he ent r ai ned s pr a y vol ume.
The r at e of e n t r a i n me n t is d e t e r mi n e d b y
t he mo me n t u m of t he i nj ect ed f uel a n d b y
t he ai r char ge pr ope r t i e s . Mi c r omi xi ng is
pr opor t i ona l t o a d i f f u s i v i t y c ons t a nt a n d t o
t he s pr a y t i p ve l oc i t y a nd is us ed t o d e f i n e
t he e q u i v a l e n c e r at i os i n a n u mb e r of zones
wi t h i n t he s pr a y vol ume . Thi s mi xi ng mo d e l
is t hen us ed t o c a l c ul a t e heat r el ease, c y l i n d e r
pr es s ur e, t e mpe r a t ur e s a nd pol l ut a nt f or ma-
t i on.
For NO f or ma t i on t he Ze l d o v i e h me c h a n i s m
is a s s u me d t oge t he r wi t h e q u i l i b r i u m oxyge n
at om c onc e nt r a t i on.
The ki net i cs of soot f or ma t i on have not b e e n
e s t a bl i s he d so t he a va i l a bl e i nf or ma t i on was
r e vi e we d a n d Khan, Gr eeves a nd Pr obe r t 1~
p r o p o s e d t he f o l l o wi n g s e mi - e mphi r i c a l e qua -
t i on for t he r at e of soot f or ma t i on i n an el e-
me nt a r y v o l u me of r e a c t i ng f u e l / a i r mi xt ur e.
d$
- - = c o n s t a n t P , ~ b 3 e 200(O/T
dt
whe r e S = s oot mas s f or me d pe r uni t vol -
u me
P, = pa r t i a l pr e s s ur e of t he u n b u r n t
f uel
T = t e mp e r a t u r e (~
d~, = e q u i v a l e n c e r at i o for t he un-
b u r n t f uel a nd u n u s e d oxygen.
Thi s e qua t i on is i n t e n d e d t o cor r el at e t he
ef f ect of t he p h y s i c a l f act or s ( t emper at ur e,
pr e s s ur e a n d c onc e nt r a t i on) on t he r at e of
f or ma t i on of a pa r t i c ul a r s peci es of ga s e ous
pr e c ur s or wh i c h cont r ol s t he mass r at e of
p r o d u c t i o n of soot , but not t he ef f ect of
changes i n t he c h e mi s t r y s uch as a c h a n g e
of f uel c o mp o s i t i o n or t he ef f ect of a c he mi c a l -
l y act i ve f uel a ddi t i ve . Al so t he e q u a t i o n ap-
pl i es t o a pa r t i c ul a r r ange of ope r a t i ng c o n d i -
t i ons wher e gas pha s e r eact i ons c ont r ol s oot
f or mat i on.
The cons t ant s f or soot f or ma t i on a n d f or
t ur bul e nt d i f f u s i o n i n t he c ompl e t e c o mb u s -
t i on mode l ar e d e t e r mi n e d b y c o mp a r i s o n wi t h
e xpe r i me nt f or one e ngi ne t est c ondi t i on. Go o d
qua l i t a t i ve a g r e e me n t of p r e d i c t e d a n d exper i -
ment al t r ends f or soot a nd NO c onc e nt r a t i on
i n t he engi ne e xha us t have be e n a c hi e ve d f or
changes of i nj e c t i on t i mi ng, i nj ect i on r at e,
f uel i ng, e ngi ne s p e e d a nd ai r swi r l vel oci t y.
For wat er i nj e c t i on i n t he ai r i nl et t he ai r
char ge pr ope r t i e s ar e r e de f i ne d i n t er ms of
a wat er v a p o u r / a i r mi xt ur e. For wat er i nj e c t i on
wi t h t he f uel t he i nj e c t e d f l ui d pr ope r t i e s ar e
r e de f i ne d i n t er ms of a wa t e r / f u e l mi xt ur e.
Co n s e q u e n t l y t he wa t e r c onc e nt r a t i on i n a ny
gi ven c o mb u s t i o n z one d e p e n d s on t he r e l a t i ve
quant i t i es of a s p i r a t e d a n d i nj ect ed f l ui ds
EF F ECTS OF WATER I NTRODUCTI ON 335
wh i c h h a v e d i f f u s e d i n t o t h e z one . T h e a d d e d
wa t e r i s a s s u me d t o a c t i n a c h e mi c a l l y i n e r t
wa y e x c e p t i n so f a r as i t p a r t a k e s i n d i s s o c i a -
t i o n r e a c t i o n s i n t h e h i g h t e mp e r a t u r e r e g i o n s .
T h e mo d e l l e d e f f e c t of t h e a d d e d wa t e r i s t o
a c t as a n i n e r t d i l u t a n t , t o i n c r e a s e t h e i n j e c t e d
f l u i d v o l u me a n d h e n c e i n j e c t e d f l u i d mo me n -
t u m, a n d t o mo d i f y i n t e r n a l e n e r g y a n d h e n c e
t e mp e r a t u r e s i n t h e v a r i o u s z o n e s of c o mb u s -
t i o n d e f i n e d i n t h e f u e l a i r mi x i n g mo d e l .
9. Acknowledgments
The aut hor s woul d l i ke t o t ha nk t he Di rect ors
of CAV Li mi t ed and Dr Ewe n Mc Ewe n, Vi ce Chai r -
ma n - - En g i n e e r i n g , J os e ph Lucas Li mi t ed, for per-
mi s s i on t o publ i s h t hi s paper . They are i nde bt e d
t o Dr B. A, Jarret t , Di r ect or of Engi neer i ng, CAV
Li mi t ed for hi s e nc our a ge me nt a nd di scussi ons. The
aut hor s woul d al so l i ke t o acknowl edge t he wor k
of t hei r col l eagues i nc l udi ng Mr. P. D. War ner a nd
Mr. P. Sul l i van who car r i ed out t he comput at i ons.
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t i ons i n di esel e ngi ne exhaust . Sympos i um on
Ai r Pol l ut i on Cont r ol i n Tr ans por t Engi nes , I.
Mech. E., 1971.
COMMENTS
F. L. Dryer, Princeton Universit~j, USA. Some of
t hi s r esear ch has be e n di s cus s ed i n an earl i er art i cl e 1
wher e i t was suggest ed t ha t some of t he i mpr ove me nt
i n smoke r educt i on r eal i zed t hr ough co- i nj ect i on of
wat er a nd f uel may be a r es ul t of s econdar y at omi za-
t i on f r om mi cr o- expl osi ons of a fuel e mul s i on
f or med i n t he di esel i nj ect or. Resul t s r epor t ed her e
wh i c h have at t empt ed t o de t e r mi ne t he t ype a n d
i nt er nal di sper sed pha s e si ze di s t r i but i on of t he
e mul s i on appear t o me t o be less t ha n concl us i ve
si nce t he freezi ng, i mpa e t a t i on a nd di l ut i on t ech-
ni ques us ed mi ght be s us pect ed t o r esul t i n some
336 P OWER SYSTEMS
changes i n t he s ampl ed emul s i on char act er i st i cs.
Has t hi s pr obl e m b e e n i nvest i gat ed, a nd ha ve you
ever added s t abi l i zi ng emul si f i er s t o t he f uel d u r i n g
engi ne t est s t o s ubs t ant i at e whet her fuel e mul s i on
char act er i st i cs are i mpor t ant t o meas ur ed e mi s s i on
r educt i ons ?
i n t he hi gh pr es s ur e par t of i nj ect i on syst em t h a n
by t he pr es ence or abs ence of added e mul s i f yi ng
agent s. Fur t her i nves t i gat i ons are needed t o cl ar i f y
t hese det ai l s.
RE F E RE NCE S
1. D~YER, F. L. (1975). Funda me nt a l concept s on
t he use of e mul s i ons as fuel s. Aer ospace a n d
Mechani cal Sci ences Repor t No. 1224, Pr i nc e t on
Uni ver si t y. Pr e s e nt e d at t he J oi nt We s t e r n / Ce n -
t ral States Sect i on Meet i ng of t he Co mb u s t i o n
I nst i t ut e, San Ant oni o, Texas, Apri l 21, 22.
Authors" Reply. The spr ay dr opl et si ze r esul t s
obt ai ned wi t h f uel onl y, us i ng t he l i qui d Nz t ech-
ni que, agree r e a s ona bl y wi t h t hose pr evi ous l y ob-
t ai ned by s pr ayi ng mol t en wax i nt o a ver y l arge
c ha mbe r whi c h pe r mi t t e d t he wax dr opl et s t o sol i di -
fy i n ai r at a mbi e nt t emper at ur e. It seems unl i kel y,
t her ef or e, t hat f r eezi ng a nd i mpact i on wer e gr eat l y
af f ect i ng t he r esul t s now r epor t ed.
Di l ut i on was neces s ar y i n order t o pe r mi t mea-
s ur ement of t he dr opl et si ze di s t r i but i ons : i n al l
cases, care was t a ke n t o avoi d st i r r i ng act i on d u r i n g
di l ut i on a nd s ubs equent l y. We cons i der t ha t di l ut i on
was of great he l p ( by el i mi nat i ng coal escence) i n
ar r i vi ng at a mor e pr eci se me a s ur e me nt of t he dr opl et
si zes but cannot , at t hi s stage, pr ovi de f or mal evi -
dence t hat it di d not have ot her effects. We can,
however , conf i r m t ha t di l ut i on dur i ng s a mpl i ng ha d
no i nf l uence on t he concl us i ons r el at i ng t o t he st at e
of t he di s per s i on a ppl i e d to t he i nj ect i on pump.
Undi l ut e d sampl es wer e exami ned whi ch, t h o u g h
uns ui t abl e for dr opl et si ze meas ur ement s , s howe d
cl ear l y t he gener al nat ur e of t he di sper si ons. Gr eat er
errors, we cons i der c oul d be due t o our use of spr ays
pr oduced at mu c h l ower pr essur es a nd t e mpe r a t ur e s
t ha n appl i ed i n e ngi ne condi t i ons.
We have not c ons i de r e d a ddi ng emul s i f yi ng agent s
t o t he fuel d u r i n g e ngi ne t est s but some degr ee of
cont r ol over t he degr ee a nd t ype of emul s i f i cat i on
is pr oba bl y exer ci sed b y means of sur f ace act i ve
mat er i al s i nhe r e nt i n t he fuel. Thi s pos s i bi l i t y mi ght
b/~ pur s ued at a l at er stage.
Al so i f we compar e t he emi s s i ons r esul t s a c hi e ve d
by Vi chni evs ky ( who us ed an emul si f i er ) i n t abl e
I I I of our paper wi t h our own dat a t he n i t is a ppa r e nt
t hat si mi l ar r educt i ons of smoke can be a c hi e ve d
wi t h or wi t hout a s t abi l i s i ng emul si f i er . I n t he
abs ence of me c ha ni c a l st i r r i ng met hods , t he f unc t i on
of t he emul s i f i er ma y b e t o ens ur e t hat a uni f or m
wa t e r / f ue l mi xt ur e i s f ed t o t he i nj ect i on pump.
Gi ve n a uni f or m wa t e r / f u e l mi xt ure, t he n t he f i nal
spr ay st at e may be de t e r mi ne d mor e by t he h i g h
rat es of shear a n d f or ma t i on a nd col l apse of cavi t i es
Vito Agosta, Polytechnic Institute of New York,
USA. It is r ecogni zed t ha t f uel mi xt ures yi el d t her -
modyna mi c pr oper t i es t hat are not avai l abl e t o neat
fuel s. Such a n exampl e is t he possi bl e occur ance
of secondar y at omi zat i on i n an oi l -wat er emul s i on.
I n t hese t i mes of ener gy cri si s, it is e nc our a gi ng
t hat wor k is pr ogr es s i ng on t he expl oi t at i on of ne wl y
devel oped pr oper t i es whi c h may offer mor e ef f i ci ent
ener gy ut i l i zat i on wi t h accept abl e e nvi r onme nt a l
i mpact .
Recent t est s on a 65 hor sepower Konat su Di esel
Model 4D92 pr oduc e d encour agi ng resul t s. The
engi ne fuel syst em was modi f i ed t o i nc l ude an
oi l -wat er emul s i f i er ( Pat ent No. 3, 937, 445, V.
Agosta) i n t he pr i ma r y p u mp ci rcui t . Oi l a nd wat er
is s uppl i ed t o t he e ngi ne a nd t he e mul s i on is pr o-
duced i n real t i me whi l e t he engi ne is r unni ng. The
emul si f i er is smal l , a bout 3 / 1 6 i nch i n di amet er
by 3 / 4 i nch l ong; i t is passi ve r equi r i ng no ext er nal
ener gy source. Th e wat er par t i cl es i n t he e mul s i on
wer e meas ur ed b y opt i cal met hods. Sampl es of t he
emul s i on wer e t aken bot h pr i or and aft t he Di esel
i nj ect i on nozzl e. I n bot h t hese cases t he wat er
par t i cl e sizes i n t he e mul s i on wer e about 3 mi cr ons .
The engi ne was r un at maxi mum t or que condi t i ons
at 1600 r pm a nd 18 ~ a nd 22 ~ fuel i nj ect i on t i mi ng.
A series of s t eady st at e t est r uns was t aken. The
par amet er var i ed was t he wat er rat i o i n t he e mul s i on
for ma xi mum t or que r pm a nd t he br ake s peci f i c
fuel c ons umpt i on, BSFC, was det er mi ned. The
BSFC vs. per cent wat er was a r ef l ect ed " S" cur ve.
At a bout 11% wat er r at i o t he BSFC cur ve decr eas ed
and t he n l evel ed off at a bout 20% wat er ratio. The
decr ease i n BSFC was a bout 9. 5% a nd r e ma i ne d
at t hat decr eas ed val ue f r om about 20% t o 30% wat er
ratio. At 35% wat er r at i o i nver s i on occur r ed i n t he
emul s i on, i.e., oi l par t i cl es became s us pe nde d vi a
a mat r i x of wat er.
(NO) x r eadi ngs a nd smoke n u mb e r wer e al so
obt ai ned dur i ng t hes e r uns. (NO), concent r at i ons
of 1600 ppm at zer o per cent wat er rat i o decr eas ed
t o200 p p m at 28% wat er ratio, a nd t he smoke n u mb e r
decr eased f r om 2. 5 t o 1.9.
At 22 ~ fuel i nj ect i on t i mi ng si mi l ar BSFC r esul t s
were obt ai ned but t he (NO)x concent r at i ons var i ed
f r om 1600 ppm t o 740 ppm a nd t he smoke n u mb e r
f r om 3. 0 t o 1.19. At l arge val ues of wat er rat i o, t he
engi ne r pm b e g a n t o hunt . At zero wat er rat i o, t he
engi ne speed var i ed by -*-2 r pm, at 30% wat er rat i o
t he engi ne s peed var i ed by -+20 rpm. It is envi s i ged
t hat t he rol e of e ngi ne s peed i.e., i gni t i on del ay
t i me wi l l be a s i gni f i cant par amet er to be s t udi ed.