First question...

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a peptide hormone produced in pregnancy, that is made by the
embryo soon after conception and later by the syncytiotrophoblast (part of the placenta). Its role is to
prevent the disintegration of the corpus luteum of the ovary and thereby maintain progesterone
production that is critical for a pregnancy in humans. hCG may have additional functions, for instance it is
thought that it affects the immune tolerance of the pregnancy. HCG is detectable in the blood serum of
approximately 5% of pregnant women by 8 days after conception, and in virtually all the rest by 11 days.
HCG rises progressively from conception. Levels double on the average, every 30.9 hours until values
reach 6500 mIU/ml (6,500 IU/L) at approximately the eighth week after the last menstrual period (LMP).
After that the rate of rise becomes individualized, peaking between the 60th and 70th day (9 to 10 weeks)
LMP. HCG decreases slightly between the 12th and 16th week post LMP, and then remains constant until
birth

Question 2
Immune system could react as if the pregnancy is a foreign matter and therefore reject(spontaneously
abort)embryo

Third question.
In females, at the time of menstruation, Follicle stimulating hormone, initiates follicular growth, specifically
affecting granulosa cells. With the rise in estrogens, LH receptors are also expressed on the maturing
follicle that produces an increasing amount of estradiol. Eventually at the time of the maturation of the
follicle, the estrogen rise leads via the hypothalamic interface to the positive feed-back effect, a release
of LH over a 24-48 hour period. This 'LH surge' triggers ovulation hereby not only releasing the egg, but
also initiating the conversion of the residual follicle into a corpus luteum that, in turn, produces
progesterone to prepare the endometrium for a possible implantation. LH is necessary to maintain luteal
function for the first two weeks. In case of a pregnancy luteal function will be further maintained by the
action of hCG from the newly established pregnancy. LH supports thecal cells in the ovary that provide
androgens and hormonal precursors for estradiol production.
In the male, LH acts upon the Leydig cell of the testis and is responsible for the production of
testosterone, the male hormone that exerts both endocrine activity and intratesticular activity such as
spermatogenesis.
The release of LH at the pituitary gland is controlled by pulses of gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH) from the hypothalamus. Those pulses, in turn, are subject to the estrogen feedback from the
gonads.

LH levels are normally low during childhood and, in women, high after menopause.

During the reproductive years typical levels are between 5-20 mIU/ml.

Physiologic high LH levels are seen during the LH surge; typically they last 48 hours.

Persistently high LH levels are indicative of situations where the normal restricting feedback from the
gonad is absent, leading to an unrestricted pituitary production of both LH and FSH. While this is typical in
the menopause, it is abnormal in the reproductive years. There it may be a sign of:

Premature menopause
Gonadal dysgenesis, Turner syndrome
Castration
Swyer syndrome
Certain forms of CAH
Testicular failure

Diminished secretion of LH can result in failure of gonadal function (hypogonadism). This condition is
typically manifest in males as failure in production of normal numbers of sperm. In females, amenorrhea
is commonly observed. Conditions with very low LH secretions are:

Kallmann syndrome
Hypothalamic suppression
Hypopituitarism
Eating disorder
Hyperprolactinemia
Gonadotropin deficiency
Gonadal suppression therapy
GnRH antagonist
GnRH agonist (downregulation)



4th question.
LH is responsible for ovulation while hCG is responsible for helping your body to keep from rejecting the
baby. If hCG levels start to fall off in early pregnancy, it could be a sign of impending miscarriage.