UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA

FACULTATEA DE LITERE
SPECIALIZAREA: ROMANA/LIMBA STRAINA
INVATAMANT LA DISTANTA
SUPORT DE CURS
DISCIPLINA: LITERATURA ENGLEZA SECOLUL IXX
ANUL II SEMESTRUL I
TITULAR: Conf. dr. OLARU VICTOR
PREZENTAREA CURSULUI:
Ace! c"r e!e de!#n$! !"den!#%or f$c"%!$!## de %#!ere c$re !"d#$&$ %#!er$!"r$
en'%e&$( )ec#$%#!$!e$ )r#nc#)$%$ # ec"nd$r$. Sco)"% $" )r#nc#)$% e!e de $ )or# c"no!#n!e%e
c"r$n!#%or )r#*#nd ce%e +$# #+)or!$n!e *$%or# %#!er$re $%e )er#o$de# *#c!or#ene. C"r"%
#n!en!#one$&$:
- $ ofere o *edere de $n$+,%" $")r$ %#!er$!"r## V#c!or#ene
- $ co$!$ #n e*#den!$ c"ren!e%e %#!er$re c$re -$" cr#!$%#&$! de-$ %"n'"%
)er#o$de# !"d#$!e
- $ #n#!e $")r$ $"!or#%or c$re $" e.ce%$! #n!r-"n 'en %#!er$r $" $%!"%(
#nf%"en!$nd #n +od cr"c#$% 'ener$!##%e *##!o$re de cr##!or#
- e *$ )"ne $ccen! )e '$nd#re$ cr#!#c$( )e $#+#%$re( # n" )e $c"+"%$re( )e
#n!e%e'ere$ d#*ere%or feno+ene %#!er$re # c"%!"r$%e
- c"r"% ## )ro)"ne $ !#+"%e&e !"den!## $ n" )r#*e$c$ %#!er$!"r$ c$ )e "n
feno+en #&o%$!( c# c$ )$r!e #n!e'r$n!$ $ con!e.!"%"# oc#$% # c"%!"r$%.
1
Tematica cursului:
/. In!rod"c!#on !o !0e V#c!or#$n A'e 1/234 5 /2647
Noiuni generale es!re !erioaa "ictoriana: conte#tul !olitic si social al $remii% realitati s!eci&ice%
incarare istoric'( E$enimente marcante ale !erioaei stuiate% !ersonalitati im!ortante( Conitii
culturale% teninte religioase )Ortoo#ia "ictoriana*( Curente literare% con&lict traitionalisti+
ino$atori(
8. L#!er$r9 Fe$!"re of !0e A'e
Pri$ire generala asu!ra literaturii $ictoriene( Moralitatea si re$olta% ca trasaturi caracteristice(
De,$oltarea intelectualitatii% Noua Eucatie% in&luentele straine( De,$oltarea termenilor literari(
3. Poe!##. I. A%fred( Lord Tenn9on 1/246 - /2687
-iogra&ie% incarare in conte#tul istoric% anali,a celor mai im!ortante creatii literare )Ull.sses% In
Memoriam% T/e 0es!eries* Princi!alele trasaturi !oetice% teme !re&erate% !er&ormante literare%
calitati lirice si imaginati$e% stil(
1( Ro,er! Bro:n#n' 1/2/8-/2267
Date 2iogra&ice% !rinci!alele creatii literare )3ra Li!!o Li!!i% M. Last Duc/ess*( Princi!alele
trasaturi !oetice% teme !re&erate% !er&ormante literare% calitati lirice si imaginati$e% stil( Ino$atii
literare: monologul ramatic
;. V. Ger$rd M$n%e9 <o)=#n )1411+1445*
Date 2iogra&ice% !rinci!alele creatii literare )T/e 6rec7 o& t/e 8Deutc/lan9* Trasaturile o!erei:
ragostea !entru natura% &olosirea lim2a:ului% !articularitati te/nice% ritm% imagism% ino$atii !oetice(
>. Pro&$!or#: C0$r%e D#c=en.
;
D$!e ,#o'r$f#ce( )er#od#&$re$ o)ere# %#!er$re. Per#o$d$ e.)er#+en!$%$ S7etc/es 2. -o, )14<1+
14<=* T/e Post/umous Pa!ers o& t/e Pic7>ic7 Clu2( A$entures o& Oli$er T>ist )14<?+14<5*% Li&e
an A$entures o& Nic/olas Nic7le2. )14<4+14<5*% T/e Ol Curiosit. S/o! )141@+1411*% -arna2.
Ruge )1411*( Perioaa matura: Li&e an A$entures o& Martin C/u,,le>it )141<+1411*% Dom2e.
an Son )141=+1414*% Da$i Co!!er&iel )1415+14A<*% -lea7 0ouse )14A;+14A<*% 0ar Times
)14A1*% Little Dorrit )14AA + 14A?*% A Tale o& T>o Cities )14=@ + 14=1*( Perioaa &inala: Breat
E#!ectations )14=@ + 14=1*% Our Mutual 3rien )14=1 + 14=A*% T/e M.ster. o& E>in Droo )14?@*
?( @#%%#$+ M$=e)e$ce T0$c=er$9 1/2// 5 /2>37
O!era si re!utatia autorului% anali,a romanului 8"anit. 3air9% teme !re&erate% umor% stil
2. S"ror#%e Bron!e
Date 2iogra&ice( O!ere literare: C0$r%o!e Bron!e )Cane E.re + 141?*% !rinci!alele teme% notiuni e
stil si te/nica a romanului% incararea o!erei in conte#tul !erioaei $ictoriene( E+#%9 Bron!e
)6ut/ering 0eig/ts*: te/nici narati$e% teme% im!ortanta in conte#tul literar(
6. Geor'e E%#o! 1/2/6-267
"iata si o!era% !rinci!alele reali,arari literare% Aam -ee% T/e Mill on t/e 3loss% alegerea temelor%
!ortrete literare% incarare in conte#tul literaturii 2ritanice
/4 T0o+$ <$rd9 1/2A4 - /6827
D$!e ,#o'r$f#ce( !r$$!"r# 'ener$%e $%e o)ere#( )r#nc#)$%e%e cre$!## %#!er$re Tess DUr2er$illes% T/e
Ma.or o& Caster2rige
III. EVALUARE STUDENTILOR
E#amen scris si re&erat(
<
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1( Allen 6alter% The English Novel E P/oeni# 0ouse
2. The Pelican Guide to English Literature From Dickens to Hardy
<( -a7er% History of the Novel
1( -aum% T/e "ictorian Poets
A( -ennett Coan% George Eliot Her !ind and "rt C(U(P( 15=;
=( -riggs% A(% #ictorian Peo$le% 15A1
?( -riggs% A(% The "ge of %m$rovement% 15A5
4( -uc7le.% C( 0(% The #ictorian Tem$er #intage &ooks% Ranom 0ouse N(F( 15=1
5( 'am(ridge History of English Literature C(U(P(
1@( Ca,amian G Legouis EHistory of English Literature
11( Cecil Da$i% Early #ictorian Novelists E Collins 15<1 )15=1*
1;( Com!ton% Ric7ett% " )hort History of English Literature
1<( Cruse% A(% The #ictorians and Their &ooks% 15<A
11( Ensor% R( C( H(% England% 14?@+ 1511% O#&or% 15<=
1A( E$ans% I&or% English Poetry in the Later *+
th
'entury,!ethuen 15==
1=( 3a$ert.% 3(E(% e((% The #ictorian Poets " Guide to -esearch% ;
n
eition% 15=4
1?( 3o#% R(% The Novel and the $eo$le
14( 0ollo>a.% C(% The #ictorian )age% 15A<
15( 0oug/ton% 6(E(% The #ictorian Frame of !ind% Ne> 0a$en% 15A?
;@( 0utton% R( 0(% Essays on )ome of the !odern Guides of English Thought% 144?
;1( Cac7son T( A(% Dickens The Progress of a -adical
;;( Hitson Clar7% B(% The !aking of #ictorian England% 15=;
;<( Ro2ertson% C( M(% " History of Freethought in the Nineteenth 'entur.% 15;5
;1( The Penguin History of Literature the #ictorians% $ol( "I% 155<
;A( Somer$ell% D( C(% English Thought in the Nineteenth 'entury% 15;5
;=( 6elle7% R(% " History of !odern 'riticism% $ol( I"% 15==
;?( 6ille.% -(% Nineteenth 'entury )tudies% 1515
;4( 6illiams% R(% 'ulture and )ociety% 1?4@+ 15A@% 15A4
;5( 6oo>ar% E( L(% The "ge of -eform% 141A+ 14?@% 15<4I >it/ corrections 151=
<@( Foung % B( M(% "ictorian Englan: Portrait o& An Age% 15<?
1
/. In!rod"c!#on !o !0e V#c!or#$n A'e 1/234 5 /2647
JUEEN "ICTORIA
"ictoria% t/e aug/ter o& t/e u7e o& Hent an Princess "ictoria o& Sa#e+Co2urg% >as 2orn
in 1415( S/e in/erite t/e t/rone o& Breat -ritain at t/e age o& eig/teen% u!on t/e eat/ o& /er uncle%
6illiam I" in 14<?% an reigne until 15@1% 2esto>ing /er name u!on /er age( S/e marrie /er
mot/erDs ne!/e>% Al2ert )1415+14=1*% !rince o& Sa#e+Co2urg Bot/a% in 141@% an until /is eat/ /e
remaine t/e &ocal !oint o& /er li&e )s/e 2ore /im nine c/ilren*( Al2ert re!lace Lor Mel2ourne%
t/e 6/ig Prime Minister >/o /a ser$e /er as /er &irst !ersonal an !olitical tutor an instructor%
as "ictoriaDs c/ie& a$isor( Al2ert >as moralistic% conscientious an !rogressi$e% i& rat/er !riggis/%
sanctimonious% an intellectuall. s/allo>% an >it/ "ictoria initiate $arious re&orms an
inno$ationsI /e organise t/e Breat E#/i2ition o& 14A1% &or e#am!le >/ic/ >as res!onsi2le &or a
great eal o& !o!ularit. later en:o.e 2. t/e -ritis/ monarc/.( )In contrast to t/e Breat E#/i2ition%
/ouse in t/e Cr.stal Palace an $ie>e 2. !rou "ictorians as a monument o& t/eir o>n cultural
an tec/nological ac/ie$ements% /o>e$er% >e ma. recall t/at t/e go$ernment o$er >/ic/ "ictoria
an Al2ert !resie /a% in t/e mist o& t/e !otato &amine o& 141A% continue to !ermit t/e e#!ort o&
grain an cattle &rom Irelan to Englan >/ile o$er a million Iris/ !essars star$e to eat/*(
A&ter Al2ertDs eat/ in 14=1 a esolate "ictoria remaine in sel&+im!ose seclusion &or ten
.ears( 0er genuine 2ut o2sessi$e mourning% >/ic/ >oul occu!. /er &or t/e rest o& /er li&e% !la.e
an im!ortant role in t/e e$olution o& >/at >oul 2ecome t/e 8"ictorian9 mentalit.( T/erea&ter s/e
li$e at 6insor or -almoral% tra$elling a2roa once a .ear% 2ut ma7ing &e> !u2lic a!!earances in
-ritain itsel&( Alt/oug/ s/e maintaine a care&ul !olic. o& o&&icial !olitical neutralit.% s/e i not get
on at all >ell >it/ Blastone( E$entuall.% /o>e$er% s/e succum2e to t/e &latter. o& Disraeli% an
!ermitte /im )in an act >/ic/ >as 2ot/ s.m2olic an t/eatrical* to /a$e /er cro>ne Em!ress o&
Inia in 14?=( )As Punch note at t/e time% 8one goo turn eser$es anot/er9 an "ictoria
reci!rocate 2. ma7ing Disraeli Earl o& -eacous&iel*( S/e tene as a rule to ta7e an acti$e isli7e
o& -ritis/ !oliticians >/o criticise t/e conuct o& t/e conser$ati$e regimes o& Euro!e% man. o&
>/ic/ >ere% a&ter all% run 2. /er relati$es( -. 14?@ /er !o!ularit. >as at its lo>est e22% )at t/e time
t/e monarc/. cost t/e nation L 1@@%@@@ !er annum% an man. >onere >/et/er t/e largel.
s.m2olic institution >as >ort/ t/e e#!ense* 2ut it increase steail. t/erea&ter until /er eat/( 0er
A
golen :u2ilee in 144? >as a gran national cele2ration% as >as /er iamon :u2ilee in 145? )2.
t/en% em!lo.ing t/e im!erial 8 >e8% s/e /a long 2een Hi!lingDs 8 6io> o& 6insor 8% mot/er o&
t/e Em!ire*( S/e ie% a $enera2le ol la.% at Os2orne on Canuar. ;;% 15@1% /a$ing reigne &or
si#t.+&our .ears(
-ACHBROUND IN3ORMATION
MACOR 0ISTORICAL E"ENTS( During t/e "ictorian Age% Englan reac/e its !innacle
o& !o>er an !restige( Not since ancient Rome /a an. nation so ominate 6estern societ. an
t/e entire >orl( T/e 2asis &or t/is glor. >as EnglanDs economic !roucti$it.( As t/e inaugurator
o& t/e Inustrial Re$olution% Englan itsel& along >it/ t/e rest o& t/e >orl mar$elle at t/e grim.
Milans% 86or7s/o! o& t/e >orl9( -et>een 14<5 an 1415 t/e 6est Riing o& For7s/ire alone
e#!ane its &a2ric e#!orts u! to ;%1@@%@@@ .ars( In 1414 Breat -ritain !rouce as muc/ iron as
all t/e rest o& t/e >orl !ut toget/er 2ut% t/at &igure >as tre2le 2. 144@( -et>een 14A@ an 14?;
t/e annual $alue o& -ritis/ e#!orts soare &rom L 5@%@@@%@@@ to L <1A%@@@%@@@( -. t/e latter .ear
t/e countr.Ds &oreign trae e#ceee t/at o& 3rance% Berman. an Ital. com2ine an >as almost
&our times t/at o& t/e Unite States(
Trae >as t/e stimulus to t/e gro>t/ o& t/e $ast em!ire( T/e !ri$ate merc/ant a$entures o&
t/e East Inia Com!an. /a 2roug/t uner K-ritis/ control an Inia t/at >as t/irt.+&our times t/e
si,e o& Englan in area an 1A times in !o!ulation( T/e !racticall. em!t. continent o& Australia
almost 1@ times t/e si,e o& Englan >as o!en to colonisation an commerce% as >as Canaa t/e ;+
n largest !art o& t/e >orl( Inee Englis/ colonisation e#!ane in t/e 15
t/
centur. >it/ almost
t/e ra!iit. o& t/e ;@
t/
centur.( No ot/er countr. emerge as a ri$al o& Englan in territorial
reLuisition until t/e centur. close an t/e relati$el. small Englis/ arme &orces >/o% a2le to
conLuer o$er a &ort/ o& t/e glo2e% alt/oug/ tom2s an !laLues in man. a Luiet Englis/ c/urc/
commemorating a son >/o ie &ig/ting% testi&. to t/e cost o& em!ire 2uiling(
T/e economic !o>er o& Englan e#tene not merel. >it/in t/e em!ire 2ut t/roug/out t/e
eart/( T/e !oun sterling >as t/e stanar mone. e#c/ange o& t/e glo2e% an >orl !rices o& all
ma:or commoities &rom grain to &urs% an &rom cotton to steel% >ere etermine in Lonon( Almost
e$er. countr. >as a e2tor to Englan: muc/ o& 15
t/
centur. construction an e$elo!ment in t/e
Unite States >as &inance &rom Lonon an t/e -ritis/ o>ne 2uilings in S/ang/ai% mines in
Me#ico% an t/e entire railroa s.stem o& t/e Argentine( T/is >ealt/ an im!erial graneur mounte
=
to un!receente /eig/ts uring t/e reign )14<?+15@1* o& Jueen "ictoria% an t/e Englis/ &acult.
&or trans&orming institutions >/ile maintaining t/eir out>ar sem2lance is no>/ere more clearl.
illustrate t/an in t/e no2le lors o& t/is era( 3or in t/e 15
t/
centur.% !eerages >ere no longer
con&erre on t/e lane gentr. as in t/e !ast 2ut on t/e moguls o& te#tile an railroa% steel an
&inance( Moreo$er% t/e re&orm s!irit o& t/e earlier 14<@s continue uner "ictoria( T/e Poor La>
-ill o& 14<4 e#tene 2ene&its to t/e Iris/% an t/e Tit/e La> o& t/e same .ear reuce t/e mone.
sums !ai 2. lano>ners to t/e C/urc/ o& Englan( T/e Munici!al Act )141@* &urt/er e#tene
$oting !ri$ileges( -ut re&orm /a not 7e!t !ace >it/ t/e iscontent o& >or7ers( -ritainDs enormous
!roucti$it. /a 2een ac/ie$e 2. a &rig/t&ul e#!loitation o& t/e la2ouring classes% >/ic/ >ere
usuall. conemne to ire !o$ert.% &ilt/. conitions o& >or7 an li$ing% e2ilit.% an !ain&ull. s/ort
li&e s!ans( Po!ular resentment /a cause a 6or7ingmenDs Association in Lonon to su2mit a
c/arter to !arliament in 14<=% calling &or uni$ersal man/oo su&&rage% $ote 2. secret 2allot%
a2olition o& !ro!ert. Luali&ications &or mem2ers o& !arliament% !a.ment o& salaries to mem2ers o&
!arliament% eLual electoral istricts an annual !arliaments( 6/en t/e &irst national con$ention o&
t/e C/artists /a its /am% Ne>!ort )6ales*% an else>/ere% t/e secon national con$ention o& t/e
C/artists in 141; again !resente its !etition in $ain% an t/e long+t/reatene 8turn+out9 &ollo>e(
In t/e &irst great stri7e o& moern inustrialism t/e $ast mac/iner. o& t/e Milans groun to a sto!(
T/e ne> railroas% /o>e$er% Luic7l. !oure troo!s into t/e trou2le Milans an t/e insurrection
!etere out 2e&ore arme mig/t( T/e goals o& t/e C/artists >ere to 2e o2taine 2ut not 2. $iolence(
T/e Englis/ genius &or !ragmatism an com!romise turne >/at mig/t /a$e 2ecome a
2loo. re$olution into !eace&ul e$olution( Moerate elements among t/e >or7ers in 141A &orme
t/e National Association o& t/e Unite Traers &or t/e Protection o& La2our( T/is grou! >as a
re$i$al o& trae unionism% a2anoning stri7es an $iolence in &a$our o& conciliation an ar2itration(
Prime Minister Peel% alt/oug/ a Conser$ati$e% in 1414 !us/e t/roug/ !arliament t/e re!eal o& t/e
Corn La>s( -ritis/ agriculture t/us lost its !rotectionist( Tari&&s ecrease an t/e >or7ers >ere
a2le to 2u. c/ea!er im!orte &oostu&&s( Economic realit. /a com!elle Englan to a !osition it
/as maintaine e$er since: una2le to &ee its o>n !eo!le% it must im!ort &oo as >ell as ra>
materials to 7ee! its inustrial s.stem &unctioning(
Cro! &ailures in Irelan uring t/e 141@s cause >ies!rea su&&ering an &orce multitues
o& t/e Iris/ to emigrate to t/e Americas( T/e &irst great moern &igure in t/e struggle &or Iris/
nationalism >as t/e moerate Daniel ODConnell% 2ut a&ter /is eat/ in 141? raical grou!s stirre
u! an a2orti$e re2ellion t/e ne#t .ear(
?
C/ie&l. at t/e urging o& Prince Al2ert% t/e Berman /us2an o& "ictoria% t/e Breat E#/i2ition
o& 14A1 in Lonon la$is/l. is!la.e t/e ric/es o& t/e >orl( T/is >as t/e !rotot.!e o& all
su2seLuent 8>orlDs &airs 8( Pros!erit. >as t/e 7e.note% an "ictorian Englan sa> t/e e#/i2ition
as t/e summit o& /uman ingenuit. an !roucti$it.( T/e 2reat/ta7ing &ocus o& t/e e#/i2ition >as
t/e gigantic Cr.stal !alace% &a2ricate &rom iron girers an $ast e#!anses o& glass(
T/e Crimean 6ar )14A1+14A=* >as t/e onl. Euro!ean con&lict irectl. in$ol$ing t/e -ritis/
2et>een t/e Na!oleonic !erio an 6orl 6ar I( Alt/oug/ Russia >as not a ma:or militar. !o>er%
t/e Allies )Englan% 3rance% Tur7e.% Sarinia* &oug/t against /er inconclusi$el. (T/e -ritis/ arm.
s/o>e itsel& tragicall. outmoe an inaeLuateI t/e &amous C/arge o& t/e Lig/t -rigae at
-ala7la$a emonstrating increi2le courage an increi2le aministrati$e 2ungling( T/e /orri2le
su&&ering o& t/e troo!s ue to unsatis&actor. su!!lies >as onl. !artl. alle$iate 2. t/e 0erculean
nursing e&&orts o& 3lorence Nig/tingale(
T/e Se!o. Re2ellion o& nati$e Inian troo!s in 14A? im!elle t/e -ritis/ go$ernment in t/e
ne#t .ear to remo$e Inia &rom t/e !olitical :urisiction o& t/e East Inia Com!an. an !lace it
uner t/e cro>n( EnglanDs >ar >it/ C/ina )14A?+14A4* >as !art o& t/e Euro!ean manoeu$res &or
!o>er in a ric/ 2ut >ea7l. go$erne lan( Beneral C/arles Beorge Boron le t/e E$er+"ictorious
Arm. o& C/inese against t/e TDai PDing re2els% &inall. crus/ing t/em 2. 14=<(
T/e Com!aniesD Act o& 14=; /as 2een terme as momentous as an. !arliamentar. measure
in /istor.( T/is act !ermitte t/e &ormation o& cor!orate entities >it/ limite lia2ilit. o&
stoc7/olers )/ence t/e Lt(+8limite9 + a&ter t/e title o& most Englis/ 2usiness &irms*( Pre$iousl. a
s/are+/oler in a &irm >as entitle to /is !ro!ortion o& a com!an.Ds !ro&its an >as also o2ligate
to /is !ro!ortion o& its lia2ilities( 6/en t/e Cit. o& Blasgo> -an7 )not Lt* &aile in 14?5%
s/are/olers >ere calle u!on to meet o2ligations /unres o& times greater t/an t/e $alue o& t/eir
s/ares( Uner limite lia2ilit. a s/are/oler can lose no more t/an /is initial in$estment( Limite
lia2ilit. t/ere&ore encourage &antastic creation an e#!ansion o& concerns an !rouce t/e
moern !/enomenon o& t/e multitues o& s/are/olers com!letel. ignorant o& t/e 2usiness in >/ic/
t/e. /a$e in$este an &or all !ractical !ur!oses e#clue or sel&+e#clue &rom t/e o!eration o& t/e
2usiness( T/e moern cor!oration t/us e$elo!e as an enter!rise conucte 2. salarie e#ecuti$es
an &inance 2. $ast sales o& stoc7 to man. in$estors(
-en:amin Disraeli emerge as t/e ominant Conser$ati$e !olitician% 2ut /e sur!risingl.
8is/e t/e 6/igs9 2. t/e Secon Re&orm -ill )14=?*% >/ic/ ou2le t/e num2er o& eligi2le $oters
an rea!!ortione more eLuita2l. t/e seats in !arliament( 6it/ t/e trium!/ o& t/e Li2eral Part.
uner 6illiam Blastone% t/e re&orm mo$ement continue: t/e Disesta2lis/ment Act o& 14=5%
4
remo$ing go$ernment su!!ort &rom t/e C/urc/ o& Irelan )Protestant*I t/e Iris/ Lan Act o& 14?@%
molli&.ing some o& t/e e$ils o& Iris/ lan tenureI t/e Eucation Act o& t/e same .ear% !ro$iing
minimum essential eucation &or all Englis/ c/ilren &or t/e &irst time in /istor.I t/e introuction in
14?@ o& com!etiti$e e#aminations &or ci$il ser$ice !ostsI t/e Uni$ersit. Tests Act o& 14?1%
remo$ing most o& t/e religious restrictions u!on stuents an &acult. at O#&or an Cam2rigeI t/e
Arm. Regulation -ill o& t/e same .ear% reorgani,ing t/e militar. largel. in t/e lig/t o& e&iciencies
re$eale 2. t/e Crimean 6arI an t/e -allot Act o& 14?;% &irst introucing t/e secret 2allot( Uner
Blastone t/e go$ernment &ollo>e c/ie&l. a 8Little Englan 8 !olic.% see7ing to a$oi &oreign
entanglements(
Disraeli returne to o&&ice in 14?1 a$o>ing a 8-ig Englan9 !olic. to &urt/er -ritis/
!restige an interest t/roug/out t/e >orl( -. !urc/ase o& Sue, Canal s/ares in 14?A Disraeli
esta2lis/e Englis/ ominance o& t/e lin7 2et>een East an 6est an initiate Englis/ !enetration
o& Eg.!t( In t/e ne#t .ear% Disraeli 2. t/e Ro.al Titles -ill /a "ictoria !roclaime Em!ress o&
Inia( Domestic measures uring t/e secon Disraeli ministr. inclue: t/e Pu2lic 0ealt/ Act
)14?A*% still t/e 2ac72one o& Englis/ sanitar. la>I t/e ArtisansD D>elling Act )14?A*% t/e &irst real
attem!t o& t/e go$ernment to im!ro$e /ousing o& t/e !oorI an t/e Merc/ant S/i!!ing Act )14?=*
to regulate sea>ort/iness an loaing o& $essels( Un!o!ular colonial >ars against t/e A&g/ans in
Central Asia an t/e Mulus in Sout/ A&rica% cou!le >it/ t/e !oorest /ar$est o& t/e centur. in 14?5
cause DisraeliDs ministr. to &all(
T/e secon Blastone ministr.% starting in 144@% >as /ig/lig/te 2. t>o s!ectacular
!ersonalities( Pious "ictorians >ere s/oc7e at t/e 144@ election to !arliament o& t/e militant
at/eist C/arles -ralaug/( T/e long Luarrel a2out /is ta7ing o& t/e oat/ )incluing 8So /el! me
Bo9* &inall. resulte in /is seating in 144= an t/e !assage uner /is s!onsors/i! o& t/e
A&&irmation -ill o& 1444% remo$ing all religious Luali&ications &or mem2ers/i! in !arliament(
C/arles Parnell% t/oug/ a Protestant le t/e 0ome Rule &or Irelan Part. in re!eate an eloLuent
emans &or a se!arate legislature &or Irelan( Parnell su&&ere !olitical isaster in 145@% >/en
name as co+res!onent in a i$orce suit an /e ie t/e ne#t .ear(
Uner Blastone t/e Em!lo.erDs Lia2ilit. Act )144@* &or t/e &irst time assure
com!ensation &or >or7ers in:ure at t/eir em!lo.ment% an t/e Corru!t an Illegal Practices Act
)144<* limite t/e e#!enitures o& !olitical !arties in cam!aigning( BlastoneDs 3ranc/ise -ill o&
1441 $irtuall. !ro$ie man/oo su&&rage% e#cluing onl. omestic ser$ants% 2ac/elors li$ing >it/
t/eir &amilies% an men o& no &i#e a2oe(
5
As t/e centur. neare conclusion% EnglanDs ominance o& t/e >orl >as 2eing c/allenge(
Inustriali,ation o& continental nations >as 2elatel. catc/ing u! >it/ EnglanDs !rouction% an
Beman.% unite &or t/e &irst time in 14?@% >as rising >it/ t/e greatest ra!iit.( A >orrie
Conser$ati$e aministration% le 2. Lor Salis2ur. a&ter DisraeliDs eat/ in 1441% sa> t/e 7e. to
glo2al !o>er in t/e -ritis/ &leet( T/e Na$al De&ense Act o& 1445 sti!ulate t/at -ritain s/oul
maintain a na$. eLual to t/e com2ine &leets o& t/e ne#t t>o strongest !o>ersI t/is !olic. >as
&ollo>e until 6orl 6ar I(
3urt/er to >orr. t/e Conser$ati$es >as t/e rising tie o& Englis/ socialism( In 144< t/e
3a2ian Societ. )name &or t/e ancient Roman conLueror o& 0anni2al% 3a2ius 8t/e ela.er9* >as
&oune% s!ar7e 2. Sine. an -eatrice 6e22 along >it/ Beorge -ernar S/a>( T/e grou!
2elie$e t/at uni$ersal su&&rage an &ull. re!resentational go$ernment >oul e$entuall. insure
socialism( La2our s/o>e its mounting strengt/ an sel&+a>areness >it/ t/e Lonon oc7 stri7e o&
1445( T/e Ine!enent La2our Part.% &ran7l. socialistic% >as &oune in 145<I 2. 15@= it /a
t>ent.+nine mem2ers in !arliament(
In t/e Diamon Cu2ilee o& 145? t/e -ritis/ em!ire an t/e entire >orl la$is/l. cele2rate
t/e si#tiet/ anni$ersar. o& "ictoriaDs accession% an Hi!lingDs >ors o& >arning in t/e
8Recessional9 soune /ollo> to an Englan into#icate >it/ ma:estic !o>er an >orl
ominance( So2ering >as t/e onset in 1455 o& t/e -oer 6ar in Sout/ A&rica% >/ere a small num2er
o& resolute >/ite A&ri7aners &oug/t t/e em!ire almost to a stan+still( T/e eat/ o& Jueen "ictoria
in 15@1 ee!l. a&&ecte t/e em!ire( 0arl. an. o& /er su2:ects coul remem2er a !re$ious Englis/
monarc/% &or /er reign >as t/e longest in Euro!ean /istor.% e#ce!t &or t/at o& Louis NI"( During /er
reign Englan /a ac/ie$e !ros!erit. an !o>er !re$iousl. un!arallele in /uman /istor.% 2ut
EnglanDs star% almost im!erce!ti2l.% >as on t/e >ane% an e$en t/e least sensiti$e o& Englis/men
7ne> t/at an era /a !asse(
"ictoria% ascening t/e t/rone in 14<?% counte a2out se$enteen million su2:ects in t/e
Unite HingomI at /er eat/ t/e !o!ulation o& t/e Unite Hingom e#ceee t/irt.+se$en+an+a+
/al& million( Most o& t/e /uge increase too7 !lace in t/e cities( Alt/oug/ man. Englis/ $illages in
14<? still loo7e muc/ as t/e. >ere in C/aucerDs a.% 2e&ore t/e centur.Ds en almost e$er. $illage
/a 2een trans&orme( Arnol -ennett recalle &rom /is c/il/oo t/e se!arate 83i$e To>ns9 t/at in
151@ >ere unite into t/e giant Sto7e+on+Trent( Into man. a seLuestere $illage t/e railroas
2reat/e t/e soot o& coal ust an lure $illage .out/ to t/e mus/rooming inustrial cities( 6/ole
counties >ere 2lan7ete >it/ t/e smo7e !ouring &rom &actor. into a nation o& &actor. >or7ers(
1@
T/e real 2ene&iciaries o& t/is la2our >ere t/e mem2ers o& t/e trium!/ant mile class( E$en
a so!/isticate 3renc/ aut/or an critic li7e 0i!!ol.te Taine% $isiting Englan in t/e 14?@s% >as
a>e 2. t/e is!la. o& national >ealt/( 8Paris9% /e eclare% is meiocre com!are >it/ t/ese
sLuares% t/ese crescents% t/ese circles an to>s o& monumental 2uilings o& massi$e stone% >it/
!orticos% >it/ scul!ture &ronts% t/ese s!acious streets( Assurel. Na!oleon III emolis/e an
re2uilt Paris onl. 2ecause /e /a li$e in Lonon( -ut e$en t/is Lonon s!lenor !ale 2e&ore t/e
2aronial magni&icence o& Milans manu&acturers% >/ere t/e magnates o& t/e nort/ rule inustrial
em!ires &rom !alaces t/at a Roman em!eror >oul /a$e en$ie(
T/e &oreign >orl isli7e t/e Englis/ merc/ant% 2ut it greatl. en$ie /im an grugingl.
amire /im( T/e /onest. an integrit. o& t/e Englis/ manu&acturer an merc/ant >ere a glo2al
2.>orI to t/is a. Argentinians assert $ala(ra ingles )t/e >or o& an Englis/man* >/en t/e.
mean t/e unLuali&ie trut/( T/us% >e can see t/at "ictorian re!ressi$e moralit. >as largel. ue to
ee!+seate con$iction% not to /.!ocris. as it /as o&ten seeme to t/e ;@
t/
centur.( T/e "ictorians
!ossesse an Englis/ conscience an >ere not e#clusi$el. un&eeling e#!loiters o& t/eir &ello>sI t/e
/osts o& re&orm measures in t/e era testi&. to a /umanit. 2e/in t/e >all o& stoc7+/olers( Pri$ate
c/arit. an !u2lic ser$ice o&ten s/o>e t/e 2ourgeois to 2e >ort/. in/eritors o& t/e 2est traitions
o& a su!ersee aristocrac. an 2ul>ar7s o& a sta2le Englan(
CULTURAL CONDITIONS(
8"ictorian9% as >e use t/e >or% is >/oll. accurate as a la2el sim!l. &or t/e c/ronological
!erio 14<?+15@1% t/e reign o& Jueen "ictoria( Muc/ more u2ious is t/e use o& "ictorian to
c/aracteri,e t/e -ritis/ s!irit uring t/is era( In t/e ine$ita2le reaction o& t/e earl. ;@
t/
centur. t/e
term meant smug% stu&&.% narro>+mine% !ruential% moral% /.!ocriticall. rig/teous% an nai$el.
o!timistic( T/e later ;@
t/
Centur. /as tene to see "ictorianism as moral earnestness% astouning
material !rogress% con&ience% an a serenit. strange to our trou2le times( In trut/% t/e "ictorian
age >as an era o& e#traorinar. com!le#it. an $ariet. o& $ie>!oint% as its >riters emonstrate(
-ut% o$ersim!li&ie% t/e s!irit o& t/e !erio &alls into t/ree 2roa categories: "ictorian Ort/oo#.%
Traitionalists% an Inno$ators(
"ICTORIAN ORT0ODONF(
T/e ort/oo#. o& t/e !erio )>/at >e usuall. mean >/en em!lo.ing t/e term "ictorian* is
t/e mile+class s!irit o& t/e 15
t/
Centur.( It is t/is s!irit t/at ominate t/e age an !ut its im!ress
u!on t/e Lueen /ersel&( T/e earl. "ictoria >as a $i$acious girl >/o >as a 2it anno.e 2. t/e
11
re!ressions o& t/e time% suc/ as t/e ull% !ious Suna.s% 2ut t/e age >oman /a &ull. con&orme to
t/e seate image esire 2. /er mile+class su2:ects(
T/e !rinci!al &actor in t/e min+set >e usuall. term 8"ictorian9 >as E$angelical
Protestantism% as note 2. t/e 3renc/man% 0ale$.% !er/a!s t/e greatest aut/orit. u!on t/is era( A
si,ea2le !ro!ortion o& t/e mile class consiste o& 6esle.ans )Met/oists*% intent u!on
trans&orming all societ. into a ecorous% moral institution consonant >it/ t/e !reac/ings o& Co/n
6esle.( T/e noncon&ormist grou!s )-a!tists% Congregationalists% etc(* >ere almost all staunc/l.
mile class an e$angelical( 6it/in t/e C/urc/ o& Englan itsel&% t/e same e$angelical &orces >ere
mani&estI t/e s!orting an rin7ing clerics o& t/e 14
t/
Centur. )as Trollo!e notes in /is no$els*
$anis/e in &a$our o& so2er an moralistic !aris/ clerg.men( E$angelicanism in$este 15
t/
Centur.
Englis/ no2ilit. )&reLuentl. mile+class in origin* >it/ a ignit. an rectitue selom &oun e$en
as late as t/e Regenc.( E$angelicalism also esta2lis/e ami t/e !roletariat a num2er o& t/e age
s!rang not &rom t/e raicalism o& a S/elle. or an O>en 2ut &rom t/e E$angelicals( Ini&&erent to
traition% t/e E$angelicals soug/t to &orm t/e 0ol. Societ. rig/t /ere an no> in eac/ /eart( T/is
s!irit e#ue Protestant ini$iualism(
Onl. slig/tl. less instrumental t/an e$angelicalism in &orming "ictorian ort/oo#. >as t/e
economic an !olitical !/iloso!/. o& Cerem. -ent/am( -ent/amite re&orm >as as !otent uring t/e
8Conser$ati$e9 regimes o& Peel an Disraeli as uring t/e 8Li2eral9 aministrations( -ent/anism
>or7e in t>o irections% )occasionall. at cross+!ur!oses*( In its insistence u!on laisse. faire it
soug/t to insure &reeom o& action &or all ini$iuals ca!a2le o& use&ul an intelligent conuct(
0ence suc/ measures as t/e re!eal o& t/e Corn La>sI 2ut% e$en more im!ortant /ere% >as its &irm
su!!ort &or t/e unrestraine com!etition o& a &ree enter!rise s.stem( T/us it >or7e /an+in+glo$e
>it/ t/e trium!/ant 2ourgeoisie% >/o 2ene&ite s!ectacularl. uner &ree ca!italism( On t/e ot/er
/an% t/e insistence o& -et/amism u!on 8t/e greatest /a!!iness o& t/e greatest num2er9 calle &or
t/e restraint o& criminals an lunatics an t/e !rotection o& >omen% c/ilren% an !au!ers in t/e
interest o& a >/olesome societ.( It must 2e remem2ere% t/ere&ore% t/at t/e re&orm s!irit o& t/e era
>as &unamentall. a e&ence% )a s/oring+u!* o& t/e 2ourgeois ca!italistic s.stem% intent not u!on
altering t/e s.stem 2ut u!on strengt/ening an smoot/ing its o!eration(
Most "ictorians >ere conitione% 2. -et/amism an t/eir o>n 2ourgeois origins% to $ie>
art an literature >it/ t>o entirel. i&&erent attitues% >/ic/ le to t>o entirel. i&&erent e#!ressions
o& !o!ular art(
On one /an% a$erage "ictorians &reLuentl. loo7e u!on art as a !leasant su!er&luit. t/at
!ro$ie occasional en:o.a2le relie& &rom t/e !ersistent ri$e &or >ealt/( T/e taste o& t/e !o!ulace
1;
t/ere&ore o&ten eLuate art >it/ a treacl. romanticism% a glamorous esca!ism e$oi o& t/e
re2ellious an istur2ing c/aracteristics o& t/e great Romantics( T/is eman resulte in an
a2unant su!!l. o& s>eet% co.% sentimental art o& t/e t.!e Mereit/ calle 8rose+!in79( T/e
meie$alism o& t/e age istille t/e colour&ul an c/arming as!ects o& t/e !ast% a$oiing t/e $ulgar%
$iolent% an sensual( Per/a!s t/e ultimate o& romanticism in t/e era% !ossi2le onl. >it/ t/e com!lete
$ictor. o& t/e 2ourgeoisie% >as t/e romantici,ing o& t/e mile+class career itsel&(
On t/e ot/er /an% man. "ictorians o& t/e !ractical mile+class consiere realism as 8t/e
real art9( Pro!erl.% 15
t/
Centur. realism is 2est terme 82ourgeois realism9% an it emonstrate t/e
&ollo>ing as!ects:
)1* -ourgeois c/aracters central to t/e !ortrait( Most "ictorian no$els e!ict t/e mile+
class an ascri2e 2ourgeois $ie>!oints to t/e amira2le aristocrat an !roletarian( E$en
in /istorical &iction an !oetic meie$alism t/e c/aracters in e&&ect are trans!lante in
"ictorian 2ourgeoisie(
);* -ourgeois e#!erience o& li&e( It is t/e e$er.a. $icissitues o& 2ourgeois struggle% t/e
urge to &inancial securit. an social acce!tance% an t/e !ro2lems o& omestic an
commercial li&e t/at !reoccu!. t/ese realistic c/aracters(
)<* -ourgeois et/ics( Realistic 15
t/
Centur. literature emonstrates t/e success o& t/ose
>/o con&orm to t/e mile class conce!ts% an t/e &ailure o& t/e uncon$entional an
re2ellious(
)1* -ourgeois surrounings( Mile class !laces o& resience% >or7 an resort ominate
t/e 2ac7grouns( Soli% com&orta2le o&ten cluttere an tasteless settings mirror t/e
!ossessi$e goals o& t/e c/aracters an s.m2oli,e t/eir !ur!oses an natures(
Largel. a mile+class !rouct an.>a.% t/e no$el in t/e "ictorian !erio 2ecame t/e most
!o!ular &orm o& literature an% &or most >riters% t/e onl. reasona2l. certain >a. to earn a li$ing(
T/roug/ t/e 2ourgeois realistic no$el t/e "ictorian age o&&ers a &uller !icture o& its li&e t/an >e &in
in t/e literature o& an. !re$ious e!oc/(
T/e most amire >riters o& t/is age o2$iousl. >ere t/ose >/o su!!orte t/e "ictorian
ort/oo#.( Tenn.son >as t/e !oet laureate o& t/e 2ourgeoisie% Macaula. + its /istorian an S!encer
+ its !/iloso!/er( 6/en Tenn.son in irate &as/ion e!lores t/e !assing o& 8ol Englan9% it is
actuall. t/e >ea7ening o& t/e "ictorian ort/oo#. t/at /e regrets( In /is militar. re&orm s!irit%
Dic7ens is reall. a true -ent/amite% resolutel. >or7ing to maintain t/e mile class( T/e so+calle
8laug/ing critics9% li7e Bil2ert an Sulli$an% are generall. attac7ing t/e e$iations &rom t/e
1<
2ourgeois ort/oo#.% an Matt/e> Arnol soug/t not to o$ert/ro> t/e 2ourgeois ascenanc. 2ut to
rener it more enlig/tene(
-roal. it can 2e /a,are t/at t/e ma:orit. o& Englis/ >riters reac/ing t/eir maturit.
2et>een 14<? an 14?A acce!te t/e "ictorian ort/oo#. an in essence e#!resse it(
TRADITIONALISTS
6e >oul la2el t/is grou! conser$ati$e% 2ut t/e term is a$oie 2ecause 15
t/
Centur.
conser$atism i&&ers signi&icantl. in meaning &rom ;@
t/
Centur. conser$atism( Essentiall. >/at is
meant /ere is t/at t/e into#ication >it/ material !rogress in "ictorian Englan i not entirel.
eraicate a !ersistence o& traitionalism an a esire &or institutions una&&ecte 2. c/ange( To some%
E$angelical Protestantism an its ini$iualism seeme an a2anonment o& structure in &a$our o&
c/aos( T/e !o>er&ul religious nee &or an unc/anging roc7 ami t/e con$ulsions o& t/e era
!rouce% most nota2l.% t/e O#&or Mo$ement )etaile more &ull. uner Carinal Ne>man*(
Ne>man /imsel& entere t/e Roman Cat/olic C/urc/% an man. ot/er religious an intellectual
&igures o& t/e !erio >ere also con$erte to Roman Cat/olicism( 6it/in t/e C/urc/ o& Englan% t/e
same s!irit !rouce Anglo+Cat/olicism )o&ten terme 80ig/ E!isco!al9 in t/e Unite States*%
>/ic/ i&&ere essentiall. &rom Roman Cat/olicism onl. in ritual an Mass in Englis/ instea o&
Latin% o!tional $o>s o& celi2ac. &or secular clerg.% an re&usal to amit !rimac. o& t/e -is/o! o&
Rome )t/e Po!e*( To man. moerate Englis/men )as Trollo!e re$eals o& /imsel& in /is -arsets/ire
no$els* Anglo+Cat/olicism !ro$e more attracti$e t/an E$angelicalism 2ecause o& its ignit.%
colour an sense o& long+continuing traition( 6it/in t/e last one /unre .ears Anglo+Cat/olicism
/as !ro2a2l. 2een t/e most .namic element in t/e C/urc/ o& Englan% /as mo$e t/e entire
Esta2lis/e C/urc/ in a more Cat/olic irection% an /as tene to iminis/ t/e Englis/ anti!at/.
to Roman Cat/olicism(
Traitionalist reaction to -ent/amism !rouce% es!eciall. in Carl.le% a istrust o& an a
istaste &or a &ree com!etiti$e societ. an e#tene &ranc/ise( Carl.le ee!l. regrette t/e !assing
o& a !aternalistic% agricultural s.stem in &a$our o& >age+sla$er.% an /e contraste t/e !rotecte
!easant o& t/e !ast >it/ t/e rootless !roletarian o& t/e inustrial age% concluing t/at moern societ.
/a !rouce &ar less /a!!iness an securit. &or t/e a$erage man( Carl.le sa> t/e $ast increase in
t/e electorate as !roucing $ulgarit. an emagoguer.% &or /e ee!l. 2elie$e t/at men must 2e le
2. great leaers rat/er t/an electing o&&icials to 2e mere tools o& t/e !o!ular $oice( In man. res!ects
/e >as a 2elate &eualist or !ossi2l. a !roto&ascist( 0is age listene to /im res!ect&ull.% 2ut
continue on t/e -ent/amite !at/(
11
-ot/ o& t/e reactions iscusse in t/is section are &unamental criticisms o& t/e "ictorian
mile+class ominance% not &or t/e sa7e o& its correction 2ut rat/er >it/ an e.e to its emise an a
esire to return to an earlier !attern o& li&e% eit/er real or su!!ose(
INNO"ATORS
6e mig/t la2el t/is tren li2eralism% 2ut again t/e term is a$oie 2ecause o& t/e great
i&&erence 2et>een 15
t/
Centur. li2eralism an ;@
t/
Centur. li2eralism( As earl. as 14A5 3it,geral
in The -u(aiya e#!resse t/e intellectualDs scorn &or "ictorian E$angelicalism an% in &act &or
ort/oo# &ait/ generall.( It can 2e sai% 2roal. s!ea7ing t/at most o& t/e signi&icant Englis/ >riters
reac/ing t/eir maturit. 2et>een 14?A an 6orl 6ar I /a lost religious &ait/( Some% li7e 0ar.%
>ere ee!l. !aine 2. t/e lossI ot/ers% li7e 6ile% !ro&esse &ait/ at t/e a!!roac/ o& eat/ or in
se$ere !s.c/ological istur2ancesI most% /o>e$er% /a a2anone an. sincerel. &elt con$entional
religion an >ere not muc/ incommoe t/ere2.( T/e ma:or causes &or t/is 2rea7 >it/ ort/oo#.
can 2e &oun in t/e emergence o& t/e intelligentsia an in t/e contentions o& science(
At t/e centur.Ds en man. intellectuals >ere su&&icientl. isillusione >it/ t/e mile+class
ascenanc. to s.m!at/i,e >it/ or $igorousl. a$ocate socialism( T/is% o& course% >as a nati$e
Englis/ 2ranI relati$el. &e> Englis/men 2ecame Mar#ian socialists% e$en t/oug/ Das /a$ital
)14=?+51* 2. Harl Mar# >as >ritten in Lonon( Englis/ socialists >ere intent not u!on a com!lete
c/ange to a regulate econom.% a nationali,e inustr.% an a trans&er o& !o>er &rom t/e mile
class to t/e >or7ers(
-ot/ t/ese 8le&tist9 tenencies )see7ing an o$ert/ro> o& t/e "ictorian* ort/oo#. an
loo7ing to a ne> an i&&erent s.stem a/ea* ma. 2e trace largel. to t/e e$elo!ment o& t/e 15
t/
Centur. intelligentsia( 6e use t/is latter term in t/e sense o& t/e re2ellious intellectuals o& recent
generations >/o are at os >it/ t/eir age im!atient >it/ an. ort/oo#. >/atsoe$er( T/e ma:or
"ictorian aut/ors )Tenn.son% Arnol* /a mae t/e transition &rom 2eing $oices o& an eucate
elite% as >ere 14
t/
Centur. aut/ors% to 2eing $oices &or an to t/e trium!/ant "ictorian mile+class(
-. t/e last Luarter o& t/e centur.% /o>e$er% most .oung >riters an t/in7ers /a lost s.m!at/. >it/
t/e 2ourgeoisie e$en t/oug/ t/e intelligentsia /a itsel& e$elo!e &rom t/e mile+class( Since t/e
s!ectacle o& t/e intelligentsia 2itterl. railing against current societ. is still >it/ us ee! into t/e ;@
t/
Centur.% it is a$isa2le to e#!lore t/e reasons &or t/is /ostilit.(
T/e 15
t/
an ;@
t/
centuries /a$e !rouce more eucate an articulate !ersons t/an t/ere
are :o2s commensurate >it/ t/eir a2ilities( Man. o& t/e intelligentsia )as .et greater in !ercentage in
1A
Euro!e an Englan t/an in Unite States* are anno.e >it/ e$er. as!ect o& a s.stem t/at >ill not
su!!ort t/em aeLuatel. or !ro$ie t/em >it/ t/e artistic an creati$e e#!ression t/e. esire(
In conclusion% t/e Re&orm Act o& 14<; /a trans&orme !olitical !o>er &rom t/e u!!er
to t/e mile classes% 2ut &aile to 2ene&it t/e la2ouring classes( T/e economic e!ression t/at /a
2egun a2out &our .ears later% t/e Poor La> o& 14<1% an t/e rut/lessness o& t/e manu&acturing
classes )laisse, E &aire% iron la> o& >ages% Malt/usianism* e#cite iscontent among t/e >or7ing
classes% >/ic/ attri2ute t/eir /ars/i!s to t/e e#clusion o& !olitics( T/e 8Peo!leDs C/arter9 o& 14<4
a$ocate:
1* uni$ersal man/oo su&&rageI
;* $oting 2. secret 2allotI
<* annual election o& ParliamentI
1* a2olition o& t/e !ro!ert. Luali&ication &or mem2ers/i! in t/e 0ouse o& CommonsI
A* !a.ment o& salar. to t/e mem2ers o& t/e 0ouse o& CommonsI
=* eLual electoral istricts(
A&ter 141@ t/e mo$ement lost a large !art o& its !arliamentar. an too7 on a more socialistic
an re$olutionar. c/aracter( Demonstrations occurre in inustrial centres( On se$eral occasions t/e
general stri7e >as measura2l. e&&ecti$e( As trae im!ro$e an economic conitions 2ecame more
settle% t/e mo$ement languis/e an ie( -. 1441% /o>e$er% all t/e o2:ecti$es o& t/e 8Peo!leDs
C/arter9 /a 2een o2taine% e#ce!ting t/at o& an annual !arliament( T/e signi&icance o& t/e C/artist
mo$ement is t/at &or t/e &irst time in Englan t/e !eo!le >ere class E conscious in t/eir o!!osition
to t/e /al& E >a.% class E ins!ire measures o& 2ourgeois re&ormismI it >as t/e $anguar o& t/e
raical >or7ing E class mo$ement(
T/e age is remar7a2le &or its c#en!#f#c )ro're. T/e centur. >as an age o& in$entions( In
meicine% t/e &igures o& Pasteur% Lister% Paget% an Hoc/ stan outI in t/e &iel o& natural science%
t/ose o& C/arles Dar>in% T( 0( 0u#le.% 0er2ert S!encer% A( R( 6allace% Mill% an T.nall( In
communication an trans!ortation came t/e greatest a$ance in material !rogressI t/e 2uiling o&
rail>a.s% communication 2. tele!/one% telegra!/ an t/e >ireless% t/e 2eginning o& t/e automo2ile
an o& trans!ortation 2. air( Inustr. >as re$olutioni,e 2. t/e a!!lication o& mac/iner.% steam an
electricit.( T/e art o& !/otogra!/. >as !er&ecte( Des!ite all as!ects o& scienti&ic !rogress%
/o>e$er% $er. little >as accom!lis/e in ameliorating inustrial sla$er. o& men% >omen an
c/ilren(
1=
It >as $n er$ of )e$ce. T/e &e> colonial >ars t/at 2ro7e out uring t/e "ictorian e!oc/ i
not seriousl. istur2 t/e national li&e( T/ere >as one continental >ar t/at irectl. a&&ecte -ritainI
T/e Crimean 6ar E an one t/at a&&ecte /er inirectl.% t/oug/ strongl. E T/e 3ranco E Berman
struggleI .et neit/er o& t/ose cause an. !er&orme c/anges( In America t/e great ci$il struggle le&t
scars t/at >ere soon to 2e o2literate 2. t/e >ise statesmans/i! o& /er rulers( T/e >/ole age ma.
t/ere&ore generall. 2e escri2e as one o& !eace&ul acti$it.( In t/e earlier stages t/e lessening surges
o& T/e 3renc/ re$olution >ere still &eltI 2ut 2. t/e mile o& t/e centur. t/e. /a almost
com!letel. ie o>n% an ot/er /o!es an ieals% largel. !aci&ic% >ere grauall. ta7ing !lace(
T/e +$!er#$% de*e%o)+en! in t/e !erio is remar7a2le( It >as an age ali$e >it/ /er
acti$ities( T/ere >as a re$olution in commercial enter!rise% ue to t/e great increase o& a$aila2le
mar7ets% an% as a result o& t/is% an immense a$ance in t/e use o& mec/anical e$ices( T/e ne>
commercial energ. >as re&lecte in t/e Breat E#/i2ition o& 14A1% >/ic/ >as greete as t/e
inauguration o& a ne> era o& !ros!erit.( On t/e ot/er sie o& t/is !icture o& commercial e#!ansion%
>e see t/e a!!alling social conitions o& t/e ne> inustrial cities% t/e &ilt/. slums% an t/e
e#!loitation o& c/ea! la2our )o&ten o& c/ilren*% t/e !ain&ul &ig/t 2. t/e enlig/tene &e> to
introuce social legislation an t/e slo> e#tension o& t/e &ranc/ise( Suc/ >riters as Dic7ens an
Elisa2et/ Bas7ell $i$il. !ainte t/e e$ils o& t/e Inustrial Re$olution% an t/e. calle &ort/ t/e
missionar. e&&orts o& men li7e C/arles Hingsle.(
As &ar as #n!e%%ec!"$% de*e%o)+en! is concerne t/ere can 2e little ou2t t/at in man. cases
material >ealt/ !rouce a /arness o& Tem!er an an im!atience o& !ro:ects an ieas t/at 2roug/t
no return in /ar cas/I .et it is to t/e creit o& t/is age t/at intellectual acti$ities >ere so numerous(
T/ere >as Luite a re$olution in scienti&ic t/oug/t &ollo>ing u!on t/e >or7s o& Dar>in an /is
sc/ool% an an immense out2urst o& social an !olitical t/eorising >/ic/ >as re!resente in
Englan 2. t/e >ritings o& men li7e 0er2ert S!encer an Co/n Stuart Mill( In aition% !o!ular
eucation 2ecame a !ractical t/ing( T/is% in its turn !rouce a ne> /unger &or intellectual &oo%
an resulte in a great increase in t/e !rouction o& a !ress an o& ot/er more ura2le s!ecies o&
literature(
;( Literar. 3eatures o& t/e Age
1?
T/e si#t. .ears )14<@ + 145@* commonl. inclue uner t/e name o& t/e "ictorian Age
!resent man. issimilar &eaturesI .et in se$eral res!ects >e can sa&el. generalise(
Beneral "ie> o& t/e Literature
"ictorian literature >as >ritten in t/e main &or t/e !eo!le% an re&lecte t/e !ressing social
!ro2lems an !/iloso!/ies o& a com!le# era( T/e age >as !re$ailingl. one o& social restraints an
ta2oos% reminiscent in t/is res!ect o& t/e Puritan !erio( T/e >riters% >/et/er !oets or no$elists or
essa.ists% are iactic an moral an !ur!ose&ul% alt/oug/ t/at statement is not $ali &or t/e
mem2ers o& t/e Pre+Ra!/aelite 2rot/er/oo( Possi2l. t/e ominant literar. &orm >as t/e no$elI
!ossi2l. t/e least nota2le &orm >as t/e rama( Unou2tel. t/e "ictorian age ran7s secon onl. to
t/e Eli,a2et/an !erio(
1(Its moralit.
Nearl. all o2ser$ers o& t/e "ictorian age are struc7 2. its e#treme e&erence to t/e
con$entions( To a later age t/ese seem inecorous( It >as t/oug/t inecorous &or a man to smo7e in
!u2lic an muc/ later in t/e centur. &or a la. to rie a 2ic.cle( To a great e#tent t/e ne> moralit.
>as a natural re$olt against t/e grossness o& t/e earlier Regenc.% an t/e in&luence o& t/e "ictorian
Court >as all in its &a$our( In literature it is am!l. re&lecte(
Tenn.son is t/e most cons!icuous e#am!le in !oetr.% creating t/e !riggis/l. com!lacent Sir
Bala/a an Hing Art/ur( Dic7ens% !er/a!s% t/e most re!resentati$e o& t/e "ictorian no$elists% too7
&or /is moel t/e ol !icaresLue no$elI 2ut it is almost laug/a2le to o2ser$e /is an#iet. to 2e
8moral9( T/is t.!e o& >riting is Luite 2lameless% 2ut it !rouce t/e 7in o& !u2lic t/at enounce
t/e innocuous Cane E.re% as >ic7e% 2ecause it ealt >it/ t/e /armless a&&ection o& a girl &or a
marrie man(
;(T/e Re$olt
Man. >riters !roteste against t/e eaening !rotests o& t/e con$entions( Carl.le an
Matt/e> Arnol in t/eir i&&erent accents >ere lou in t/eir clemenciationsI T/ac7era. ne$er tire
o& satirising t/e sno22is/ness o& t/e ageI an -ro>ningDs mannerisms >ere an inirect c/allenge to
t/e $el$et. iction an t/e smoot/ sel& E satis&action o& t/e Tenn.sonian Sc/ool( As t/e age
14
!roceee t/e reaction strengt/ene( In !oetr.% t/e Pre E Ra!/aelites% le 2. S>in2urne an
6illiam Morris% !roclaime no moralit. 2ut t/at o& t/e artistDs regar &or /is art( -. t/e $igour o&
/is met/os% S>in2urne /orri&ie t/e timorous% an mae /imsel& rat/er riiculous in t/e e.es o&
sensi2le !eo!le( It remaine &or T/omas 0ar. to !ull asie t/e "ictorian $eils an s/utter an >it/
t/e large tolerance o& t/e master to regar menDs actions >it/ o!en ga,e(
<( Intellectual De$elo!ments
T/e literar. !rouct >as ine$ita2l. a&&ecte 2. t/e ne> ieas in sciences% religion% an
!olitics( On t/e Origin o& S!ecies )14A5* o& Dar>in s/oo7 to its &ounations scienti&ic t/oug/t( 6e
can !ercei$e t/e in&luence o& suc/ a >or7 in Tenn.sonDs In Memoriam% in Matt/e> ArnolDs
meitati$e !oetr. an in t/e >or7s o& Carl.le( In religious an et/ical t/oug/t t/e O#&or
Mo$ement% as it >as calle% >as t/e most note>ort/. a$ance( T/is mo$ement /as its source
among t/e .oung an eager t/in7ers o& t/e ol uni$ersit.% an >as /eae 2. t/e great Ne>man%
>/o ultimatel. )141A* :oine t/e C/urc/ o& Rome( As a religious !ortent it mar7e t/e >ies!rea
iscontent >it/ t/e e#isting 2elie&s o& t/e C/urc/ o& EnglanI as a literar. in&luence it a&&ecte
man. >riters o& note% incluing Ne>man /imsel&% Hingsle.% an Blastone(
1( T/e Ne> Eucation
T/e Eucation Acts ma7ing a certain measure o& eucation com!ulsor.% ra!il. !rouce an
enormous reaing !u2lic( T/e c/ea!ening o& !rinting an !a!er increase t/e eman &or 2oo7s so
t/at t/e !rouction >as multi!lie( T/e most !o!ular &orm o& literature >as t/e no$el% an t/e
no$elists res!one >it/ a >ill( Muc/ o& t/eir >or7 >as o& /ig/ stanar% so muc/ so t/at
com!etent critics /a asserte t/at t/e mile .ears o& t/e 15
t/
centur. >ere t/e ric/est in t/e >/ole
/istor. o& t/e no$el(
A( International In&luences
During t/e 15
t/
centur.% t/e interaction among American an Euro!ean >riters >as
remar7a2l. &res/ an strong( In -ritain t/e in&luence o& t/e Breat Berman >riters >as continuous
an Carl.le an Matt/e> Arnol c/am!ione it( Su2:ect relations% in !articular t/e Italians >ere a
s.m!at/etic t/eme &or !rose an $erse( T/e -ro>nings% S>in2urne% Morris an Mereit/ >ere
15
ee!l. a2sor2e in t/e long struggle o& t/e &ollo>ers o& Bari2ali an Ca$ourI an >/en Italian
&reeom >as gaine t/e re:oicing >as genuine(
=( T/e Ac/ie$ement o& t/e Age
6it/ all its immense !rouction% t/e age !rouce no su!reme >riter( It re$eale no
S/a7es!eare% no S/elle.% nor a -.ron or a Scott( T/e general literar. le$el >as% /o>e$er% $er. /ig/I
an it >as an age% moreo$er% o& s!acious intellectual /ori,ons% no2le enea$our% an 2rig/t
as!irations(
? T/e De$elo!ment o& Literar. 3orms
T/e "ictorian e!oc/ >as e#ceeingl. !roucti$e o& literar. >or7 o& a /ig/ Lualit.% 2ut
e#ce!t in t/e no$el% t/e amount o& actual inno$ation is 2. no means great( 6riters >ere as a rule
content to >or7 u!on &ormer moels% an t/e im!ro$ements t/e. i ac/ie$e >ere o&ten u2ious
an unim!ortant(
3. POETS
T/e l.rical out!ut is $er. large an $arie% as a glance t/roug/ t/e >or7s o& t/e !oets >ill
s/o>( In &orm t/ere is little o& &res/ interest( Tenn.son >as content to &ollo> t/e met/os o& Heats%
t/oug/ -ro>ningDs com!licate &orms an S>in2urneDs long musical lines >ere more &reel. use
2. t/em t/an 2. an. !re$ious >riter(
In escri!ti$e an narrati$e !oetr. t/ere is a greater a$ance to c/ronicle( In su2:ect E &or
e#am!le in t/e !oems o& -ro>ning an Morris E t/ere is great $ariet.% em2racing man. climes an
!eriosI in met/o t/ere is muc/ i$ersit.% ranging &rom t/e culture elegance o& Tenn.sonDs
Englis/ lansca!es to t/e 2ol im!ressionism o& t/e !oems o& 6/itman( T/e Pre E Ra!/aelite
Sc/ool% also% unite se$eral &eatures% >/ic/ /a not 2een seen 2e&ore in com2ination( T/ere >as a
&onness &or meie$al t/emes treate in an uncon$entional manner% a ric/l. coloure !ictorial
e&&ect% an a stuie an meloious sim!licit.( T/e >or7s o& Rossetti% Morris an S>in2urne
!ro$ie man. e#am!les o& t/is e$elo!ment o& !oetr.( On t/e >/ole >e can sa. t/at t/e "ictorians
;@
>ere strongest on t/e escri!ti$e sie o& !oetr.% >/ic/ agree >it/ t/e more meitati$e /a2its o&
t/e !erio% as contraste >it/ t/e >armer an more l.rical emotions o& t/e !re$ious age(
T/ere >ere man. attem!ts at !urel. narrati$e !oetr.% >it/ interesting results( Tenn.son
t/oug/t o& re$i$ing t/e e!ic% 2ut in /im t/e e!ical im!ulse >as not su&&icientl. strong an /is great
narrati$e !oem >as !rouce as smaller &ragments >/ic/ /e calle i.lls( -ro>ningDs Hing an t/e
-oo7 is curious% &or it can 2e calle a !s.c/ological e!ic+ a narrati$e in >/ic/ emotion remo$es
action &rom t/e c/ie& !lace( In t/is class o& !oetr. T/e Eart/l. Paraise o& 6illiam Morris is a
return to t/e ol Romantic tale as >e &in it in t/e >or7s o& C/aucer(
A%fred( Lord Tenn9on 1/246 - /2687
0is !oetr.
6/en /e >as 1? .ears ol Tenn.son colla2orate >it/ /is eler 2rot/er% C/arles in Poems
2. T>o -rot/ers )14;?*( T/e $olume is a slig/t one% 2ut in t/e lig/t o& /is later >or7 >e can alrea.
iscern a little o& t/e Tenn.sonian metrical a!titue an escri!ti$e !o>er(
0is $olume o& Poems )14<<* is o& a i&&erent Lualit. an mar7s a ecie a$ance( It
contains suc/ nota2le !oems as La. o& S/alott% OEnone % T/e Lotus E Eaters an T/e Palace o&
Art% in >/ic/ >e see t/e Tenn.sonian tec/niLue a!!roac/ing !er&ection( T/en in 141; /e !rouce
t>o $olumes o& !oetr. )Poems* t/at set /im once an &or all among t/e greater !oets o& /is a.(
T/e &irst $olume consists mainl. o& re$ise &orms o& some o& t/e num2ers !u2lis/e !re$iousl.I t/e
secon is entirel. ne>( It o!ens >it/ Morte DArt/ur% an contains Ul.sses% Loc7sle. 0all% an
se$eral ot/er !oems t/at stan at t/e summit o& /is ac/ie$ement(
8In orer to &orm a &air a!!reciation o& Tenn.sonDs !oetr. >e /a$e to consier /im in t/e
!ers!ecti$e o& /is age as >ell as in artistic conte#ts( 6e must also $ie> /im >it/in t/e sc/eme o&
/is !s.c/ological !rocess9 )C( Carr*
As a result o& t/is care&ul e#amination% >e s/all come to a conclusion: t/at Tenn.son /as
2een su2:ect to a li&e% su2:ect to a &unamental i$ision o& min( On t/e one /an% /is aest/etic
con$iction t/at >it/ra>al% ream an creaseless contem!lation >ere necessar. to artI on t/e ot/er
/an% t/e con$iction o& t/e sociall. res!onsi2le Tenn.son% t/at o& 2eing in ut. 2oun to transmit
t/e et/os o& t/e age an >/o t/ere&ore use !oetr. as a iactic >ea!on(
T/e e#!ression o& /is !oetic ream >e &in in t/e .out/&ul !oem calle T/e 0es!eries( T/e
Baren o& t/e 0es!eries% t/e $anis/e an unattaina2le !araise% stans &or t/e !oetDs conce!tion
;1
o& a !oetic Een% o& a li&e time eicate to art% a li&e >it/ra>n% intros!ecti$e an sensuous( It is a
s.m2olic !resentation o& t/e situation o& t/e artist% a 7in o& incantation sung 2. t/e t/ree
0es!eriian maiens in$o7ing t/e magic o& !oetr. assuming t/at t/e !oetDs art ma. t/ri$e an 2e
!rotecte(
T/e Bree7 m.t/ o& t/e 0es!eriian garens >it/ its tree% golen a!!le% 8t/e &ruit o&
>isom9 an its 2liss&ul atmos!/ere remins us o& t/e Baren o& Een( 0e t/ere2. antici!ates t/e
use o& m.t/olog. as /anle 2. later !oets% li7e 6(-( Feats an T(S( Eliot( T/us t/ere is no s/a!e
2rea7 2et>een t/e !oetr. o& t/e Romantics )S/elle. an Heats*% o& t/e "ictorians an o& t/e
moerns% 2ut sim!l. continuit. an trans&ormation( T/e golen a!!le is a treasure o& t/e 6est( T/e
notion o& east an >est /as a s!ecial signi&icance% 2eing !art o& t/e m.t/olog. o& Tenn.sonDs earl.
!oems( T/e maiens% aug/ters o& 0es!erus% t/e e$ening star% are aug/ters o& t/e 6est( T/e 6est
is a !lace o& T>ilig/t o& rela#ation an eat/( It is essentiall. t/e >orl o& magic t>ilig/t o& t/e
Lotus+Eaters% a lan >/ere it seeme al>a.s a&ternoon% o& t/e Merman an t/e Mermai% a lan o&
retreat into &antas. an unrealit.( T/e antit/esis to t/is is East% t/e lan o& a>n% o& acti$it. an
stri&e( T/e antinom. is constantl. em!/asi,e 2. a lig/t E ar7% e$ening E morning contrast(
0e &reLuentl. e#!resse /is reasone intentions to !artici!ate in t/e acti$ities o& /is &ello> E
men% &or% in s!ite o& t/e gruges /e 2ore to t/e utilitarism an mec/ani,ation o& /is !erio% /e >as
im!resse >it/ t/e scienti&ic a$ance o& /is time an coul not &ail to notice t/e !rogress ac/ie$e(
In s!ite o& /is s!iritual e$otion to t/e remoteness an isolation o& /is !oetic garen% Tenn.son
mae a conscious e&&ort to transmit t/e et/os o& /is age% using !oetr. as a iactic >ea!on(
T/is am2i$alence o& Tenn.sonDs attitue to>ars t/e !oetic act o& creation e#!resses itsel& in
t/ematic images% >/ic/% li7e musical moti&s in a s.m!/on.% al>a.s introuce t/e same iea an
state o& min( T/e lan o& Lotus+Eaters is anot/er $ersion o& t/e same !oetic garen( A lan in
>/ic/ it seeme al>a.s a&ternoon% a lan o& t>ilig/t% 8langui air9% >ear. ream o& !assi$e
sta2ilit.( A lan >/ere all t/ings al>a.s seeme t/e same% t/e lan o& mu&&le noises% t/e lan o& t/e
!ale+&ace melanc/ol. Lotus+Eaters% o& t/e magic &ruit o& soot/ing e&&ect% >/ere t/e inner s!irit
sin7s 8T/ere is no :o. 2ut calm9(
T/e ream. melanc/ol. !oet an t/e res!onsi2le social 2eing are &use in Ull.sses( T/e
!oem ma. 2e inter!rete as one more s!eculation o& Tenn.sonDs on t/e &ate an calling o& t/e !oet(
T/e 2asis o& Tenn.sonDs !oem is not to 2e soug/t in t/e 0omeric !oems% 2ut in DanteDs In&erno( In
t/e ele$ent/ 2oo7 o& t/e O.sse. it is &oretol t/at a&ter /is return to It/aca an t/e sla.ing o& t/e
suitors% /e is to set o&& again on a m.sterious $o.age( T/is $o.age an its outcome are relate 2. t/e
&igure o& Ull.sses in DanteDs In&erno(
;;
T/e !oem% /o>e$er% e#!resses a !ersonal emotion o& Tenn.sonDs as a man o& /is o>n e!oc/
ee!l. an !ersonall. &elt( Ull.sses% t/e &ar E tra$elle an muc/ E trie% /as at last reac/e /is isle
o& 82arren crags9% /as re:oine 8an age >i&e9 an rules as 8an ile 7ing9 o$er a sa$age race( 0e
/as returne 2ut 8/e cannot rest &rom tra$el9 an is continuousl. ra>n an 2e>itc/e 2. t/e
m.ster. o& t/e &uture so /e ta7es a ecision an ma7es a mo$ing a!!eal to /is &ormer com!anions(
6/at sort o& !oem is Ull.ssesO It is not e!ic( T/e narrati$e !assages are occasional
&las/2ac7s in t/e course o& meitation o& an internal monologue t/at e#!resses t/e com!le# moo o&
a momentI a call o& t/e unisco$ere m.ster. l.ing a/eaI a ramatic resolutionI a /eroic call to
action( )Nature P 2ac7groun &or re&lecting some /uman emotions*(
6/en Tenn.son >as enno2le &or /is !oetr. it >as 2ecause /e /a 2ecome t/e !oet o& /is
times( 0is re!resentati$e !osition an /is !eerage% 2ot/ seem to /a$e eri$e &rom In Memoriam%
/is great eleg. &or /is &rien an &ello> E stuent Art/ur 0enr. 0allam >/o ie in 14<<( In t/e
l.rics t/at ma7e u! In Memoriam /e &oun /is o>n !oetic $oice !ro!erl. &or t/e &irst time% esca!ing
&rom t/e in&luence o& Heats(
T.!icall. &or t/e 0ig/ "ictorian era t/at >as to &ollo> it% t/e t/emes o& t/e !oem are eat/
an ou2t( T/e &irst o& t/ese >as al>a.s !o!ular >it/ t/e "ictorians >/o in$ente a com!le#it. o&
mourning an a st.le o& &unerar. art( T/at can seem e#aggerate to a later generation( T/e secon
t/eme% ou2t% is !ro&ounl. connecte in t/e !oem to t/e ne> e$olutionar. e#!lanation o& t/e
uni$erse t/at >as emerging in t/e 141@Ds an 14A@Ds( T/is i not &in its &ull e#!ression until t/e
!u2lication o& Dar>inDs On t/e Origin o& S!ecies in 14A5% 2ut it >as 8in t/e air9 aroun Tenn.son at
Cam2rige an else>/ere muc/ earlier t/an t/at( Tenn.son /a a i&&icult engagement to /is &uture
>i&e% Emil. Sell>oo% uring t/e .ears o& com!osition o& t/e !oem an it a!!ears t/at it neee%
&inall.% to con$ince /er t/at /is C/ristian &ait/ >as soun 2e&ore s/e >oul agree to marr. /im(
6it/ t/is in $ie> /e sent /er !ri$atel. E !rinte $ersion o& In Memoriam% to >/ic/ /e /a recentl.
ae t/e !rologue% some mont/s 2e&ore its o&&icial !u2lication( Astonis/ingl.% it con$ince /er t/at
/er &iancQ >as inee a C/ristian(
Per/a!s t/e !rologue goes some >a. to>ars e#!laining t/is( 6it/ its aition t/e !oem at
least o!ens >it/ a irect in$ocation o& C/rist: 8Strong Son o& Bo% Immortal Lo$e9( -ut a care&ul
reaing o& t/e rest o& t/e !oem re$eals more o& ou2t t/an o& &ait/ >/ile muc/ o& t/e !rologue itsel&
s/o>s an#iet. a2out religious &ait/( 0a$ing in$o7e C/rist% it continues:
86/om >e% t/at /a$e not seen t/. &ace
-. &ait/ an &ait/ alone em2race
-elie$ing >/ere >e cannot !ro$e(9
;<
T/e em!/asis is on t/e reasons to ou2t% rat/er t/an on t/e reasons to 2elie$e% an t/is tone
remains ominant t/roug/out t/e !oem( 8T/ine are t/ese or2s o& lig/t an s/ae
T/ou maest Li&e is man an 2rute
T/ou maest Deat/I an I% t/. &oot
Is on t/e s7ull >/ic/ t/ou /ast mae(
T/ou >ilt not li$e us in t/e ust:
T/ou maest man% /e 7no>s not >/.I
0e t/in7s /e >as not mae to ieI
An t/ou /ast mae /im: t/ou art :ust(9
T/ese >ors 8trust9 an 8some/o>9 are re!eate in t/e !oem on se$eral occasions al>a.s
stressing t/e uncertain nature o& goo( )8O/ .es >e trust t/at some/o> goo
6ill 2e t/e &inal goal o& ill9%
8Fet i& some $oice t/at man coul trust%
S/oul murmur &rom t/e narro> /ouse 8 an so on* along
>it/ >ors suc/ as 8.et9 an 82ut9% t/e. o&&er a 7e. to t/e !oem(
T/e ou2t comes &rom t/e &act o& eat/( Tenn.son sai t/at /e >oul es!air i& /e e$er
came trul. to ou2t Bo or Immortalit.% Fet 0allamDs eat/ an t/e anguis/e Luestrim as to >/ere
0allam no> >as an >/et/er t/e. >oul meet again !ut an immense strain on t/ese 2elie&s( Deat/
in In Memoriam 87ee!s t/e 7e. to all t/e crees9 &or onl. a&ter eat/ >ill t/e trut/ 2e re$eale
t/oug/ it ma. 2e t/e trut/ t/at all religion is untrue(
T/e !oemDs l.rics are se!arate &rom one anot/er an most o& t/em can 2e rea as units more
or less success&ull.I a l.ric suc/ as: 8I en$. not in an. moos9 )no ;?* coul 2e ant/ologi,e
se!aratel. >it/out /uge loss( -ut unou2tel. t/e !oem >or7s 2est as a >/ole( It /as a $ague
structure% !assing t/roug/ t/ree .ears o& mourning% s/o>ing us t/ree C/ristmases an mo$ing
to>ars some sort o& $er. tentati$e resolution( A2o$e all% its emotional register !er$aes all its
constituent !arts% >/ic/ >oul t/ere&ore lose somet/ing i& cut o&& &rom it( 6/en e$olution is t/e
to!ic )in l.rics A1+A= &or instance* >e are still a>are t/at it is !ersonal grie& t/at /as !ro$o7e t/ese
t/oug/ts an t/at it is not onl. t/e ans>er to li&eDs m.steries t/at is 8-e/in t/e $eil% 2e/in t/e
$eil9% 2ut t/e >/erea2outs o& Tenn.sonDs &rien% too( A goo com!arison in t/is res!ect >oul 2e
S/a7es!eareDs sonnets >/ic/ can 2e rea se!aratel.% 2ut >/ic/ are nonet/eless a seLuence(
;1
L.ric 14% in >/ic/ Tenn.son escri2es /is o>n met/o in t/e !oem% as7s us not to ta7e /is
8s/ort s/allo>+ &lig/ts o& song9 too seriousl. as intellectual argumentsI t/e 8slener s/ae o&
ou2t9% /e !rotests% /as 2ecome 8$assal onto lo$e9( -ut t/is is nonet/eless t/e great !oem o&
"ictorian ou2t as t/e !oet /imsel& recogni,es >/en /e !roclaims% in an astute mo$e% t/at 8T/ere
li$es more &ait/ in /onest ou2t% -elie$e me% t/an in /al& t/e crees9(
In Memoriam is a great eleg.% a great !oem o& ou2t% an an e#cellent !icture o& "ictorian
&rame o& min( Last 2ut not least% it is also c/aracterise 2. an e#traorinar. eu!/on. an a
masterl. use o& t/e r/.t/ms in Englis/(
In one o& /is ramatic monologues% Tenn.son inter!rets t/e m.t/ o& Ul.sses( Dante%
S/a7es!eare% Co.ce% an man. ot/ers /a$e recast t/e role o& t/e legenar. /ero( Inter!retations /a$e
$arie% &rom DanteDs conemnation o& /im to t/e circles o& /ell as a s.m2ol o& o$erreac/ing !rie
an am2ition% to Tenn.sonDs es!ousal o& /im as a s.m2ol o& t/e /uman esires &or e#!erience%
!/.sical !ro>ess% courage% a$enture% an 7no>lege(
Fou must esta2lis/ t/e ramatic situation( Ul.sses is no> an elerl. 7ing as /e aresses t/e
!eo!le o& It/aca( 0e is a2out to set o&& again in Luest o& great a$entures an !lans to lea$e t/e
management o& t/e 7ingom to /is son Telemac/us( To esta2lis/ t/e c/aracter o& t/e s!ea7er%
consier t/e &ollo>ing e#cer!ts(
8I >ill rin7RLi&e to t/e less9
Ul.sses is in an acti$e% $i2rant /uman 2eing >/o >ants to e#!erience as muc/ as !ossi2le in
li&e( 0e >ants to mo$e out into realms o& t/e un7no>n in an e&&ort to li$e li&e to t/e &ullest an to
increase t/e 7no>lege o& all !eo!le(
8It little !ro&its t/at an ile 7ing
S mete an ole
UneLual la>s unto a sa$age race(9
Ul.sses !lans to lea$e It/aca 2ecause /e &eels no c/allenge in t/e calm% rustic routine o&
slo>l. 2uiling a societ. &rom a 2ac7>ar nation(
8I am a !art o& all t/at I /a$e met9
;A
Ul.sses is an ine#trica2l. lin7e to t/e !ast e#!eriences >/ic/ 2uilt /is &ame( 0e nees to
reac/ out into e#!erience% to sail again t/e seas o& t/e un7no>n an to gro> e$en more( 0is !ast
s/a!e /is !resent c/aracter:
80o> ull it is to !ause% to ma7e an en%
To rust un2urnis/e% not to s/ine in useT9
3or /im to stan is tantamount to an amission t/at /is a2ilities /a$e ie( 0e must set out
again on a Luest(
8S Li&e !ile on li&e
6ere all too little% an o& one to me
Little remains(9
E$en one li&etime cannot contain /is in&inite energies an esires(
8An t/is gre. s!irit .earning in esire
To &ollo> 7no>lege li7e a sin7ing star9
E$en in /is ol age Ul.ssesD s!irit still .earns to unco$er ne> lans an to e#!lore ne>
$istas o& /uman li&e(
8KTis not too late to see7 a ne>er >orl9
3or Ul.sses% /uman 2eings must ne$er surrener t/eir s!irit o& e#!loration an t/eir esire
&or 7no>lege(
8T/oug/ muc/ is ta7en% muc/ a2ies 8
In s!ite o& t/e man. $ictories /e /as >on% t/ere are al>a.s more a>aiting t/e a$enturous
!erson(
8To stri$e% to see7% to &in% an not to .iel(9
;=
T/is &amous closing line o& t/e !oem /as 2ecome a creo &or all t/at is great in /uman
&ortitue an strengt/(
In irect contrast to Ul.sses is /is son Telemac/us( Tenn.son !ur!ose&ull. esta2lis/es t/is
contrast to re!resent t>o se!arate >a.s o& li&e( Ul.sses% as is Luite o2$ious a2o$e% re!resents t/e
/eroic $ision o& t/e e#!lorer( -ut Telemac/us% o& >/om /is &at/er sa.s% 80e >or7s /is >or7% I
mine9% re!resents a i&&erent 2ut in man. >a.s eLuall. im!ortant role in li&e( T/e /ero can see7 out
ne> e#!eriences% 2ut /is constant >anerings lea$e /im little time to contem!late t/e meaning o&
/is isco$eries% to iscern >/at societal 2ene&its t/e. ma. rea!( Telemac/us is t/e t/oug/t&ul man
o& societ. >/o !laces its >ell 2eing a2o$e /is o>n( 0e can &ace t/e ail. c/allenge o& ealing >it/
an unenlig/tene race in an attem!t to 2uil a culture an a ci$ili,ation( Telemac/us !ossesses a
8slo> !ruence to ma7e a milRA rugge !eo!le% an t/roug/ so&t egreesRSu2ue t/em to t/e
use&ul an t/e goo9( 0e /as 8tenerness9 cou!le >it/ a strengt/ to eal >it/ 8common uties9(
In t/is !oem% Tenn.son clearl. sies >it/ t/e ini$iual >/o see7s !ersonal actuali,ation
rat/er t/an social in$ol$ement( -ut t/is is not to conemn t/e $alue o& eit/er goal( In &act% t/e
2iogra!/ical &act t/at Tenn.son >rote t/is !oem a&ter t/e eat/ o& /is close &rien Art/ur 0allam in
an attem!t to em!/asi,e t/e nee to go &or>ar an 2ra$e t/e struggle o& li&e ma7es /is meaning
an intention clear(
T/e man. lines >/ic/ /a$e uni$ersal signi&icance re&lect t/e !oetDs esire to /a$e /is
s!ea7er relate t/e $alue o& t/e /eroic >a. o& li&e( 0is tone o& commitment to /is ieals an o& lo&t.
as!irations ser$es to en/ance t/e !oem(
T/e !u2lic recei$e Mau an Ot/er Poems )14AA* >it/ ama,ement( T/e c/ie& !oem is
calle a 8monorama9( It consists o& a series o& l.rics% >/ic/ re&lect t/e lo$e an /atre% t/e /o!e
an es!air o& a lo$er >/o sla.s /is mistressDs 2rot/er an t/en &lees% 2ro7en% to 3rance( T/e onl.
ot/er !oem o& an. lengt/ is Enoc/ Aren )14=1*% >/ic/ 2ecame t/e most !o!ular o& all( T/e !lot is
c/ea! enoug/% ealing >it/ a seaman% su!!ose ro>ne% >/o returns an &ining /is >i&e /a!!il.
marrie to anot/er man% regret&ull. retires >it/out ma7ing /imsel& 7no>n(
1( 0is Poetical C/aracteristics
a* 0is c/oice o& su2:ect( Tenn.sonDs earl. instincts as seen in /is &irst $olumes le /im to t/e
l.ric an legenar. narrati$e as /is !rinci!al t/emes% an t/ese /e /anle >it/ a s7ill an artistr.
;?
>/ic/ /e rarel. sur!asse( Alrea.% /o>e$er% in t/e 141; $olume% t/ere are signs o& t/e et/ical
interest% >/ic/ >as to 2e t/e mains!ring o& /is later >or7( As a t/in7er% Tenn.son lac7e e!t/ an
originalit.( 0e >as content to mirror t/e &eelings an as!irations o& /is time% an /is iactic >or7
lac7s t/e 2urning &ire% >/ic/ alone can trans&orm t/e iactic into trul. great art( T/e reLuirements
o& /is o&&ice as Poet Laureate le to t/e !rouction o& a num2er o& occasional !oems >/ic/ /a$e
cause /im to 2e escri2e contem!tuousl.% as t/e ne>s!a!er o& /is age% an it is sur!rising t/at
t/e. are as goo as t/e. are( 3or t/e rest% >it/ t/e e#ce!tion o& In Memoriam an Ul.sses%
Tenn.sonDs !oems are 2est >/en /e re$erts to t/e l.ric or narrati$e t/emes% >/ic/ >ere /is original
ins!iration(
2* 0is Cra&tsmans/i!( No one can en. t/e great care an s7ill s/o>n in Tenn.sonDs >or7(
0is met/o o& !roucing !oetr. >as slo>l. to e$ol$e t/e lines in /is min% commit t/em to
!a!er an to re$ise t/em till t/e. >ere as near !er&ection as /e coul ma7e t/em( ConseLuentl.% >e
/a$e a /ig/ le$el o& !oetical artistr.( No one e#cels Tenn.son in t/e e&t a!!lication o& soun to
sense an in t/e su2tle an !er$aing em!lo.ment o& alliteration an $o>el+music(
0is e#cellent cra&tsmans/i! is also a!!arent in t/e /anling o& Englis/ meters in >/ic/ /e is
a tireless e#!erimenter( In 2lan7 $erse /e is not so $arie an !o>er&ul as S/a7es!eare nor so
ma:esticall. as Milton% 2ut in t/e s7ill o& /is >or7mans/i! an in /is >ealt/ o& iction /e &alls 2ut
little s/ort o& t/ese great masters(
c* 0is Pictorial Jualit.
In t/is res!ect% Tenn.son &ollo>s t/e e#am!le o& Heats( Nearl. all /is !oems% e$en t/e
sim!lest% a2oun in ornate escri!tion o& natural an ot/er scenes( 0is met/o is to sei,e u!on
a!!ro!riate etails% ress t/em in e#!ressi$e an musical !/rases an t/us t/ro> a glistening image
2e&ore t/e reaerDs e.e )8T/e Da. Dream9% 8In Memoriam9*(
Alt/oug/ t/ese $erses s/o> care o& o2ser$ation an a stuious lo$eliness o& e!it/et% t/e.
lac7 t/e intense insig/t% t/e ringing an romantic note o& t/e 2est e&&orts o& Heats(
* Tenn.sonDs l.rical Lualit. is some>/at une$en(
T/e slig/test o& /is !ieces% li7e T/e S!lenour 3alls% are musical an attracti$eI 2ut% on t/e
>/ole% /is nature >as too sel&+conscious an !er/a!s /is li&e too regular an !ros!erous% to !ro$ie
a 2ac7groun &or t/e true l.rical intensit. o& emotion( Once or t>ice% as in t/e >oner&ul -rea7%
2rea7% 2rea7 an Crossing t/e 2ar /e touc/es real greatness( Suc/ l.rics /a$e a 2re$it.% unit. an
sim!le earnestness o& emotion t/at ma7es it trul. great(
e* St.le
;4
0is t.!ical st.le s/o>s a slo>% some>/at sententious !rogress% /ea$. >it/ imaging cr. an
all t/e ot/er e$ices o& t/e !oetical artist( In !articular /e is an ae!t at concei$ing !/rases E
8:e>els &i$e >ors long9 as /e /imsel& a!tl. e#!resse itI an /e is almost in$aria2l. /a!!. in /is
c/oice o& e!it/et(
IV. Ro,er! Bro:n#n' 1/2/8-/2267
1( 0is Poems an 6or7s
0is &irst >or7 o& an. im!ortance is Pauline )14<<* an intros!ecti$e !oem >/ic/ s/o>s $er.
strongl. t/e in&luence o& S/elle.% >/om% at t/is !erio -ro>ning /el in great re$erence(
Paracelsus )14<A*% t/e stor. o& t/e /eroDs unLuenc/a2le t/irst &or t/at 2reat/ o& 7no>lege
>/ic/ is 2e.on t/e gras! o& one man% 2rings to t/e &ore -ro>ningDs !reominant ieas E t/at a li&e
>it/out lo$e must 2e a &ailure% an t/at Bo is >or7ing all t/ings to an en 2e.on /uman i$ining(
T/en -ro>ning >rote a num2er o& si# !la.s% 2ut /e lac7s t/e &unamental Lualities o& a
ramatist( 0is ama,ingl. su2tle anal.sis o& c/aracter an moti$e is not aeLuate &or true rama%
2ecause /e cannot re$eal c/aracter in action( 0is met/o is to ta7e a c/aracter at a moment o& crisis
an% 2. allo>ing /im to tal7% to re$eal not onl. /is !resent t/oug/ts an &eelings% 2ut also /is !ast
/istor.(
T/e $olumes Dramatic L.rics )141;* an Dramatic Romances an L.rics )141A* s/o> t/is
&acult. 2eing irecte into t/e c/annel in >/ic/ it >as to ac/ie$e !er&ection E t/at o& t/e ramatic
monologue( No>% at t/e /eig/t o& /is !o>ers% -ro>ning !rouce some o& /is 2est >or7 in Men
an 6omen )14AA* >/ic/ consists almost entirel. o& ramatic monologues( 0ere are to 2e &oun
t/e &amous 3ra Li!!o Li!!i% An E!istle Containing t/e Strange Meical E#!erience o& Hars/is/% t/e
Ara2 P/.sician% Anrea el Sarto% Cleon( Most o& t/em are >ritten in 2lan7 $erse( T/e .ear 14=1
sa> t/e !u2lication o& /is last reall. great $olume% Dramatic Personae% again a collection o&
ramatic monologues(
In st.le% t/ese !oems /a$e muc/ o& t/e rugge% elli!tical Lualit.% >/ic/ >as on occasion t/e
!oetDs o>n&all% 2ut /ere it is use >it/ a s7ill an a !o>er% >/ic/ s/o> /im at t/e $er. !innacle o&
/is ac/ie$ement(
3eatures o& /is >or7
;5
a* 0is c/oice o& su2:ect
-ro>ningDs t/emes i$ie t/emsel$es 2roal. into t/ree grou!s: !/iloso!/ical or religious%
lo$e% an lig/ter t/emes as in t/e Pie Pi!er o& 0amelin( 0is !/iloso!/ical !oems% on >/ic/ /is
re!utation reste in /is o>n a.% all 2ear on /is central 2eli&s t/at li&e must ne$er 2e a stri$ing &or
somet/ing 2e.on one reac/% an t/at it is 8BoDs tas7 to ma7e t/e /ea$enl. !erio !er&ect t/e
eart/en(9 T/e o2$ious o!timism o& 86/at I as!ire to 2e R An >as not% con&orts me 8% /as 2een
resente 2. more moern critics as a &acile s/ir7ing o& li&eDs com!le#ities( 0is lo$e !oems are
!er/a!s /is greatest ac/ie$ement( T/e. /a$e a calm aut/enticit. o& tone(
Al>a.s% /is &irst concern >as >it/ t/e /uman soul( 0e >as !articularl. intereste in
a2normal !eo!le% an >as a2le to !ro:ect /imsel& into t/eir mins an to la. 2are t/eir &eelings an
moti$es( Fet /is c/aracters are not o&ten com!letel. o2:ecti$e% 2ecause so man. o& t/em are
mout/!ieces &or /is o>n !/iloso!/.(
0e s/o>s a &onness% too% &or out+o&+t/e+>a. /istorical settings an &or &oreign scenes%
>/ic/ at /is 2est% as in T/e -is/o! Orers 0is Tom2 are recreate >it/ a $i$i accurac.( Along
>it/ t/is interest in t/e unusual goes an o2$ious relis/ &or t/e grotesLue an maca2re% >/ic/ is seen
at its most stri7ing in C/ile Rolan to t/e Dar7 To>er Came(
2* 0is st.le
-ro>ningDs st.le /as 2een t/e su2:ect o& enless iscussion% &or it !resents a &ascinating
!ro2lem( At /is >orst% /is !oems are a series o& 2e>ilering mental acro2atics% e#!resse in a
>ill&ull. /ars/ r/.t/m $oca2ular.( At /is 2est /e can ac/ie$e a no2le ignit.% an a $er2al music as
goo as an.t/ing !rouce 2. t/at master o& melo.% Tenn.son( A2o$e all% /is $erse re&lects t/e
a2unant $italit. o& /is c/arater( 0e is a master o& sur!rising $ariet. o& metrical &orms an e#cels in
t/e mani!ulation o& r/.t/mic e&&ects(
In /is greatest >or7 e$en t/e notorious rugge angularit. o& /is !/rasing an $oca2ular. is
turne to account an !rouces a 2eauti&ul !eculiarl. o& its o>n(
c* 0is Descri!ti$e Po>er
In t/is res!ect -ro>ning i&&ers >iel. &rom Tenn.son >/o slo>l. creates a lo$el. image
2. care&ul misssing o& etail( -ro>ning cares less &or 2eaut. o& escri!tion &or its o>n sa7e( In most
<@
o& /is >or7 it is &oun onl. in &las/es% >/ere /e !aints t/e 2ac7groun o& /is stor. in a &e> as/ing
stro7es% or cr.stalli,es /is meaning in an image >/ose 2eaut. staggers us( 0e is &on o& stri7ing
!rimar. colours >/ic/ startle 2. t/eir $er. $i$iness% an as a !ainting o& mo$ement /e /as &e>
eLuals( )Cali2an u!on Sete2os: 8Fou ot/er slee7>ee7San sa.s a !lain >or S9 an Cleon:
8Cleon t/e !oet S T/. li! /at/S9 I t/e !assages s/o> t>o $er. i&&erent e#em!les o& /is
escri!ti$e s7ill*(
T/e Dramatic Monologue
C/aracteristics
Anot/er &orm o& t/e l.ric% t/e ramatic monologue% >as 2roug/t to great /eig/ts 2. t/e
"ictorian !oet Ro2ert -ro>ning( As t/e title suggest% it is a !oem tol 2. one s!ea7er a2out a
signi&icant e$ent( Se$eral Lualities e#ist in t/e &orm:
1( T/e s!ea7er re$eals in /isR/er o>n >ors some ramatic situation in >/ic/ /eRs/e is
in$ol$e(
;( T/e s!ea7er emonstrates /isR/er c/aracter t/roug/ t/e !oem(
<( T/e s!ea7er aresses a listener >/o oes not engage in ialogue 2ut /el!s to e$elo! t/e
s!eec/(
6e enter t/e !s.c/e o& t/e s!ea7er% an t/e s7il&ul !oet ma7es muc/ o& /isR/er o>n nature%
attitues% an circumstances a$aila2le in >ors to t/e reaer >/o iscerns t/e im!lications o& t/e
!oem(
T/e ramatic monologue i&&ers &rom a soliloLu. in a !la. in t/at% in rama% time an !lace are
e$elo!e 2e&ore t/e c/aracter ascens t/e stage alone to ma7e /isR/er remar7s% >/ereas t/e
ramatic monologue 2. itsel& esta2lis/es time% !lace% an c/aracter(

3ra Li!!o Li!!i
A ramatic monologue in 2lan7 $erse% is one o& t/e !oems% >/ic/ is!la.s -ro>ningDs
immersion in t/e ci$ilisation o& t/e Renaissance( -ro>ning esta2lis/es t/e atmos!/ere o& /is !oem
2. !lacing /is s!ea7er% t/e 3lorentine !ainter an mon7% 3ili!!o Li!!i% on t/e !a$ement outsie t/e
Meici+RiccariDs !alace% /a$ing /im re&er to t/e altar!iece /e is !ainting &or Cosimo e Meici% to
t/e c/urc/es o& t/e Carmine an San Loren,o an to numerous intimate &eatures o& t/e li&e o& t/e
time( -ro>ning re> most o& /is material &or /is !oem &rom t/e account o& 3ra Li!!o in Biorgio
<1
"asariDs Li$es o& t/e Painters% 2ut /is !erson is Luite i&&erent 2ot/ &rom "asariDs !ortrait an &rom
t/e /istorical &igure( As -ro>ningsDs 3ra Li!!o s!ea7s to t/e >atc/men >/o /a$e interce!te /im
on /is return &rom a nig/t o& re$elr. in isre!uta2le com!an.% /e e#/i2its a c/aracter largel.
in$ente 2. t/e !oet /imsel& an /is !/iloso!/. o& art ec/oes -ro>ningDs $ie>s( -ro>ning !laces
3ra Li!!o as a realist >/o i$erge &rom t/e religious iealism o& t/e earlier !ainters% $er. muc/ as
-ro>ningDs !oetr. i$erge &rom Romantic an "ictorian con$entions(
In e#!laining /imsel& to t/e >atc/men% 3ra Li!!o s/o>s t/at /e is an eart/.% /onest &ello>%
>/ose attraction to t/e !leasures o& t/e &les/ is !art o& a general elig/t >it/ t/e >orl t/at leas
/im to e!ict it realisticall. in /is !ainting( 0is :o. is so irre!ressi2le t/at /e occasionall. interru!ts
/imsel& to sing &ol7 songs( 0is account o& t/e or!/ane c/il/oo% >/ic/ le /im to 2ecome a 7een
o2ser$er% an o& /is &irst !aintings% >/ic/ !ortra.e t/e scenes an !eo!le o& t/e neig/2our/oo% is
&ull o& remar7a2le !articulars t/at con$e. $i$i glim!ses o& li&e in Renaissance 3lorence( T/e mon7
2egins 2. amitting t/at /is esca!aes are ue to >ea7ness o& >ill% 2ut t/is grauall. c/anges to a
mo$e o& sel&+:usti&ication as /e e#!ress /is real $ie>s( T/e c/urc/ aut/orities /a$e critici,e /is
!aintings 2ecause t/e. o not e#!ress religious &eeling% sa.ing t/at t/e. re!resent a ecline &rom t/e
>or7 o& 3ra Angelico an Loren,o Monaco( -ut 3ra Li!!o e&ens /is realism 2. eclaring t/at
ta7ing !leasure in t/e $isi2le >orl is a >a. o& >ors/i!!ing t/e Bo >/o mae it( 0e sa.s /is
esca!aes are a &orm o& !rotest against /.!ocritical !ro/i2itions% against ta7ing li&e as it is% an t/at
it is t/e !ainterDs mission to call attention to sig/ts t/at ot/ers o$erloo7: 8Art >as gi$en &or t/at: R
Bo uses us to /el! eac/ ot/er so S9
Ne$ert/eless% 3ra Li!!o is reluctant to &lout aut/orit.% &eels t/at /e /as sai too muc/% !romises
to 8ma7e amens9 &or /is &aults 2. !ainting a !icture &or t/e nuns o& a near2. c/urc/% an closes /is
monologue 2. imagining t/at i& /e s/oul a!!ear in t/e com!an. o& $irtous !eo!le% /e >ill 2e
e&ene 2. t/e !rett. girl >/o /as moele t/e &igure o& Saint Luc. in /is !ainting( T/e !icture /e
!lans to !aint is Li!!iDs 8Coronation o& t/e "irgin9 >/ic/ is escri2e in some etails% not all o& it
accurate( -ro>ning sa> it in 3lorence% 2ut it is also em!/asi,e in an account o& Li!!iDs li&e in
3illi!!o -alinucciDs Noti,ie e Pro&essori el Disegno% one o& -ro>ningDs sources o& ins!iration
a2out !ainters(
In t/is !oem -ro>ning /as !resente a remar7a2l. $i$i !ortrait o& a $igurous% ine!enent
!ersonalit. >/ose con$inctions a2out li&eDs $alues com!el /im to c/allenge t/e isci!line o& t/e
c/urc/( On one le$el% t/e con&lict is an o!!osition o& !rinci!le 2et>een ini$iual li2ert. an
institutional con&ormit.% 2ut on anot/er% it is sim!l. a case in >/ic/ a man /as 2een &orce into an
<;
unsuita2le role in li&e( As 3ra Li!!o sa.s: 8 Con s/oul not ta7e a &ello> eig/t .ear olR An ma7e
/im s>ear to ne$er 7iss t/e girls9(
V. Ger$rd M$n%e9 <o)=#n )1411+1445*
1(0is !oetr.
It is a uniLue &igure in t/e /istor. o& Englis/ !oetr.( 0is >or7 >as not generall. a$aila2le
until 1514 >/en /is &rien -riges !u2lis/e a slim $olume o& !oems collecte &rom /is letters an
manuscri!ts( -ut &or -riges% it is li7el. t/at t/is &ine !oetr.% >/ic/ /as e#ercise a great in&luence
on later !oets% >oul ne$er /a$e 2een 7no>n( 0o!7ins% a con$erte in /is t>ent.+secon .ear to
Cat/olicism% is not onl. t/e &irst reall. great religious !oet in Englis/ since Milton% 2ut also% /e >as
t/e creator o& an original !oetic meium% so muc/ /is o>n t/at a ma:or moern critic /as ou2te
>/et/er it can e$er 2e use 2. anot/er >riter( No )moern* !oet /as 2een t/e centre o& more
contro$ers. or t/e cause o& more misunerstaning(
In 14?A% >/en /is long training as a Cesuit >as reac/ing its en% /e 2ro7e /is sel&+im!ose
silence >it/ T/e 6rec7 o& t/e 8Deutsc/lan9% a great oe occasione 2. t/e sin7ing in a storm o&
t/e 8Deutsc/lan9% >/ic/ /a on 2oar &i$e nuns% re&ugees &rom religious !ersecution( T/e !oem is
>ier in sco!e t/an t/e title suggests( It contains t/e cr.stallise religious e#!erience o& /is se$en
.earsD !oetic silence% an /as consiera2le auto2iogra!/ical signi&icance(
In its eig/t+line stan,as t/e t.!ical 0o!7ins tec/niLue is seen &or t/e &irst time( S!rung+
r/.t/m% counter!oint+r/.t/m% alliteration% assonance% internal r/.t/m% coinages an unort/oo#
s.nta# gi$e to t/e !oem a re$olutionar. a!!earance% >/ic/ le t/e eitor o& t/e Cesuit organ to
re&use to !rint it a&ter originall. acce!ting it( -ut% i& it is i&&icult in t/oug/t an uncon$entional in
tec/niLue% it is &ull o& 2rilliant !assages an /as an artistic an emotional unit. o& t/e /ig/est orer(
0o!7ins continue to >rite !oetr. until t/e en o& /is li&e% t/oug/ /is out!ut >as $er. small(
3rom 14?A on>ar /is >riting >as e#clusi$el. religious% an t/e ecstatic en:o.ment o& nature%
&oun in t/e sonnets o& /is earl. maturit. is a sacramental e#!erience( Nature is a mani&estation o&
t/e 2eaut. o& Bo% a call to !raise( T/roug/ /is !erio o& !riest/oo a gro>ing concern >it/ man is
!erce!ti2le( T/e e$ils o& t/e inustrial s.stem /e sa> as manDs &alling+o&& &rom Bo% /is re:ection o&
t/e grace >on &or /im 2. C/rist( 3eli# Ranal is t.!ical o& /is >arm s.m!at/. >it/ men an /is
concern >it/ t/eir souls( -ut t/e ee!est an most intensel. !ersonal o& /is !oems 2elong to /is
<<
Du2lin !erio )1441+144A*( In t/eir !assionate% irect sim!licit. t/e. stan a!art &rom most o&
0o!7insD >or7% an t/e. /a$e 2een escri2e as /is greatest !oems( 0is e&iant re&usal to ca!itulate
to t/is es!air is to 2e seen in Carrion Com&ort(
3eatures o& /is !oetr.
a* 0is lo$e o& nature
A sensuous lo$e o& nature% 2ase on minute o2ser$ation% is &oun in most o& 0o!7ins !oems
es!eciall. 2e&ore 14?4( 0is earl. struggle to reconcile /is o2$ious en:o.ment o& natural 2eaut. >it/
t/e ascetic li&e% t/e Cesuit resol$e in /is sacramental $ie> o& natural 2eaut.( 0is great elig/t la. in
t/e isco$er. o& t/e insca!e% or inner !attern% >/ic/ ga$e to eac/ t/ing its istincti$e 2eaut.( 0is
&eelings at t/e !erce!tion o& t/is insca!e /e escri2e 2. t/e term instress(
2* 0is Use o& Language
One o& 0o!7insD most o2$ious iios.ncrasies is in /is c/oice an use o& language( 0e
2elie$e t/at !oetr. calle &or a language istinct &rom t/at o& !rose% a language ric/ in suggestion
2ot/ to t/e senses an t/e intellect( 0is $oca2ular. is ra>n &rom man. sources% arc/aic% colloLuial%
an ialect >ors all 2eing use( 0e /a a !articular &onness &or com!ose e!it/ets suc/ as 8ro!+
o&+2loo+an+&oam+a!!le+c/err.9 an &or e$ocati$e coinages( A &ull a!!reciation o& a >or ma.
>ell eman o& t/e reaer 7no>lege o& its eri$ation( At times t/e result is o2scurit. an t/is is
increase 2. /is eli2erate istortion o& normal s.nta#% eit/er to com!el t/e reaerDs attention% or to
gi$e to 7e. >ors t/e stress t/e. eser$e( -ut% >/ate$er t/e i&&iculties arising &rom $oca2ular.%
s.nta#% or com!ression o& t/oug/t% 0o!7ins is al>a.s !recise in /is use o& >ors an /is !oetr. /as
t/e muscular $italit. o& e#!ression o& t/e true S/a7es!earean traition(
c* 0is R/.t/mic Patterns
0o!7insD most im!ortant e#!eriment is >it/ s!rung r/.t/m% >/ic/ a!!eare &irst in T/e
6rec7 o& t/e 8Deutsc/lan9 an is 2ase on t/e irregular $erse o& Samson Agonistes( T/e 2asic
!rinci!le o& t/is attem!t to 2rea7 a>a. &rom strictl. con$entional !atterns is t/at eac/ &oot contains
one stress% !ossi2l.% 2ut not necessaril.% &ollo>e 2. an. num2er o& unstresse s.lla2les( 0o!7ins
&elt it to 2e 8T/e least &orce% t/e most r/etorical an em!/atic o& all !ossi2le r/.t/ms(9
<1
Counter!oint r/.t/m is t/e use in t>o consecuti$e &eet o& a re$ersal o& t/e !reominant
r/.t/m o& a line( E$er. r/.t/mic e&&ect in 0o!7ins is a result o& care&ul an eli2erate
>or7mans/i!% an so im!ortant i /e consier a true unerstaning o& /is intentions t/at /is
manuscri!ts ma7e use o& some t>ent. s.m2ols% rat/er li7e t/ose o& a musical score( Un&ortunatel.%
/e >as not consistent in t/e use o& t/ese s.m2ols% an% to a$oi con&usion% -riges omitte &rom t/e
1514 eition all 2ut t/e most $ital(
A&ter T/e 6rec7 o& t/e 8Deutsc/lan9 /e e$ote muc/ time to t.!icall. ini$iual
moi&ications o& t/e sonnet &orm% >/ic/ /e use >it/ t/e greatest &reeom( A 2rie& summar. can o
no more t/an inicate t/e nature o& 0o!7insK e#!eriments% 2ut it is im!ortant to a t/at t/e &ull
im!ort o& r/.t/m in /is !oetr. can onl. 2e gat/ere i& it is rea alou a&ter close an elicatel.
sensiti$e stu. o& its orc/estration(
* 0is imager.
It is remar7a2le &or its ric/ness( 0is a!!reciation o& nature% /is reaing o& t/e great Englis/
!oets% !articularl. S/a7es!eare% an o& t/e -i2le are e$ient(
O&ten /e s/o>s t/at 2len o& t/e emotional an intellectual >/ic/ istinguis/es t/e !oetr. o&
t/e 1?
t/
centur. meta!/.sicals( -ut% /o>e$er t/eir sources an a&&inities% t/e images o& /is !oetr.
are istincti$el. /is o>n E al>a.s !recise an $itall. illuminating% usuall. 2rie&l. e#!resse% an
o&ten suggesting more t/an one !ossi2le inter!retation(
T/e 6rec7 o& t/e 8Deutc/lan9 )14?A+14?=*
On 1
t/
o& Decem2er 14?A a transatlantic steams/i! le&t -remen in Berman. carr.ing
emigrants &or Ne> For7( Dri$en o&& course 2. 2a >eat/er% T/e Deutc/lan &ounere in t/e
treac/erous s/oals o& t/e outermost reac/es o& t/e T/ames estuar.( Rescue i not come &or <@
/ours 2. >/ic/ time man. /a ro>ne( 83i$e Berman Nuns S clas!e /ans an >ere ro>ne
toget/er% t/e c/ie& sister% a gaunt >oman = &t( /ig/% calling out loul. an o&ten% 8O/ C/rist% come
Luic7l.T till t/e en came9% as t/e Times re!orte(
T/ese e$ents occasione t/e most am2itious o& B((M( 0o!7insD com!lete !oems an t/e
&irst com!osition o& /is !oetic maturit. >ritten to 2rea7 a sel&+im!ose a2stention >/ic/ /a laste
since /e /a :oine t/e Cesuits se$en .ears earlier( -ut t/e. are not t/e !oemDs >/ole su2:ect% &or as
0o!7ins >rote 8T/e 8Deutsc/lan9 >oul 2e more generall. interesting i& t/ose >ere more >rec7
<A
an less iscourse I 7no>% 2ut still it is an oe an not !rimaril. a narrati$e(9 T/e !oemDs 2usiness
in t/e true conition o& t/e oe% is t/at o& l.rical meitation or re&lection on a large issue(
Part t/e 3irst o& t/e !oem sa.s not/ing o& t/e s/i!>rec7% instea ealing auto2iogra!/icall.
>it/ 0o!7insD o>n relations >it/ Bo an escri2ing an uns!eci&ie s!iritual e#!erience >/ic/%
t/oug/ /arro>ing% >as ultimatel. com&orting( In em!/asising t/at Bo is 2ot/ estructi$e an
merci&ul E 8T/ou are lig/ting an lo$e% I &oun it% a >inter an >arm9 E 0o!7ins set &ort/ t/e
attitue >/ic/ is to go$ern /is res!onse to t/e s/i!>rec7% too( Li7e>ise t/e i&&icult !assage &rom
stan,as = to 4 t/oug/ o!en to muc/ t/eological e2ate a2out Duns ScotusD t/eor. o& t/e Incarnation%
&inall. seems to stress BoDs !er!etual !resence in t/e >orl% somet/ing >/ic/ t/e ro>ning nun
>ill also call u!on( In t/ese res!ects t/e !oem is a t/eoic. attem!ting to :usti&. BoDs >a.s( T/e
attem!t >as !ressing &or 0o!7ins as a &er$i !atriot% &or /is co+religionists /a 2een le&t to ie 2.
t/e !eo!le o& /is o>n countr.(
Deat/ s!ea7s t/e &irst >ors o& Part t/e Secon% &or 0o!7ins oes not inten it to /a$e t/e
last( T/e escri!tion o& t/e s/i!>rec7 >/ic/ &ollo>s o&&ers sco!e &or some o& 0o!7insD most
e#u2erant linguistic e&&ects( 3rom stan,a 1?% t/e entire secon /al& o& t/e !oem concerns itsel& eit/er
>it/ t/e meaning o& t/e tall nunDs >ors an actions% or >it/ t/e t/oug/ts >/ic/ t/e. !ro$o7e in t/e
!oet( 3or /im in turn 8>ors 2rea79 &ort/ suggesting t/at 2ot/ nun an !oet are &aintl. ec/oing in
t/eir o>n >a. t/e all+creating 6or o& Bo( Cust as t/e tall nun is !raise &or /er !o>er to 8rea9
an 8>or9 correctl. t/e meaning conceale in t/e 8uns/a!a2le s/oc7 nig/t9% so% too% 0o!7ins
reas an inter!rets using >ors >/ic/ enote signs% suc/ as 8ci!/er9% 8mar79% 8stigma9% 8signal9%
8to7en9% 8lettering9(
T/e !oem is concerne >it/ t/e construction o& meaningI its su2:ect is not so muc/ t/e
>rec7 2ut t/e meaning o& t/e >rec7% an t/at meaning is not >aiting% &i#e an un!ro2lematic%
>it/in t/e stor. o& t/e >rec7% 2ut /as to 2e soug/t% an !rouce 2. inter!retation(
Some contro$ers. in recent .ears /as centere on stan,a ;4% &ollo>ing Elisa2et/ Sc/neierDs
suggestion t/at 0o!7ins is /ere claiming a miracle% t/at C/rist actuall. a!!eare on eart/ in
res!onse to t/e nunDs cr.( Rat/er it seems t/e latter !art o& t/e !oem eals >it/ &er$ent /o!es an
>is/es% not >it/ &acts% nor >it/ claims a2out an. !articular actions o& C/rist( T/e signi&icant $er2s
near t/e en are in t/e im!erati$e% not t/e inicati$e: 8Let /im rieSin /is trium!/9I 8 Let /im
easter in us%9 e#!ressing 0o!7insD >is/ to see C/rist re2orn in !eo!leDs /earts an acti$el. ruling
/is 7ingom t/ere( -ut t/is an muc/ else remains o!en to e2ate(
T/is >as t/e !oem in >/ic/ 0o!7ins &irst !ut into !ractice /is t/eories on S!rung R/.t/m%
t/e essence o& >/ic/ is to 2rea7 &ree &rom t/e t.rann. o& 8alternating9 r/.t/m 2. counting stresses
<=
in a line% as /e !ut it Luoting &rom stan,a ; 8>/.% i& it is &orci2le in !rose to sa. las/e: ro% am I
o2lige to >ea7en t/is in $erse% >/ic/ oug/t to 2e stronger% not >ea7er% into las/e 2irc/+ro or
somet/ingO9 -ut t/e !oem also is!la.s as man. ot/er raical tec/niLues as /e coul cram in% suc/
as c.ng/ane )consonant+c/ime% &ollo>ing strict rules &rom 6els/ moels*I an ela2orate stan,aic
!atternI r/.mes >/ic/ >ra! across line+2rea7sI an s.nta# >/ic/ is o&ten muscle+2on( All o& t/is
leas to a $er2al te#ture% >/ic/ is intense% energetic% an ric/% as /e coul ma7e it% e$en i& t/e !lain
sense sometimes gets t/e >orst o& it(
8T/e 6rec7 o& t/e Deutsc/lan9 is a ecaent >or7 in t/e sense t/at &orm an language% at
least at &irst sig/t% seem to out>eig/ content an meaning( In t/e en% t/oug/% !articularl. in t/e
more t/eological !assages% t/e !oemDs meanings are &ar &rom sim!le% single% or eas.( T/e !arao# is
t/at suc/ an acutel. aest/etic sensi2ilit. as 0o!7insD >as also >ee to t/e iea t/at t/ere >ere
inee a2solute meanings an su!reme trut/s cr.ing out to 2e e#!resse(
Neeless to sa.% it >as all too muc/ &or contem!orar. taste( T/e !oem >as re:ecte &rom
!u2licationI li7e muc/ o& 0o!7insD >or7 it i not a!!ear until 1514I an it i not attract >ie
attention until t/e rise o& t/e Ne> Critics% to >/om it seeme moern rat/er t/an "ictorian% an to
>/ose moral an anal.tical assum!tions it !ro$e !articularl. a!t(
"I( NOVELISTS
C0$r%e D#c=en 1/2/8 - /2?47
T/e greatness o& C/arles Dic7ens is o& a !eculiar 7in( 0e >as% at t/e same time% t/e great
!o!ular entertainer an t/e great artist% /is greatness an /is !o!ular a!!eal 2eing inse!ara2le( T/e
reasons &or t/is lie ee! in t/e manUs nature( 0e >as a 2orn orator an actor( 0is li&elong ent/usiasm
&or amateur ramatics an t/e maniacal intensit. >it/ >/ic/ /e rea alou /is o>n >or7s >ere 2ot/
signi&icant( 0e >as ne$er a !ure artist( Li7e a great !olitical orator% /e re> strengt/ &rom /is
auienceI /e elig/te to !lease t/em% /e acce!te t/e $aliit. o& t/eir :ugement(
So% Dic7ens >as in man. res!ects t/e orinar. Englis/ man o& t/e mile class trans&orme
2. a uniLue unre!eata2le genius( In /is o>n !erson /e &ul&ille an e#em!li&ie man. ominant
m.t/s o& t/e mi+15
t/
centur.( 0e >as a sel&+mae man% li7e t/e /eroes o& t/e immensel. !o!ular
an in&luential Samuel Smiles( 6it/out !ro!er eucation% >it/out a lo$ing an secure /ome% /e /a
mae /imsel& a /ouse/ol name 2. t/e time /e >as in /is earl. t>enties( In an age more nota2le
!er/a!s t/an an. ot/er &or ee! &eeling a2out c/il/oo% /e /a 2een a re:ecte c/il% &orce to &in
/is o>n logings an earn /is o>n li$ing 2. t/e time /e >as 1@ .ears ol(
<?
T/en /e >as t.!ical o& /is great mile+class !u2lic in 2eing a !ractical man o& t/e >orl%
not !articularl. 2oo7is/% >it/ a ou2le s/are o& t/e e#traorinar. e#u2erant energ. an /umour o&
t/at e#!ansi$e age( Li7e /is !u2lic /e >as a 2it o& a !/ilistineI /is $ie>s on art >ere muc/ nearer to
t/ose o& t/e cro>s t/an t/e. >ere to t/ose o& Co/n Rus7in(
Li7e /is !u2lic% too% /e >as intereste in re&orm( Li7e t/em% /e >as $er. certain t/at re&orm
s/oul >or7 in t/e irection o& reucing aristocratic !ri$ilegeI li7e t/em% /e >as muc/ more
u2ious a2out e#tening mile+class !ri$ileges to t/ose lo>er o>n( Li7e t/em /e >as $er. 7een
on a strong !olice &orce an t/e !re$ention o& crime an li7e t/em /e too7 an un/ol. elig/t in t/e
2reat/less rama o& a murer stor.( Li7e ot/er !o!ular >riters /e >as ee!l. meloramatic% 2ut
t/ere >as not/ing c.nical or calculating in t/is( In e#!ressing t/eir as!irations% &ears an !re:uices
/e >as sim!l. e#!ressing /imsel&(
Dic7ens >as a man o& o2sessions% >/ic/ can 2e trace all t/roug/ /is >or7( 0e >as /aunte
2. t/e iea o& the lonely child% 2ecause /e /a 2een one( 0e >as /aunte 2. t/e iea o& the $rison
2ecause /is &at/er /a 2een in t/e e2torsD !rison( 0e >as ee!l. o2sesse 2. t/e t/oug/t o&
violence( T/ese t/emes occur constantl.% 2ut t/is oes not ma7e /is >or7 re!etiti$e( 0is
e$elo!ment consists !artl. in t/e !er!etual ee!ening o& t/ese t/emes( T/e !rison o& Pick0ick
Pa$ers is t/e same e2torsD !rison as t/e one in Little Dorrit )an t/e same in >/ic/ /is o>n &at/er
>as con&ine*% 2ut as literar. e#!eriences t/e t>o coul /arl. 2e more i&&erent% an t/e latter one
is immensel. t/e more 2rilliant an !ro&oun( Occasionall.% t>o o& /is o2sessions meet in t/e same
!assage% suc/ as t/e 2urning o& t/e !rison 2. t/e mo2 in &arna(y -udge 1$rison and violence* or
t/e e#clusion o& Dorrit at nig/t &rom /er onl. /ome% t/e !arshalsea $rison 1$rison and lonely
child* an suc/ !assages o&ten /a$e a !articularl. intense !o>er or !at/os(
-alancing t/is constant recurrence o& t/e same &acts an ieas% >e /a$e /is e#traorinar.
in$enti$eness% $ariet.% an master. o& signi&icant etail( 0is >orl is &uller an ric/er t/an ot/er
no$elistsD >orls( 0is imagination &ins !oetr.% /umour% an signi&icance in t/e most orinar.
t/ings( T/at !/.sicall. &ilt/. "ictorian Lonon% >/ic/ struc7 intelligent &oreign $isitors as almost a
/ell on eart/% >as /is natural /ome as man an artist( 0e re> strengt/ an ins!iration &rom /is
long solitar. >al7s )o&ten at nig/t* t/roug/ t/e ingiest an strangest areas( 0is !at/os% /is >il%
e#tra$agant /umour% /is ,eal &or re&orm% /is serious inignation >as all roote in t/is $ision o& t/e
strangest cit. in t/e >orl% an t/e one >it/ most 2i,arre contrasts(
In general one ma. sa. t/at in /is earl. >or7s% u! to a2out 141A% /is e#u2erance% >/et/er
comic or meloramatic% !reominates( Plots are >iel. im!ro2a2leI coinciences a2ounI ees
<4
o&ten lac7 t/eir natural outcome( At times >e seem to 2e almost in t/e >orl o& &air.+tale% not a2out
!rincesses% 2ut a2out or!/ans an c/imne.+s>ee!s(
Dom2e. an Son )1414* is a lan+mar7 o& c/ange( T/e ol &eatures are still !resent in some
egree% 2ut so are t/ose t/at 2ecame more an more ominant in /is later >or7% !s.c/ological
insig/t% serious t/oug/t a2out societ.% an a2o$e all a sense o& t/e conseLuences o& t/ings an o& t/e
com!le#it. o& moral c/oices( In Nic/olas Nic7le2.% an earl. >or7% t>o !/ilantro!ical 2rot/ers
i&&use :o. an !eace all roun t/em 2. gi$ing a>a. t/eir mone.( In 2ur !utual Friend% /is last
com!lete no$el% -o&&in% a 7inl. man an#ious to o goo >it/ /is large &ortune% &ins /imsel&
t/>arte an ecei$e% an una2le to !rouce 2ene&icial e&&ects( T/e later 2oo7s are in !laces :ust
as &unn. as t/e earlier( -ut t/e /umour is more satirical% e$en sa$age( T/e soaring% /ig/+s!irite
nonsense o& Pic7>ic7 is gone( 3inall. >e >oul stress t/e ine#/austi2le $ariet. o& Dic7ens( In /im
alone among later Englis/ >riters% >e can% >it/out a2surit.% &in a li7eness to t/e &ecunit. o&
S/a7es!eare(
In s/ort Dic7ens ma. 2e escri2e as a /umanitarian no$elist an :ournalist( 0is literar.
acti$it. ma. 2e structure in &our main !erios o& creation(
E#!erimental !erio
1( S7etc/es 2. -o, )14<1+14<=* is a series o& s/ort !a!ers /a$ing escri!ti$e $alue an a!!ealing
!rimaril. 2ecause o& t/eir /umour(
;( T/e Post/umous Pa!ers o& t/e Pic7>ic7 Clu2 is t/e one no$el o& Dic7ens t/at a2ouns neit/er in
!at/etic% gre>some% nor ramatic !assages( It is !ure &un &rom 2eginning to en% >it/ a laug/ o&
e$er. !age( It >as !u2lis/e in 14<=% an aie 2. t/e cle$er illustrations o& 0a2lot -ro>n% or
8P/i,i9% it attaine immeiate success an lai t/e &ounations o& Dic7ensD &ame( T/e t.!es
illustrate are caricatures% 2ut ne$ert/eless t/e. are t.!es: Mr( Pic7>ic7% t/e genial% unso!/isticate
&ouner o& t/e clu2I an t/at masterl. arra. o& enicrous ini$iuals ra>n &rom all classes /ig/ or
lo>(
Alt/oug/ t/e >/ole 2oo7 is e#aggerate come.% t/ere is no ot/er t/at /as &urnis/e more
c/aracters uni$ersall. 7no>n% or gi$en to common Englis/ s!eec/ more current !/rases( Man.
sa.ings an e$ents are still in t/e 8Pic7>ic7ian sense9I Sam 6eller an /is amira2le &at/er are still
LuoteI Mrs( Leo 0unter is still a &eature in social li&eI -arell trials occur occasionall.I an t/ere
are man. clu2s as >ise as Pic7>ic7Ds(
Secon Perio
<5
1(A$entures o& Oli$er T>ist )14<?+14<5* >it/ t/e o2:ect o& s/o>ing 8t/e !rinci!le o& goo
sur$i$ing t/roug/ a$erse circumstance9 attac7e t/e a2uses o& t/e Poor La> an e#!ose t/e
>or7/ouse s.stem(
T/e stor. s/o>s in $i$i colours t/e miseries o& t/e !au!erDs /ome >/ere t/e inmates are
ro22e an star$e% >/ile t/e ea are /urrie into un/onoure gra$esI t/e /aunt o& $illains an
t/ie$es >/ere t/e >retc/e !oor are !ur!osel. mae criminals 2. t/ose >/o /a$e sinne !ast /o!eI
an one >rong+oing is use to &orce t/e $ictim ee!er in $ice( 6it/ suc/ li$es are inter>o$en
t/ose o& a 2etter sort% s/o>ing /o> men an >omen in all graes /a$e !o>er on ot/ers &or goo or
ill(
Oli$er T>ist E so calle 2ecause t/e >or7/ouse master /as :ust reac/e t/e letter 8T9 in
naming t/e >ai&s E >as 2orn in t/e !oor/ouse% >/ere /is mot/erDs >anerings cease &or e$er(
6/en t/e /ungr. la as7e &or more o& t/e too t/in gruel /e >as >/i!!e( -oun out to >or7% /e
runs a>a. &rom /is sla$er. an goes to !ic7!oc7etDs sc/ool( -ut /e >ill not steal( 0e &ins a /ome(
0e is 7ina!!e an &orce to 2e again >it/ t/e 2a ones% an to act as /el!er to S.7es t/e ro22er in
/ouse+2rea7ing( Nanc.Ds >omanl. /eart% )2a enoug/ /er li&e ma. 2e* >or7s to set /im &ree(
Once more goo !eo!le s/elter /im% rescuing /im >it/out assistance o& t/e -o> Street
o&&icers% >/o ma7e 2ra$e tal7( T/e 7in ol sc/olar% Mr( -ro>nlo>% is t/e goo genius t/at o!ens
2e&ore /im a >a. to li2ert. an a li&e suite to /is nature( T/e e#cita2le countr. octor ecei$es t/e
!olice% an sa$es Oli$er &or an /onest career( T/e eccentric Mr( Brim>ig s/oul not 2e o$erloo7e(
T/e m.ster. o& /is mot/erDs &ate is sol$e% an /e &ins a sister( Alt/oug/ t/e innocent an less
guilt. su&&er% t/e conscious >rong+oers are% a&ter muc/ sc/eming an actual sin% mae to gi$e 2ac7
t/e stolen% re!air E i& suc/ can 2e E t/e e$il one% an !a. t/e !enalt. o& transgression( T/e. 2ring
ruin to t/eir o>n /eas( T/ere are a2out t>ent. !rominent c/aracters% eac/ t/e t.!e o& its 7in% in
t/is li&e ramaI se!arate scenes o& >/ic/ >e ma.% as it >ere% rea in our ail. !a!ers% so real are
t/e.( T/e aut/or sa.s t/at as romance /a mae $ice to s/ine >it/ !leasure% so /is !ur!ose >as to
s/o> crime in its re!ulsi$e trut/(
1* Li&e an A$entures o& Nic/olas Nic7le2. )14<4+14<5*% >/ere Dic7ens 2ecomes again a social
re&ormer% one o& /is !rinci!al !ur!oses 2eing to e#!ose t/e 8&arming9 sc/ools o& For7s/ire an t/eir
se$ere mistreatment o& c/ilren(
;* T/e Ol Curiosit. S/o! )141@+1411*% not /is 2est no$el% 2ut among /is most cele2rate in >/ic/
not t/e !lot 2ut t/e central &igure o& Little Nell /as mae it !o!ular(
1@
<* -arna2. Ruge )1411* is &reLuentl. calle a /istorical no$el% alt/oug/ all t/e c/aracters% e#ce!t
Lor Boron% are imaginar.( T/e !lot is e#tremel. intricate( -arna2. is a !oor /al&+>itte 2o.%
li$ing in Lonon to>ar t/e close o& t/e 14
t/
centur.% >it/ /is mot/er an /is ra$en Bri!( 0is &at/er
/a 2een t/e ste>ar o& a countr. gentleman name 0areale% >/o >as &oun murere in /i 2e%
>/ile 2ot/ /is ste>ar an /is garener /a isa!!eare(
T/e 2o. o& t/e ste>ar% recogni,a2le onl. 2. t/e clot/es% is !resentl. &oun in a !on(
-arna2. is 2orn t/e a. a&ter t/e ou2le murer( A&&ectionate an morall. ocile% creulous an &ull
o& &antastic imaginings% a sim!leton 2ut &ait/&ul% /e gro>s u! to 2e li7e an truste( 0is mot/er
/a$ing &le to Lonon to esca!e a m.sterious 2lac7mailer% /e 2ecomes in$ol$e in t/e &amous )No
Po!er.* riots o& Lor Beorge Boron in 1?4@% an is >it/in an ace o& !eris/ing on t/e sca&&ol( T/e
2lac7mailer% Mr( 0areale t/e 2rot/er an Emma% t/e aug/ter o& t/e murere man% EmmaDs lo$er%
E>ar C/ester% an /is &at/er% are t/e c/ie& &igures o& t/e nominal !lotI 2ut t/e real interest is not
>it/ t/em 2ut >it/ t/e sie c/aracters an e!isoes( Some o& t/e most >/imsical an amusing o&
Dic7ensDs c/aracter stuies a!!ear in t/e !ages o& t/e no$elI >/ile t/e >/ole e!isoe o& t/e
gat/ering an marc/ o& t/e mo2% an t/e storming o& Ne>gate is sur!asse in ramatic intensit. 2.
no !assage in moern &iction% unless it is 2. Dic7ensD o>n treatment o& t/e 3renc/ Re$olution in t/e
8Tale o& T>o Cities9( Among t/e im!ortant c/aracters% man. o& >/om are t/e aut/ors o& sa.ings
no> !ro$er2ial% are Ba2riel "aren% t/e c/eer&ul an incorru!ti2le ol loc7smit/% &at/er o& t/e
c/arming &lirt Doll. "arenI Mrs( "aren% a t.!e o& t/e narro>+mine ,ealotI Miss Miggs% t/eir
ser$ant% mean% treac/erous% an sel&+see7ingI Sim Ta!!ertit% an a!!rentice% an amira2le !ortrait o&
t/e /al&+&ool% /al&+7na$e% so o&ten &oun in t/e Englis/ ser$ile classes a2out a centur. agoI 0ug/
8t/e /ostler9 an Dennis t/e /angmanI an Bri!% t/e ra$en% >/o &ills an im!ortant !art in t/e stor.%
an &or >/om Dic7ens /imsel& name a &a$ourite ra$en(
Mature Perio
1(Li&e an A$entures o& Martin C/u,,le>it )141<+1411* is a sermonic 2oo7 meloramati,e 2. a
murer an mae uneLual 2. tri$ial 2urlesLue an intricate !lot(
;(Dom2e. an Son )141=+1414* is memora2le &or t/e !ictures o& Little Paul an t/e !at/os o& /is
eat/(
T/e stor. o!ens >it/ t/e eat/ o& Mrs( Dom2e.% >/o /as le&t /er /us2an% t/e !rou
!ossessor o& a 2a2. son an /eir( 0e neglects /is aug/ter 3lorence an lo$es Paul% in >/om all /is
am2itions an >orll. /o!es are centreI 2ut t/e 2o. ies( Mr( Dom2e. marries a 2eauti&ul >oman%
11
>/o is as col an !rou as /e is% an >/o /as sol /ersel& to /im to esca!e &rom a esigning
mot/er( S/e gro>s &on o& 3lorence% an t/is &riens/i! is so is!leasing to Mr(Dom2e. t/at /e
tries to /um2le /er 2. remonstrating t/roug/ Mr( Car7er% /is 2usiness manager an &rien(
T/is cra&t. $illain% reali,ing /is !o>er% goas /er 2e.on enurance% an s/e emans a
se!aration &rom Mr( Dom2e.% 2ut is re&use( A&ter an angr. inter$ie>% s/e etermines u!on a 2ol
stro7e an isgraces /er /us2an 2. !retening to elo!e >it/ Car7er to 3rance% >/ere s/e meets
/im once% s/ames an e&ies /im an esca!es( Mr( Dom2e.% a&ter s!urning 3lorence% >/om /e
consiers t/e cause o& /is trou2le% &ollo>s Car7er in /ot taste( T/e. encounter eac/ ot/er >it/out
>arning at a rail>a. station% an as Car7er is crossing% t/e trac7s /e &alls an is instantl. 7ille 2.
an e#!ress train( 3lorence see7s re&uge >it/ an ol sea ca!tain >/om /er 2rot/er% Paul% /as 2een
&on o&% marries 6alter Ba.% t/e &rien o& /er c/ilren% an t/e. go to sea( A&ter t/e &ailure o&
Dom2e. an Son% >/en Mr( Dom2e.Ds !rie is /um2le an /e is le&t esolate% 3lorence returns
an ta7es care o& /im( T/e c/aracters in t/e 2oo7 are immeiatel. concerne in t/e !lot% 2ut &amous
&or t/is !eculiar Lualities% are Ca!tain Cuttle% 3lorenceDs 7in !rotector% >/o /as a nautical manner
o& e#!ressionI Sol Bills% 6alterDs uncleI Mr( Toots% >/o su&&ers &rom s/.ness an lo$eI an Coe
-agstoc7% t/e ma:or( T/e scene is lai in Englan at t/e time t/e no$el >as !u2lis/e in 1414(
<(Da$i Co!!er&iel )1415+14A<* is a no$el% >/ere% e#cluing t/e central &igure o& Da$i% >/o
narrates /is a$entures% t/e c/ie& t/eme is t/e 2etra.al o& Little Emil. 2. Steer&ort/ an Mr(
Peggot.Ds searc/ &or t/e girl(
8O& all m. 2oo7s9 sa.s Dic7ens in /is !re&ace to t/is immortal no$el% 8I li7e t/is t/e 2estS
Li7e man. &on !arents% I /a$e in m. /eart o& /earts a &a$ourite% c/il( An /is name is Da$i
Co!!er&iel9(
6/en 8Da$i Co!!er&iel9 a!!eare in 14A@% a&ter 8Dom2e. an Son9 an 2e&ore 8-lea7
0ouse9% it 2ecame so !o!ular t/at its onl. ri$al >as 8Pic7>ic79( -eneat/ t/e &iction lies muc/ o&
t/e aut/orDs !ersonal li&e% .et it is not an auto2iogra!/.( T/e stor. treats o& Da$iDs sa e#!eriences
as a c/il% /is .out/ at sc/ool% an /is struggles &or a li$eli/oo% an lea$es /im in earl. man/oo%
!ros!erous an /a!!il. marrie( Pat/os% /umour% an s7ill in elineation gi$e $italit. to t/is
remar7a2le >or7I an no>/ere /as Dic7ens &ille /is can$as >it/ more $i$i an i$ersi&ie
c/aracters( E.!. Forster sa.s t/at t/e aut/orDs &a$ourites >ere t/e Peggott. &amil.% com!ose o&
Da$iDs nurse Peggott.% >/o >as marrie to -ar7is% t/e carrierI Daniel Peggott.% /er 2rot/er% a
Farmout/ &is/ermanI 0am Peggott.% /is ne!/e>I t/e ole&ul Mrs( BummigeI an Little Emil.%
ruine 2. Da$iDs sc/oolmate% Steer&ort/(
1;
8It /as 2een t/eir &ate9 sa.s 3orster 8as >it/ all t/e leaing &igures o& /is in$ention% to !ass
t/eir names into t/e language an 2ecome t.!esI an /e /as no>/ere gi$en /a!!ier em2oiment to
t/at !urit. o& /omel. gooness% >/ic/% 2. t/e 7inl. an all+reconciling in&luences o& /umour% ma.
e#alt into comeliness an e$en graneur t/e clumsiest &orms o& /umanit.(9
Miss -ets. Trot>oo% Da$iDs auntI t/e /al&+ma% 2ut mil Mr( Dic7I Mrs( Co!!er&iel%
Da$iDs mot/erI Murstone% /is 2rutal ste!&at/erI Mr( S!enlo> an /is aug/ter Dora E Da$iDs
8c/il+>i&e9+ Steer&ort/% Rosa Dartle% Mrs( Steer&ort/% Mr( 6ic7&iel% /is aug/ter Agnes% )Da$iDs
secon >i&e*%)S* an t/e Mica>2er &amil.% are t/e !ersons aroun >/om t/e interest re$ol$es( A
/ost o& minor c/aracters% suc/ as t/e comical little >ar& /air+resser% Tomm. Trales% Uria/ 0ee!
an ot/ers% are !ortra.e >it/ t/e same $i$i stro7es(
1* -lea7 0ouse )14A;+14A<*( One t/eme o& t/is stor. is t/e monstrous in:ustice an
e$en ruin t/at coul 2e >roug/t 2. t/e ela.s in t/e Ol Court o& C/ancer.% >/ic/ e&eate all t/e
!ur!oses o& a court o& :ustice( T/e scene is lai in Englan a2out t/e mile o& last centur.( La.
Deloc7% a 2eauti&ul societ. >oman% success&ull. /ies a isgrace&ul secret( S/e /as 2een engage
to a Ca!tain 0o>onI 2ut t/roug/ circumstances 2e.on t/eir control% t/e. >ere una2le to marr.%
an /er in&ant s/e 2elie$es to /a$e ie at 2irt/ is ali$e( 0er sister% /o>e$er% /as 2roug/t u! t/e
c/il uner t/e name o& Est/er Summerson( Est/er 2ecome t/e >ar o& Mr( Carn.ce% o& t/e &amous
c/ancer. la> case o& Carn.ce $s( Carn.ce% an li$es >it/ /im at -lea7 0ouse( 0er un7no>n
&at/er% t/e Ca!tain ies !oor an neglecte in Lonon( A $eile la. $isits /is gra$e at nig/tI an
t/is con&irms a sus!icion o& Mr( Tul7ing/orn% Sir Leicester Deloc7Ds la>.er% alrea. rouse 2. an
act o& La. Deloc7( 6it/ t/e ai o& a 3renc/ mai /e succees in unra$elling t/e m.ster.% an
etermines to in&orm /is &rien an client Sir Leicester o& /is >i&eDs .out/&ul misconuct( On t/e
nig/t 2e&ore t/is re$elation is to 2e mae% Mr( Tul7ing/orn is murere( La. Deloc7 is sus!ecte
o& t/e crime% isa!!ears% an a&ter long searc/ is &oun 2. Est/er an a etecti$e% l.ing ea at t/e
gates o& t/e gra$e.ar >/ere /er lo$er is 2urie( T/e stor. is tol !artl. in t/e t/ir !erson% an
!artl. as auto2iogra!/. 2. Est/er( Among t/e ot/er c/aracters are t/e irres!onsi2le an
im!ecunious Mr( S7im!oleI Mrs( Cell.2.% e$ote to &oreign missionsI cra,. Miss 3liteI
Bran&at/er Small>eeI Hroo7% t/e rag+an+2ottle ealerI Mr( Bu!!.% >/o e#!lains all /is actions
2. t/e statement t/at 8T/ere are c/ors in t/e /uman min9I t/e oiousl. 2ene$olent Mrs(
PariggleI Mr( Tur$e.ro!% t/e moel o& e!ortmentI Mr( C/a2an% >/ose name /as 2ecome
!ro$er2ial &or a certain 7in o& loose :ointe !ul!it e#/ortation% Ca. Cell.2.% >it/ in7. &ingers
an s!oile tem!er+all o& >/om Dic7ens !ortra.s in /is most /umorous mannerI an% among t/e
1<
most touc/ing o& /is c/ilren o& t/e slums% t/e !at/etic &igure o& !oor Co% t/e crossing+s>ee!er% >/o
8onDt 7no> not/in79( T/e stor. is long an com!licateI 2ut its cle$er satire% its elig/t&ul /umour%
an its ingraine !at/os% ma7es it one o& Dic7ensDs most !o!ular no$els(
A* 0ar Times )14A1* is a re$olutionar. !ro2lem no$el !resenting t/e sLualor an miser. o& a
te#tile to>n% enouncing trae+union agitators(
6/en 80ar Times9 a!!eare as a serial in 0ouse/ol 6ors in 14A1% Dic7ens >as a2out
mi>a. in /is literar. career( In t/e same .ear t/is no$el a!!eare in an octa$o $olume >it/ a
eication to T/omas Carl.le( Its !ur!ose% accoring to Dic7ens /imsel&% >as to satiri,e 8t/ose >/o
see &igures an a$erages an not/ing else+t/e re!resentati$es o& t/e >ic7eest an most enormous
$ice o& t/is time E t/e men >/o t/roug/ long .ears to come >ill o more to amage t/e reall.
use&ul &acts o& Political Econom. t/an I coul o )i& I trie* in m. >/ole li&e9( T/e satire% /o>e$er%
li7e muc/ t/at Dic7ens attem!te in t/e same $ein% >as not $er. 2itter(
T/e c/aracters in 80ar Times9 are not numerousI an t/e !lot itsel& is less intricate t/an
ot/ers 2. Dic7ens( T/e c/ie& &igures are Mr( T/omas Bragrin 8a man o& realities9% >it/ /is
un2oune &ait/ in statisticsI Louisa% /is elest aug/ter% an Cosia/ -ouner2.% as !ractical as Mr(
Bragrin% 2ut less 7in+/earteI Louisa% t/oug/ man. .ears .ounger t/an Mr( -ouner2.% is
!ersuae 2. /er &at/er to marr. /im( S/e is also in&luence in ma7ing t/is marriage 2. /er esire
to smoot/ t/e !at/ o& /er 2rot/er Tom% a cler7 in Mr( -ouner2.Ds o&&ice( T/oug/ not /a!!.% s/e
resists t/e 2lanis/ments o& Cames 0art/ouse% a !ro&esse &rien o& /er /us2anDs( To esca!e /im%
s/e /as to go /ome to /er &at/er an t/is leas to a !ermanent enstrangement 2et>een /us2an an
>i&e( In t/e meantime Tom Bragrin /as stolen mone. &rom -ouner2.% an to a$oi !unis/ment
runs a>a. &rom Englan( T/en LouisaDs sacri&ice o& /ersel& /as 2een useless( Mr(BragrinDs >i&e
an /is ot/er c/ilren !la. an unim!ortant !art in t/e stor.( O& more conseLuence is Siss. )Cecilia*
Cu!e% >/om t/e eler Bragrin /as 2e&riene in s!ite o& /er 2eing t/e aug/ter o& a circus clo>nI
an Mrs( S!arsit% -ouner2.Ds /ouse7ee!er% >/o /as seen 2etter a.s% an is o$er!o>ering >it/ /er
relations/i! to La. Scagers( Mrs( Pegler% t/e mot/er o& Cosia/ -ouner2.% is a curious an
amusing &igureI >/ile a touc/ o& !at/os is gi$en 2. t/e lo$e o& 0e!/en -lac7!ool t/e >ea$er% &or
Rac/el% >/om /e cannot marr. 2ecause /is erring >i&e still li$es(
Mr( Bragrin came to see t/e &allac. o& mere statisticsI 2ut Cosia/ -ounerel.% t/e sel& E
mae man% >/o lo$e to 2elittle /is o>n origin% ne$er amitte t/at /e coul 2e >rong( 6/en /e
ie% Louisa >as still .oung enoug/ to re!air /er earl. mista7e 2. a secon an /a!!ier marriage(
11
=( Little Dorrit )14AA + 14A?* >as !u2lis/e >/en t/e aut/orDs !o!ularit. >as at its /eig/t( T/e !lot
is a slig/t one on >/ic/ to /ang more t/an &i&t. c/aracters( T/e aut/or 2egan >it/ t/e intention o&
em!/asi,ing t/e &act t/at ini$iuals 2roug/t toget/er 2. c/ance% i& onl. &or an instant% continue
/ence&ort/ to in&luence an to act an react u!on one anot/er( -ut t/is original moti$e is soon
altoget/er &orgotten in t/e multi!lication o& c/aracters an t/e relation o& t/eir &ortunes( T/e central
iea is to !ortra. t/e e#!eriences o& Dorrit &amil.% immure &or man. .ears on account o& e2t in
t/e ol Mars/alsea Prison% an t/en une#!ectel. restore to >ealt/ an &reeom( 0a$ing 2een
!itia2le in !o$ert.% t/e. 2ecome arrogant an contem!ti2le in a&&luence( Am.% 8Little Dorrit9% alone
remains !ure% lo$a2le% an sel&+en.ing( In /er% Dic7ens em2oies t/e 2est /uman Lualities in a
most 2eauti&ul an !ersuasi$e &orm( S/e enlists t/e lo$e o& Art/ur Clenman% >/o meantime /as /a
/is o>n trials( Returning &rom Inia% a&ter long a2sence% /e &ins /is mot/er a religious &anatic
omineere o$er 2. most t/e /.!ocritical ol 3lint>inc/% an 2ot/ !re.e u!on 2. t/e
Me!/isto!/elian -lanois% !er/a!s t/e astarl. $illain in t/e >/ole Dic7ens galler.( T/e
com!lications% /o>e$er% en /a!!il. &or Art/ur an Am.( T/e main attac7 o& t/e 2oo7 is aime
against o&&icial 8re ta!e9 as e#em!li&ie in t/e -arnacle &amil. an t/e 8Circumlocution O&&ice9( It
also s/o>s u! Merle t/e s>inling 2an7er% 8-ar9% 8-is/o!9 an ot/er t.!es o& 8Societ.9( T/e
Meagleses are 8!ractical9 !eo!le >it/ so&t /eartsI t/eir aug/ter is marrie to an 2ullie 2. 0enr.
Bo>an% >/ose mot/er is a genteel !au!er at 0am!ton Court( Ot/er c/aracters are Panc7s t/e
collector% 8!u&&ing li7e a steam + engine9% /is /.!ocritical em!lo.er Cas2.% t/e /um2le an >ort/.
Plornis/es% t/e lo$e E 2lig/te an e!ita!/ic .oung Co/n C/i$er.% an t/e >oner&ul Mr(
3llint>inc/Ds aunt >it/ /er e#!losi$e utterances( T/e no$el is intricate in !lot 2ut s!leni in its
inictment o& t/e s.stem o& im!risonment &or e2t an o& t/e ilatoriness o& t/e Circumlocution
O&&ice )go$ernment e!artments*(
?( A Tale o& T>o Cities )14=@ + 14=1* is one o& /is most artistic no$els% restraine 2ot/ in its
melorama an romantic atmos!/ere( It i&&ers essentiall. &rom all /is ot/er no$els in st.le an
manner o& treatment( 3orster% in /is 8Li&e o& Dic7ens9% >rites t/at 8t/ere is no instance% in /is no$els
e#ce!ting t/is% o& a eli2erate an !lanne e!arture &rom t/e met/o o& treatment >/ic/ /a 2een
!re E eminentl. t/e source o& /is !o!ularit. as a no$elist(9 To rel. less u!on c/aracter t/an u!on
incient% an to resol$e t/at /is actors s/oul 2e e#!resse 2. t/e stor. more t/an t/e. s/oul
e#!ress t/emsel$es 2. ialogue% >as &or /im /a,arous% an can /arl. 2e calle an entirel.
success&ul e#!eriment( 6it/ singular ramatic $i$acit.% muc/ constructi$e art an >it/ escri!ti$e
!assages o& /ig/ orer e$er.>/ere% t/ere >as !ro2a2l. ne$er a 2oo7 2. a great /umanist% an an
1A
artist so !roli&ic in conce!tion >it/ so little /umour an so &e> remar7a2le &igures( Its merit lies
else>/ere9( T/e t>o cities are Lonon an Paris( T/e time is :ust 2e&ore an uring t/e 3renc/
Re$olution( A !eculiar c/ain o& e$ents 7nits an inter>ea$es t/e li$es o& a 8&e> sim!le% !ri$ate
!eo!le9 >it/ t/e out2rea7 o& a terri2le !u2lic e$ent( Dr( Manette /as 2een a !risoner in t/e -astille
&or eig/teen .ears% languis/ing t/ere% as i so man. ot/ers% on some $ague un&oune c/arge( 0is
release >/en t/e stor. o!ens% /is restoration to /is aug/ter Lucie% t/e trial an acLuittal o& one
C/arles Durna.% ne!/e> o& a 3renc/ marLuis% on a c/arge o& treason% t/e marriage o& Lucie Manette
to Darna. E t/ese incients &orm t/e introuction to t/e rama o& 2loo >/ic/ is to &ollo>( T>o
&riens o& t/e Manette &amil. com!lete t/e circle o& im!ortant c/aracters: Mr( Lorr.% a solicitor o& a
$er. ancient Lonon &irm% an S.ne. Carton% t/e most com!lete gentleman to 2e &oun in
Dic7ens( Carton /as >aste /is talents leaing a >il% 2o/emian li&e in Lonon( T/e one garen
s!ot in /is li&e is /is lo$e &or Lucie Manette( To t/is lo$e /e clings as a ra>ning man to a s!ar( 3or
t/is lo$e /e la.s o>n /is li&e( At t/e 2rea7ing out o& t/e 3renc/ Re$olution% Darna. /astens to
Paris to ai an ol &amil. ser$ant% >/o is in anger o& losing /is li&e( 0is >i&e an /is &at/er+in+la>
&ollo> /im( Brauall. t/e entire circle o& &riens% incluing Mr( Lorr. an S.ne. Carton% &in
t/emsel$es in t/e /orri2le en$ironment o& t/e Paris o& t/e Terror( Darne. /imsel& is im!risone an
conemne to eat/ 2. t/e agenc. o& a >ine E seller% De&arge% an /is >i&e% a &emale im!ersonation
o& 2loo an >ar( To sa$e t/e /us2an o& t/e >oman /e lo$es% Carton 2. strateg. ta7es /is !lace in
!rison( T/e no$el closes >it/ t/e magni&icent scene >/en Carton goes to /is eat/ on t/e sca&&ol%
reeeming a >ort/less li&e 2. one su!reme act o& e$otion( Onl. t/e little se>ing girl in t/e eat/ E
cart >it/ /im 7no>s /is secret( As /e mounts t/e guillotine t/ere rises 2e&ore /im t/e $ision o& a
reeeme an rene>e Paris% o& a great an glorious nation( T/ere rises 2e&ore /im man. memories
an man. ea /o!es o& /is o>n !ast li&e% 2ut in /is /eart t/ere is t/e serenit. o& trium!/: 8It is a
&ar% &ar 2etter t/ing I o t/an I /a$e e$er oneI it is a &ar% &ar 2etter rest t/at I go to t/an I /a$e e$er
7no>n9(
3inal Perio
1( Breat E#!ectations )14=@ + 14=1* is one o& /is most artistic no$els% restraine 2ot/ in its
melorama an romantic atmos!/ere( It is Dic7ensDs tent/ no$el% !u2lis/e nine .ears 2e&ore /is
eat/( As in 8Da$i Co!!er&iel9% t/e /ero tells /is o>n stor. &rom 2o./oo( Fet% in se$eral
essential !oints 8Breat E#!ectations9 is mar7el. i&&erent &rom 8Da$i Co!!er&iel9% an &rom
Dic7ensDs ot/er no$els( O>ing to t/e sim!licit. o& t/e !lot% an to t/e small num2er o& c/aracters% it
!ossesses greater unit. o& esign( T/ese c/aracters% eac/ ra>n >it/ mar$elous istinctness o&
1=
outline% are su2orinate t/roug/out to t/e central !ersonage 8Pi!9% >/ose great e#!ectations &orm
t/e !i$ot o& t/e narrati$e(
-ut% t/e element t/at most clearl. istinguis/es t/is no$el &rom t/e ot/ers is t/e su2tle stu.
o& t/e e$elo!ment o& c/aracter t/roug/ t/e in&luence o& en$ironment an circumstance( In t/e
career o& Pi!% a more care&ul an natural !resentation o& !ersonalit. is mae t/an is usual >it/
Dic7ens(
0e is a $illage 2o. >/o longs to 2e a 8gentleman9( 0is reams o& >ealt/ an o!!ortunit.
suenl. come true( 0e is su!!lie >it/ mone. an sent to Lonon to 2e eucate an to !re!are
&or /is ne> station in li&e( Later /e isco$ers t/at /is un7no>n 2ene&actor is a con$ict to >/om /e
/a once renere a ser$ice( T/e con$ict% returning against t/e la> to Englan% is reca!ture an
ies in !rison /is &ortune 2eing &or&eite to t/e Cro>n( Pi!Ds great e#!ectations $anis/ into t/in air(
T/e c/anges in Pi!Ds c/aracter uner t/ese $ar.ing &ortunes are most s7ill&ull. e!icte( 0e
!resents /imsel& &irst% as a small 2o. in t/e /ouse o& /is earl. lo$e 2rot/er+in+la> Coe Barger.% t/e
$illage 2lac7smit/% /a$ing no greater am2itionD t/an to 2e CoeDs a!!rentice( A&ter a $isit to t/e /ouse
o& a Miss 0a$is/am% t/e nature o& /is as!irations is com!letel. c/ange( Miss 0a$is/am is one o&
t/e strangest o& Dic7ensDs creations( Cilte 2. /er lo$er on t/e >eing nig/t% s/e resol$es to >ear
/er 2rial go>n as long as s/e li$es% an to 7ee! /er /ouse as it >as >/en t/e 2lo> &ell u!on /er(
T/e canles are al>a.s 2urningI t/e molering 2anLuet is al>a.s s!rea( In t/e mist o& t/is
esolation% s/e is 2ringing u!% a 2eauti&ul little girl% Estella% as an instrument o& re$enge% teac/ing
t/e c/il to use 2eaut. an /er grace to 3ortune men( EstellaDs &irst $ictim is Pi!( S/e laug/s at /is
rustic a!!earance% ma7es /im issatis&ie >it/ Coe an t/e li&e at t/e &orge( 6/en /e &ins /imsel&
/eir to a &ortune% it is t/e t/oug/t o& EstellaDs scorn t/at 7ee!s /im &rom returning CoeDs /onest an
&ait/&ul lo$e( As a 8gentleman9 /e !la.s tric7s >it/ /is conscience% see7ing al>a.s to e#cuse /is
&alse !rie an &lims. ieals o& !osition( T/e con$ictDs return an t/e conseLuent re$elation o& t/e
ientit. o& /is 2ene&actor% /um2les Pi!( 0e reali,es at last t/e ignit. o& la2our% an t/e >ort/ o&
no2le c/aracter( 0e gains a ne> an manl. serenit. a&ter .ears o& /ar >or7( EstellaDs !rie /as also
2een /um2le an /er c/aracter !uri&ie 2. /er e#!eriences( T/e 2oo7 closes u!on t/eir mutual
lo$e(
8Breat E#!ectations9 is a elig/t&ul no$el% ric/ in /umour an &ree &rom &alse !at/os( T/e
c/aracter o& Coe Barger.% sim!le% tener% Luaintl. /umorous >oul alone gi$e im!eris/a2le $alue to
t/e 2oo7( Scarcel. less >ell E ra>n are Pi!Ds termagant sister% 8Mrs( Coe9I t/e s>eet an
>/olesome $illage girl% -i.% >/o 2ecomes CoeDs secon >i&e% Uncle Pum2lec/oo7% o2seLuious or
insolent as t/e !erson /e aresses is ric/ or !oorI Pi!Ds &rien an c/um in Lonon% t/e ear 2o.
1?
0er2ert Poc7etI t/e con$ict >it/ /is >ist&ul lo$e o& Pi!I 2rig/t% im!erious Estella% t/ese are o& t/e
immortals in &iction(
;( Our Mutual 3rien )14=1 + 14=A*% 2esies t/e &reLuent criticism concerning t/e u2ious
grammar o& t/e title% is o$ercom!licate in !lot( T/e scene is lai in Lonon an its immeiate
neig/2or/oo( All t/e ela2orate mac/iner. ear to Dic7ensDs /eart is /ere introuce( T/ere is t/e
central stor. o& Our Mutual 3rien% /imsel& t/e .ounger /eir to t/e $ast 0ermon estate% >/o 2uries
/is ientit. an assumes t/e name o& Co/n Ro7esmit/% t/at /e ma. &orm /is o>n :ugment o& t/e
.oung >oman >/om /e must marr. in orer to claim /is &ortune( T/ere is t/e ot/er stor. o& t/e
!oor 2argemanDs aug/ter% an /er lo$e &or rec7less Eugene 6ra.2urn% t/e iol o& societ.I an
uniting t/ese t>o t/reas in t/e /istor. o& Mr( an Mrs( -o&&in% t/e ignorant% 7in E /earte cou!le%
>/ose innocent am2itions an 2ene$olent use o& mone. intruste in t/eir care% a&&or t/e aut/orDs
o!!ortunit. &or t/e /umour an !at/os o& >/ic/ /e >as a master(
Among t/e c/aracters >/ic/ t/is stor. /as mae &amous are Miss Cenn. 6ren% t/e ollDs
ressma7er% a little% cri!!le creature >/ose lo$e &or Li,,ie 0e#am trans&orms /er misera2le li&eI
-rale. 0eastone% t/e sc/oolmaster% su&&ering torments 2ecause o& /is :ealous. o& Eugene
6ra.2urn% an /el!less uner t/e careless contem!t o& t/at traine a$ersar. E .ing at last in an
agon. o& e&eat at /is &ailure to 7ill EugeneI an t/e trium!/ o& Li,,ieDs lo$e o$er t/e social
i&&erence 2et>een /er an /er lo$erI -ella 6il&er% 8t/e 2oo&er la. 9 cure o& /er longing &or
ric/es an mae Co/n 0armonDs /a!!. >i&e 2. t/e !lots an !lans o& t/e Bolen Dustman% Mr(
-o&&inI an Silas 6egg% an im!uent scounrel em!lo.e 2. Mr( -o&&in% >/o is% at &irst% elig/te
>it/ t/e ser$ices o& 8a literar. man >it/ a >ooen leg9% 2ut >/o grauall. reorgani,es t/e c/eat
an im!ostor% an unmas7s /im in ramatic &as/ion( As usual% Dic7ens &ins to incite /is reaers to
!ractical 2ene$olence( In t/is 2oo7 /e /as a !rotest against t/e !oor E la>s in t/e !erson o& ol
-ett. 0igen% >/ose rea o& t/e alms/ouse /aunts /er .ing /ours( -. man.% t/is $olume%
!u2lis/e among /is later >or7s% is counte as among t/e most im!ortant(
<( T/e M.ster. o& E>in Droo )14?@* is a &ragment o& etecti$e &iction t/at /as set u! a c/allenge
&or com!letion( Onl. si# o& t/e !ro:ecte 1; mont/l. num2ers >ere >ritten( Dic7ens /a set out to
>rite a m.ster. stor.% set c/ie&l. in t/e cat/eral cit. o& Cloister/am( Co/n Cas!er leas a ou2le li&e
as cat/eral c/oirmaster an o!ium aict% tra$elling secretl. to a Lonon o!ium en to satis&. /is
cra$ing( E>in Droo% on >/ose m.sterious isa!!earance t/e stor. >as to /a$e centre% is
Cas!erDs ne!/e>I /e >as 2etrot/e as a c/il to Rosa -u% 2ut t/e cou!le are not in lo$e an t/eir
14
engagement is issol$e( Cas!er nurses a !assion &or Rosa( E>in $anis/es on C/ristmas E$e a&ter a
&erocious t/unerstorm(
VII. @#%%#$+ M$=e)e$ce T0$c=er$9 1/2// 5 /2>37
3eatures o& /is >or7s
0is Re!utation
6/ile Dic7ens >as in &ull tie o& /is success% T/ac7era. >as struggling t/roug/ neglect an
contem!t to recognition( T/ac7era.Ds genius 2lossome slo>l.% :ust as 3ielingDs iI &or t/at
reason t/e &ruit is more mello> an mature( Once /e /a gaine t/e &a$our o& t/e !u2lic% /e /el
it% an among outstaning Englis/ no$elists t/ere is none >/ose claim is so little su2:ect to
c/allenge(
0is met/o
8Since t/e aut/or o& Tom Cones >as 2urie9 sa.s T/ac7era. in /is !re&ace to Pendennis% 8no
>riter o& &iction among us /as 2een !ermitte to e!ict to its utmost !o>er a !an( 6e must ra!e
/im an gi$e /im a certain con$entional sim!er9(
T/ac7era.Ds no$els are a !rotest against t/is con$ention( Reacting against t/e !o!ular no$el
o& /is a.% an !articularl. against its romantici,ing o& rogues% /e returns to t/e 3ieling met/o:
to $ie> /is c/aracters% steail. an &earlessl.% an to set on recor t/eir &ailings as >ell as t/eir
merits an ca!acities( In /is /ans t/e results are not &lattering to /uman nature% &or most o& /is
cle$er !eo!le are rogues an most o& /is $irtuous &ol7s are &ools( -ut >/et/er t/e. are rogues% or
&ools% or merel. 2lunering incom!etents% /is creations are roune% entire% an Luite ali$e an
con$incing(
0is 0umour an Pat/os
Muc/ /as 2een mae o& t/e sneering c.nicism o& T/ac7era.Ds /umour% an a goo eal o&
t/e criticism is true( It >as /is esire to re$eal t/e trut/ an satire in one o& /is most !otent
15
met/os o& re$elation( 0is sarcasm% a eal. s!ecies% is /us2ane &or eser$ing o2:ects% suc/ as
Lo> Ste.ne an to a lesser egree -arnes Ne>come( In t/e case o& !eo!le >/o are onl. stu!i%
li7e Ra>on Cra>le.% merc. tem!ers :usticeI an >/en T/ac7era. c/ooses to o so /e can /anle
a c/aracter >it/ lo$ing tenerness% as can 2e seen in t/e case o& La. Castle>oo an o& Colonel
Ne>come( In !at/os /e is selom sentimental% 2eing usuall. Luiet an e&&ecti$e( -ut at t/e t/oug/t
o& t/e $ain% t/e arrogant% an t/e mean !eo!le o& t/e >orl% T/ac7era. 2ar2s /is !en% >it/
estructi$e results(
0is st.le
It is $er. near to t/e ieal &or a no$elist( It is e&&ortless% an is t/ere&ore uno2trusi$e%
etracting in no >ise &rom t/e interest in t/e stor.( It is also &le#i2le to an e#traorinar. egree( 6e
/a$e seen /o> in Esmon /e reca!ture t/e Aisonian st.leI t/is is onl. one as!ect o& /is
mimetic &acult.% >/ic/ in /is 2urlesLue &ins am!le sco!e(
0is >or7
T/ac7era.Ds earlier >or7% muc/ o& it !u2lis/e in Fraser3s !aga.ine an% a&ter 141 in
Punch% inclue 2ot/ tra$el s7etc/es an grotesLue stories( In The memoirs of &arry Lyndon
)14A=*% T/ac7era. attem!te a rogueDs tale in t/e manner o& 3ielingDs Conat/an 6il( In
'atherine )15<5+1@*% /e e#!ose >/at /e sa>> ass t/e moral angers o& t/e Ne>gate no$el as
!ractise 2 -ul>er+L.tton% Ais>ort/ an Dc7ens% >/ile in KNo$els 2. Eminent 0ansD )141?*% /e
e#tene /is literar. satire to ot/er >riters o& !o!ular a$enture &iction( T/e 4ello0$lush Pa$ers
)14A=* !resent a se$antDs $ie> o& &as/iona2le li&e% 2ut it is The &ook of )no(s )1414* t/at most
clearl. loo7s &or>ar to #anity Fair(
8"anit. 3air9
T/e stor. o& 6illiam Ma7e!eace T/ac7era.Ds 8"anit. 3air9 is set in t/e !erio o& t/e -attle
o& 6aterloo an later( T/e title re$er2erates >it/ associations% an s/oul alert us to t/e &act t/at
t/e 2oo7 is a moralit.( "anit. 3air% in Co/n -un.ansDs allegor. T/e PilgrimDs Progress )1=?4* is
>/ere !oor 3ait/&ul >as stone 2. Deet/ 2. a >orll. an >ic7e !o!ulace( It recalls% too%
Ecclesiastes 1: ;: 8"anit. o& $anities% sait/ t/e !reac/erI $anit. o& $anities% all is $anit.9( T/e
no$elDs closing >ors Luote &rom t/e Latin o& t/e "ulgate:
A@
8A/T "anitas $anitatumT 6/ic/ o& us is /a!!. in t/is >orlO 6/ic/ o& us /as /is esireO Or%
/a$ing it% is satis&ieO S come c/ilren% let us s/ut u! t/e 2o# an t/e !u!!etsS(9
K"anit. 3air9 is 2ase on t/e meie$al conce!t o& t/e >orl as stage( Li7e Conat/an S>i&t%
T/ac7era. is a master o& iron.% an none% o& /is e#!licit statements s/oul 2e ta7en at &ace $alue(
T/e >ors o& D(0(La>rence are rele$ant: 8Ne$er trust t/e teller% trust t/e tale9(
T/e tension 2et>een tale an teller is a ma:or com!onent o& T/ac7era.Ds art( 0is !retence at
etac/ment% eri$e &rom /is 2elo$e 3ieling% /as misle reaers into t/in7ing t/at /e es!ise
/is o>n tale% along >it/ /is c/aracters( Fet /e tells us clearl. enoug/% &or e#am!le in c/a!ter 4%
>/at /e is a2out:
8S m. 7in reaer >ill !lease to remem2er t/at t/is /istor. /as #anity Fair &or a title% an t/at
#anity Fair is a $er. $ain% >ic7e% &oolis/ !lace% &ull o& all sorts o& /um2ugs an &alseness an
!retentionsS(9
6/ile C/ristian% in -un.anDs &a2le% com!letes /is :ourne.% 3ait/&ul is t/e /ero mart.re at
"anit. 3air( In t/e no$el Do22in !la.s t/e role o& 3ait/&ulI /e oes not ie% 2ut /is re>ar is too
!rett. &or /is eserts(
T/e no$el o!ens at a emure girlsD sc/ool in C/is>ic7% >/ere ric/% !am!ere Amelia Sele.
is lea$ing &or /ome% accom!anie 2. t/e 3renc/ instructor% Re2ecca S/ar!% on /er >a. to 2ecome
a go$erness( Amelia is s>eet+nature% 2ut insi!i an &oolis/( Critics /a$e trie to argue t/at -ec7.
is 8goo+/umoure8 2ecause T/ac7era. calls /er so% 2ut >e are >arne earl. t/at s/e is a
8angerous 2ir9( Re2eccaDs 2ac7groun is not res!ecta2leI /er &at/er >as a run7en artist% an /er
mot/er a 3renc/ o!era singer )"ictorian s/ort/an &or 8loose >oman9*( 8T/e /um2le calling o& /er
&emale !arent Miss S/ar! ne$er allue toS(9( Re2ecca is consume 2. en$. o& t/e !ri$ilege
2oarers% 2ut latc/es on to Amelia% an sets /er ca! at AmeliaDs ric/ 2ac/elor 2rot/er% t/e gross
Cose!/ Sele.% Collector o& -oggle. 6alla/ in Inia% 2ut /e esca!es /er clutc/es( S/e t/en goes to
>or7 &or t/e &amil. o& Sir Pitt Cra>le.% an uncout/ 2aronet >/o eri$es in !art &rom SLuire
6estern in 3ielingDs Tom 5ones% an secretl. marries Sir PittDs .ounger son Ra>on( T/e cou!le
is &orce to li$e on t/eir >its not !a.ing 2ills( Ra>on 2ecomes a !ro&essional gam2ler( 0e an
-ec7. clim2 /ig/er an /ig/er in societ.% >it/ no $isi2le means o& su!!ort( -ec7. is e$en
!resente to Beorge I" 8St/ere too >as "anit.9(
T/roug/out t/e no$el% t/ere is a !la. on t/e t>o meanings o& t/e >or $anit.: &utilit. an
$ain conceit( Ra>on is arreste &or e2t% an >/en /is 7in sister+in+la>% La. Cane% gets /im out
o& e2torDs !rison% /e comes /ome% to &in Re2ecca >it/ t/e ric/% issolute MarLuis o& Ste.ne( T/e
A1
no$elist as7s us s/.l. 86as s/e guilt. or notO S/e sai no 2ut >/o coul tellSi& t/at corru!t /eart
>as in t/is case !ureO9
T/e innueno a2out -ec7.Ds 8$irtue9 is resume in c/a!ter =1% >/ere s/e is imagine as a
mermai% attracti$e a2o$e t/e >aist% 2ut >it/ a /ieous tail uner t/e >aterline( S/e /as
egenerate &rom 7e!t >oman to common !rostitute( Li7e S>i&tDs Fa/oos an MiltonDs Satan%
-ec7.% t/roug/ e$il% /as all t/e li&e% >/ile lo$ing !loers li7e Do22in re!resent !atient merit
s!urne 2. t/e un>ort/.( Do22in marries Amelia% an is isa!!ointe( Cust as Do22in is t/e true
/ero% 8La. Cane Cra>le.% !rinci!le an lo$ing9% is t/e true /eroine( T/e imager. t/roug/out is o&
2rilliance an s!ar7le% true an &alse lig/ts(
T/ac7era. /as 2een accuse o& c.nicism on t/e one /an an sentimentalit. on t/e ot/er(
Boron Ra.% T/ac7era.Ds 2iogra!/er% /as argue t/at T/ac7era.Ds marriage >as less /a!!. t/an
T/ac7era. amitte% an t/at Amelia is a !ortrait o& t/e >ea7+mine Mrs( T/ac7era.( As
e$ience% /e 2elie$es t/at T/ac7era. ieali,es Amelia at t/e start o& t/e stor. an !atroni,es /er at
t/e en( -ut t/e no$el esta2lis/es at once t/at Amelia is goo 2ut too trusting% >/ile Re2ecca is
/ar an $inicti$e( As t/e c.nicism% /is auience recogni,e t/at T/ac7era. >as >riting a2out a
emi+monaine( T/ac7era.Ds string o& a!!arentl. innocent Luestions as to >/at 8reall.9 /a!!ene
is a strateg. &or co!ing >it/ "ictorian !ruer.( 0e /ints e#!ertl. at un!leasant &actsI >e learn t/at
ol Sir Pitt 2ecame /el!less an /a to 2e 8&e an cleane li7e a 2a2.9 E t/at Sir Pitt 2ecame
incontinent(
T/a7era. regrette t/e loss o& t/e !re$ious centur.Ds &ran7ness( T/e o$ercoming o& t/is
i&&icult. /as le to muc/ misreaing% 2ut in "anit. 3air% T/ac7era. s/o>s a &ine moral attitue
an a masterl.% !la.&ul control o& tone(
VIII. T0e Bron!e
T/eir Li$es
C0$r%o!!e )141=+AA*% E+#%9 )1414+14*% an Anne )14;@+15* >ere t/e aug/ters o& an Iris/
clerg.man% Patric7 -ronte% >/o /el a li$ing in For7s/ire( 3inancial i&&iculties com!elle
C/arlotte to 2ecame a sc/ool+teac/er )14<A+14<4* an t/en a go$erness( Along >it/ Emil. s/e
$isite -russels in 141;% an t/en returne /ome% >/ere &amil. cares 7e!t /er closel. tie( Later /er
A;
2oo7s /a muc/ success% an s/e >as release &rom man. o& /er &inancial >orries( S/e >as marrie
in 14A1% 2ut ie in t/e ne#t .ear( 0er t>o .ounger sisters /a !reecease /er(
T/eir 6or7s
C0$r%o!!e Bron!eDs &irst no$elI The Professor &aile to &in a !u2lis/er an onl. a!!eare in
14A? a&ter /er eat/( 3ollo>ing t/e e#!eriences o& /er o>n li&e in an unins!ire manner% t/e stor.
lac7s interest% an t/e c/aracters are not create >it/ t/e !assionate insig/t >/ic/ istinguis/es /er
later !ortraits(
Cane E.re )141?* is /er greatest no$el( Similarities 2et>een Cane E.re an &air.+tale
/a$e o&ten 2een note an on a $er. sim!le !lot le$el t/e in&luence is o2$ious( 6e s/oul t/us not
2e too >orrie 2. t/e magical coinciences >/ic/ allo> t/e /eroine to gain /er ens so
s!ectacularl.( An element o& >is/+&ul&ilment in t/e stor. a!!eale to "ictorian reaers an still
a!!eals% /el!ing t/is to 2ecome one o& t/e most uni$ersall. !o!ular no$els in Englis/( T/e &air.
tales elements o not en >it/ t/e !lot /o>e$er% an are e#!loite t/roug/out t/e no$el( Cane%
>/ose surname is E.re% is com!are 2. critics )Roc/ester* to an 8el&9( It is clear t/at in C/arlotte
-ronteDs terms t/e &eminine 8s!iritual9 element is ci$ili,ing t/e un!re!ossessing masculine one%
guiing an taming /im until /e is &it &or union >it/ /er(
Cane% /o>e$er% is no con$entionall. !rett. .oung >oman( 0er creator lin7e Cane >it/
/ersel& an accoring to Elisa2et/ Bas7ell tol /er sisters: 8 I >ill s/o> .ou a /eroine as !lain an
small as m.sel&% >/o s/all 2e as interesting as an. o& .ours9(
A !s.c/oanal.tic $ie> o& t/e 2ot/ mig/t see t/e masculine !s.c/e s!lit 2et>een t/e
immoral 2ut goo+/earte Roc/ester an t/e rule+2oun !air Mr( -roc7le/urst an St( Co/n Ri$ers(
T/e latter !resents /imsel& to CaneDs sense o& ut.% an s/e is seriousl. incline to marr. /im% until
an incor!oreal $oice )t/at o& Roc/ester communicating t/roug/ tele!at/.* c/allenges /er c/oice
an recalls /er to /er ee!er emotional commitment(
T/e &ier. as!ects o& t/e &eminine are loc7e 2. Roc/ester in t/e attic at T/orn&iel in t/e
s/a!e o& /is ma >i&e -ert/a% >/o ma7es se$eral e&&orts to re$eal /ersel& an is &inall. isclose on
t/e occasion o& CaneDs >oul+2e marriage to /er legal /us2an( It is no onl. ut. >/ic/ emans
t/at Cane s/oul lea$e t/e /ouse( T/e aut/or clearl. intens us to notice t/at Roc/ester /as &aile to
trust Cane as a &ello> /umanI /er re&usal to sta. s/oul not 2e seen !urel. as an acce!tance o&
"ictorian con$ention(
A<
T/e o2$ious Bot/ic elements in 8Cane E.re9 are use s.m2olicall.( S.m2olism /as also
2een etecte in t/e names o& t/e localities t/roug/ >/ic/ t/e /eroine !asses: Bates/ea%
T/orn&iel% etc( In connection >it/ t/is% >e ma. recall t/e -rontesD earl. attac/ment to The
Pilgrim3s Progress. Cane also s/o>s some com!le# !ictures to Roc/ester% >/ic/ s/e /as ra>n
/ersel& an >/ic/ e$o7e insolu2le !ro2lems o& /er 2eing( T/ese ee!l. re$ealing s7etc/es seem to
ec/o actual !ictures ra>n 2. C/arlotte -ronte% /er 2rot/er an sisters(
T/e searc/ &or originals in 8Cane E.re9 2ecame an inustr. soon a&ter its !u2lication( T/us
Lo>oo >as Luic7l. isco$ere to re!resent Co>an -rige sc/ool% >/ere t/e aut/orDs t>o .ounger
sisters /a caug/t iseases &rom >/ic/ t/e. su2seLuentl. ie( -ut Roc/ester /as no original%
t/oug/ /e ma. ta7e some traits &rom Mr( Constantin 0eger% t/e -elgian sc/oolmaster s/e met in
14<;( 0is escent &rom t/e -.ronic /ero imaginations is clear( T/oug/ t/e Ri$ers sisters mirror to
some e#tent in an ieali,e &as/ion t/e /ome !ersonas o& t/e -ronte sisters% t/e. are not to 2e
con&use >it/ t/e real Emil. an Ann(
T/ere are man. elements o& $isual escri!tion in 8Cane E.re9% some s/o>ing acute
o2ser$ation% li7e t/e lansca!e o& t/e roa to 0a. on t/e Canuar. a. >/en Cane &irst meets
Roc/ester( -e>ic7Ds >oocuts are not &ar &rom t/is scene( -e>ic7 is also !resent in t/e $er. &irst
scene >/en Cane is /iing &rom /er cruel cousins( T/e aut/orDs s/ort+sig/teness meant t/at s/e
stuie lansca!e !artl. t/roug/ -e>ic7 an ot/er engra$ers( T/e colness o& t/e >inter scenes in
-e>ic7 em!/asises t/e loneliness o& some /umans% an t/is c/imes >it/ t/e -ronteDs interest in
or!/ans an t/e t.rann. o& t/e ault >orl o$er t/e >orl o& c/il/oo( T/e scenes in$ol$ing Mr(
-roc7le/urst% incluing t/ose at Lo>oo% e#!lore t/e nature o& c/il/oo resentment(
C/( -ronte >as a2le to use Cane E.re as a critiLue o& e$angelical religion% >/ic/ e#erte
some attraction &or /er o>n !ersonalit. 2ut >/ic/ s/e re:ecte /ere as /eartless an mec/anical%
t/oug/ t/e sense o& ut. e#/i2ite 2. St( Co/n Ri$ers is not is!arage( 0e is a!!ro$e as a
conscientious !erson% 2ut /is inconclusi$e relations/i! >it/ Rosamun is !resente criticall.( T/e
em!t. ritual o& -i2le reaing at Lo>oo >/ile Miss Scatc/er torment /er $ictim !ro$ies a 2lac7
image(
8Cane E.re9 >as on t/e >/ole >ell+recei$e 2. t/e earl. critics% >/o note its !assion an
>armt/( T/e &irst !erson narrati$e ena2le t/em to come close to t/e li&e e#!erience o& t/e
uner!ri$ilege /eroine an s.m!at/. >as Luic7l. esta2lis/e( It is !ossi2le to see t/e 2oo7 as a
&eminist te#t% 2ot/ in t/e sense t/at t/e &emale &irst !erson is t/e emotional centre o& t/e stor.% an
also since Roc/ester an t/e ot/er mae c/aracters are s/o>n as inaeLuate( 0e learns t/roug/
su&&ering% 2ut it is not clear >/et/er St( Co/n Ri$ers is ca!a2le o& learning% an -ro7le/urst is a
A1
stereot.!e( Su2siiar. &emale c/aracters% 8goo9 or 82a9 are generall. more crei2le t/an male%
t/oug/ -ert/a Mason is seeme e#ternall.: e$iant% outrage an menacing ( Cane E.re
success&ull. raises t/e 8>oman Luestion9 /ig/ on t/e agena% 2ut it >as !er/a!s more im!ortant
still to t/e aut/or to !ortra. Cane as a c/am!ion o& t/e /uman race% irres!ecti$e o& gener( S/e
clearl. stans &or t/e ini$iual against a e&orming societ.% a c/il rat/er t/an a girl onl. against
/ars/ eucation% a ser$ant t/an rat/er merel. a go$erness against t/e 2lan su!eriorit. o& t/e gentr.%
re!resente 2. -lanc/e Ingram% an sincerit. against t/e 2lanis/ments o& >ealt/ >/ic/ consiers
it can 2u. an.t/ing(
0o>e$er% t/e traitional !lot% in >/ic/ an o!!resse or!/an magicall. 2ut eser$el.
o$ercomes loneliness an &ins a strong !artner >/o is &inall. &it to 2e /er eLual is clearl. a ma:or
reason &or t/e success o& t/e 2oo7( It stans% among ot/er t/ings% as t/e arc/et.!al romance% 2.
>/ic/ man. su2seLuent no$els /a$e 2een in&luence( T/e c/aracter o& Cane is im2ue >it/ so muc/
li&e t/at generations o& reaers /a$e 2elie$e in /er as t/e real aut/or o& t/e 2oo7(
T/e genuinel. !o!ular nature o& t/e no$el at one time le critics to unerestimate its artistr.%
2ut in recent .ears its im!ortance /as 2een reail. ac7no>lege(
E+#%9 Bron!e 1/2/2-A27
T/oug/ s/e >rote less t/an C/arlotte% s/e is some >a.s t/e greatest o& t/e t/ree sisters( 0er
one no$el 6ut/ering 0eig/ts )141?* is uniLue in Englis/ literature( It 2reat/es t/e $er. s!irit o& t/e
>il% esolate moors( Its c/ie& c/aracters are concei$e in gigantic !ro!ortions% an t/eir !assions
/a$e an elemental &orce% >/ic/ carries t/em to t/e realm o& !oetr.( In a series o& clima#es% t/e
sustaine intensit. o& t/e no$el is carrie to almost un2elie$a2le !ea7s o& !assion% escri2e >it/ a
star7% un&linc/ing realism(
Anal.sis o& 6ut/ering 0eig/ts
It >ill 2e /el!&ul in our stu. o& 86ut/ering 0eig/ts9 to 7no> t/e $ital statistics o& t/e
c/aracters( Emil. -ronte gi$es us t/is in&ormation t/roug/out a >or7 >/ic/ eals >it/ t/e li$es o&
!eo!le in t/ree generations( It is summari,e 2. Mar7 Sc/orer in /is Introuction to t/e Rine/art
eition o& 86ut/ering 0eig/ts9 )15A@*(
T/e stor. at 86ut/ering 0eig/ts9 2egins >it/ Mr( An Mrs( Earns/a>( T/e. /a$e t>o
c/ilren% 0inle. an Cat/erine( Mr( Earns/a> ao!ts a >ai&% 0eat/cli&&% >/om /e !ic7e u! on a
AA
$isit to Li$er!ool( Mrs( Earns/a> ies in t/e s!ring o& 1??< an Mr( Earns/a> ies in Octo2er
1???% lea$ing 0eat/cli&& to t/e tener mercies o& 0inle.% >/o /ates /im an mistreats /im( At t/is
time 0inle.% >/o >as 2orn in t/e summer o& 1?A?% is t>ent. .ears ol( 0eat/cli&& is t/irteen% an
Cat/erine% >it/ >/om 0eat/cli&& is inse!ara2le% is t>el$e( In 1??? 0inle. marries 3rances% an a
Fear later t/e. /a$e a son% 0areton( 3rances ies t/e &ollo>ing .ear(
Cat/erine% 2elie$ing s/e is in lo$e >it/ Egar Linton o& T/rus/cross Brange an t/in7ing
t/roug/ t/is marriage to 2e a2le to /el! 0eat/cli&&% marries Egar in A!ril% 1?4<( 0eat/cli&& /a le&t%
an s/e i not 7no> >/et/er /e >oul return( At t/is time Egar is t>ent.+one an Cat/erine is
eig/teen(
0eat/cli&&% >/o le&t 6ut/ering 0eig/ts >/en /e o$er/ear Cat/erine tell Nell. Dean t/at
s/e >as !lanning to marr. Egar% returns t/ree .ears later to &in Cat/erine ill( In Canuar. o& 1?41
0eat/cli&&% 2ent on re$enge% marries Isa2ella Linton% >/o is nineteen( Una2le to 2ear 0eat/cli&&Ds
cruelt.% Isa2ella lea$es /im soon a&ter /is marriage an goes o&& to Lonon% >/ere% in Se!tem2er%
/er son% Linton% is 2orn( Mean>/ile% in Marc/ 1?41% Cat/erine /as ie a&ter gi$ing 2irt/ to a girl%
also name Cat/erine(
0inle.% >ea7ene 2. rin7% ies in Se!tem2er 1?41% si# mont/s a&ter t/e eat/ o& /is sister
Cat/erine an t/e same mont/ in >/ic/ /is ne!/e>% Linton 0eat/cli&&% is 2orn( 0inle.Ds son%
0areton% is no> in t/e care o& 0eat/cli&&% >/o treats /im as a ser$ant( Isa2ella ies in Cune 1?5? at
t/e age o& t/irt.+t>o% at >/ic/ time /er son is t/irteen(
To &urt/er /is re$enge% 0eat/cli&& !lans to o>n T/rus/cross Brange 2. arranging a marriage
2et>een /is son Linton% a sic7l. 2o.% an /is niece Cat/erine( 0e manages t/is 2. &orcing Linton to
come /ome to 6ut/ering 0eig/ts% 2. arranging meetings 2et>een Cat/erine an /er cousin% an
&inall. 2. loc7ing u! Cat/erine% a>a. &rom /er ailing &at/er( T/e t>o .oung !eo!le are marrie in
August 14@1( -ot/ are se$enteen .ears ol( In Se!tem2er o& t/at .ear Egar ies at t/e age o& <5%
an t/e &ollo>ing mont/ .oung Linton ies( 0eat/cli&& is no> t/e o>ner o& 6ut/ering 0eig/ts an
T/rus/cross Brange( Foung Cat/. is &orce to li$e >it/ /im(
Li&e at 6ut/ering 0eig/ts is a ismal e#istence( Cat/. an 0areton Luarrel% 2ut a &eeling o&
concern &or one anot/er 2egins to gro> in t/em( 0eat/cli&&Ds &ur. is s!ent( 0e reali,es t/at in eat/
/e can re:oin /is 2elo$e Cat/erine( 0e neglects /is /ealt/ an ies in Ma. 14@;% at t/e age o&
t/irt.+eig/t( Lo$e 2et>een Cat/. an 0areton gro>s% an t/e. are marrie in Canuar. 14@<(
0areton is t>ent.+&i$e an Cat/erine is nineteen( Calm is restore to 6ut/ering 0eig/ts(
T/is summar. is use&ul &or t>o reasons( 3irst% it s/o>s t/at 6ut/ering 0eig/ts is a care&ull.
!lanne no$el% not a >il% amor!/ous >or7( Secon% it /el!s to $isuali,e t/e c/aracters an to see
A=
t/e stor. more clearl.( T/is is a stor. a2out .oung !eo!le >/o li$e torture an $iolent li$es an
>/o% e#ce!t &or .oung Cat/erine an 0areton% an e#ce!t &or Nell. Dean an Loc7>oo% >/o tell
t/e stor.% ie at a .oung age( T/e ones >/o ie are su2:ect eit/er to t/e cruelties o& t/e climate% t/e
raging !assions t/at 2urn >it/in t/em an estro. t/em% or t/e &ierce cruelt. o& t/e satanic
0eat/cli&&(
T/e stor. /as t>o settings + T/rus/cross Brange an 6ut/ering 0eig/ts( T/rus/cross
Brange re&lects t/e c/aracter o& Egar Linton( It is a Luiet% ci$ili,e !lace >ere t/e amenities are
o2ser$e an >/ere t/e !assions o& its in/a2itants /a$e 2een isci!line to ma7e !ossi2le a genteel
e#istence( 6ut/ering 0eig/ts% on t/e ot/er /an% re&lects t/e c/aracters o& 0inle. an 0eat/cli&&( It
is a >il% esolate !lace surroune 2. /o>ling nature t/at constantl. t/reatens t/e !eo!le t/at
>ell t/ere an im2ues t/em >it/ some o& its &ierceness( 6it/in 6ut/ering 0eig/ts t/ere is an
unisci!line energ. an a star7 malignit. t/at in&ects its in/a2itants an leas to $iolent an
estructi$e actions( In a run7en stu!or% 0inle. Earns/a> ro!s /is son 0areton o$er t/e
2annister% an /a 0eat/cli&& not caug/t t/e c/il% 0areton >oul /a$e 2een 7ille( It is a !lace o&
t>ilig/t an nig/t an o& a 2rooing an su2merge anger t/at &reLuentl. 2ursts into &ur.(
6/en Cat/erine mo$es into T/rus/cross Brange% s/e 2rings muc/ o& t/e unrest o&
6ut/ering 0eig/ts into its !eace&ul interiors( 6/en Isa2ella% as 0eat/cli&&Ds >i&e% mo$es into
6ut/ering 0eig/ts% s/e is unner$e 2. t/e cruelt. an &erocit. o& its atmos!/ere an must esca!e(
T/e no$el an its centers re&lect meta!/oricall. t/e >orl o& nature as Emil. -ronte
e#!erience it on t/e moors( T/ere seems in nature a constant struggle 2et>een t/e &orces o&
tur2ulence an t/e &orces o& serenit.% t/e &orces o& estructi$eness an t/e &orces o& regeneration(
One oes not react in re$ulsion against storm an tem!est( One is &ascinate 2. it( At t/e same time
one .earns &or t/e calmness an !eace o& natureDs Luiet moments( 6ut/ering 0eig/ts
meta!/oricall. trans&ers into its c/aracters an laces t/e con&lict 2et>een t/e satanic &orces o&
$iolence an t/e 2ene&icent &orces o& tem!erateness >/ic/ one &ins in nature( 6it/ a erange
0inle. an a emonic 0eat/cli&& in control o& 6ut/ering 0eig/ts% t/e >orl t/ere is &ren,ie an
insecure( 6/en t/e !eo!le o& t/is >orl in$ae T/rus/cross Brange% t/e gentle% ci$ili,e li&e o& t/e
Linton is u!set( T/ere is a >il an !assionate lo.alt. in t/e lo$e o& 0eat/cli&& an Cat/erine% a
su2sur&ace tur2ulence in t/e marriage o& Cat/erine an Egar% a $olcano o& emonic tension >/en
0eat/cli&& returns an u!2rais t/e sic7 Cat/erine &or 2etra.ing /im% an &ur.% !assion% an sa$age
grie& >/en Cat/erine ies(
A?
T/ere &ollo> Luiet .ears >/ile t/e .ounger Cat/erine an .oung Linton gro> u!( Again t/e
&ur. 2egins >/en 0eat/cli&& sc/emes to ta7e o$er T/rus/cross Brange% an Cat/. an Linton% li7e
0areton% are tra!!e 2. /is male$olence( -ut 0eat/cli&&Ds &ur. is s!ent( 0e at last :oins /is
Cat/erine in eat/% an calm is &inall. restore in t/e marriage o& Cat/. an 0areton(
T/e reaer &ins &ascinating t/e intense lo$e 2et>een Cat/erine an 0eat/cli&&% an &eels
ee! s.m!at/. &or t/e mistreate 0eat/cli&&% es!eciall. >/en /e &eels re:ecte 2. /is 2elo$e( T/e
reaer is re!elle 2. 0eat/cli&&Ds cruelties 2ut is again >on o$er 2. a 0eat/cli&& e#/auste 2. /is
&uries o& re$enge an ac/ing &or t/e eat/ t/at >ill ena2le /im to re:oin Cat/erine( I& 0eat/cli&& an
Cat/erine re!resent t/e emonic &orces o& nature% an Egar% Isa2ella% an .oung Cat/. t/e
2ene&icent &orces% t/en >e can unerstan t/e s7ill o& Emil. -ronte in 2eing a2le to in$ol$e t/e
reaer in t/e anguis/ o& t/e lo$ers( T/e reaer is &rig/tene an &ascinate 2. t/e !o>er o& t/eir
!assion% as /eRs/e >oul 2e &rig/tene an &ascinate 2. t/e !o>er o& tem!estuous nature( T/e
resolution is a !eace t/at &ollo>s t/e tension o& con&lict(
T/e Narrators o& 6ut/ering 0eig/ts
Emil. -ronte creates t>o narrators to tell t/e stor. o& 86ut/ering 0eig/ts9: Mr( Loc7>oo%
a $isitor &rom t/e cit.% comes to t/e moors to &orget t/at /is col manner /a &rig/tene a>a. a girl
/e /a lo$e an /o!e to marr.I an Miss Nell. Dean% a ser$ing girl in t/e Earns/a> /ouse/ol(
Nell. is more t/an a ser$ant( -ecause /er mot/er% too% >as a ser$ant o& t/e Earns/a>s% s/e >as
2roug/t u! >it/ t/e Earns/a> c/ilren% >as !ro2a2l. t/eir !la.mate% t/oug/ s/e 7ne> /er !lace%
an /as% t/ere&ore% 2ecome con&iante% too( Cat/erine con&ies man. t/ings to /er% as oes
0eat/cli&&( S/e ta7es care o& .oung Cat/.% 2orn :ust 2e&ore eat/ o& /er mot/er( As a ser$ant so
close to t/e &amil.% s/e cannot /el! 2ut inter&ere in t/eir li$es( S/e tries to encourage t/e c/il
0eat/cli&& to run a>a. &rom 6ut/ering 0eig/tsI s/e incites Cat/erine to $iolence in t/e !resence o&
EgarI s/e arranges &or 0eat/cli&& to $isit t/e sic7 Cat/erine >/en Egar goes to c/urc/I s/e gi$es
little Cat/. !ro$isions &or a rie to 6ut/ering 0eig/ts( S/e is% in !art% t/e catal.st o& some o& t/e
tragic e$ents o& t/e no$el(
-ut Nell. ser$es a more im!ortant !ur!ose( S/e is a $igorous% /ealt/. .oung >oman%
untrou2le 2. an. emotional or !s.c/ological ri$es 2e.on /er control( S/e is go$erne 2. strong
moral !rinci!les% 2ut /er moralit. is not a /ars/% rigi !iet.( 0ers is a >/olesome !ersonalit.( S/e
can :oin >it/ !leasure t/e entertainment an ances o& t/e $illages( S/e 2ecomes t/e e#em!lar o&
moralit.% o& eLuili2rium( T/e intense% trou2le !assion+rien 2e/a$iour o& Cat/erine an
A4
0eat/cli&&% o& 0inle. an Isa2ella% o& Foung Cat/. an 0areton is measure against /er normalit.(
T/e reaer is at &irst incline to acce!t /er $ie>s% 2ut as t/e stor. !rogresses% /eRs/e 2egins to
recogni,e t/at Nell. is a !oor :uge o& !eo!le >/ose li$es are &as/ione 2. o$er>roug/t mins an
uncontrolla2le emotions( Nell. ma7es critical :ugements% >/ic/ t/e reaer >ill not acce!tI t/e
reaerDs :ugements go 2e.on Nell.Ds% an% in o2:ection to /er comments% t/e reaer mo$es more
closel. into t/e /eart% t/e center% o& t/e stor.(
Nell. is% in s/ort% an im!ortant c/aracter in t/e stor.( S/e >as create 2. t/e aut/or to guie
t/e reaer to t/e !oint &rom >/ic/ /eRs/e is &orce% 2ecause o& t/e nee to c/allenge Nell.Ds $ie>s%
to s/are more ee!l. t/e !ain o& >ellers o& T/rus/cross Brange an 6ut/ering 0eig/ts% an 2.
s/aring t/eir !ain to unerstan t/em 2etter% to 2e mo$e 2. t/eir !lig/ts% an not to 2e s/oc7e 2.
t/eir e#cesses( T/e cat/arsis o& t/e reaer is im!elle 2. Nell.(
Loc7>oo !er&orms a i&&erent &unction% an .et an im!ortant one( 0e !ro$ies t/e reaer
>it/ t/e $ie> o& an outsier% t/e cit. >eller% un&amiliar >it/ t/e mores o& t/e !eo!le o& t/e moors(
0e see7s solitue% /e sa.s% 2ut it is a !ose( Solitue is not >/at /e >ants( E$en t/oug/ /e is !oorl.
treate on /is &irst $isit to 6ut/ering 0eig/ts% /e must return &or a secon $isitI an /e is not
eterre 2. t/reatening >eat/er( 0e is sentimental a2out relations/i!s% t/oug/ a&rai to ma7e a
gesture t/at >ill in$ol$e /is li&e >it/ anot/erDs( 0e is su&&icientl. sensiti$e to suggestion to ream
t/at t/e g/ost o& Cat/erine 7noc7s on t/e >ino> o& /is 2eroom% >/en /e s!ens t/e nig/t at
6ut/ering 0eig/ts% an tries to enter( Later /e t/in7s t/at /e ma. 2e a2le to c/arm an to >in as
2rie t/e >insome .oung Cat/.(
0e is% o& course% &ascinate 2. t/e stor. >/ic/ Nell. tells /im an >/ic/ /e recors &or t/e
reaer in Nell.Ds >ors( 0e is incline to acce!t Nell.Ds :ugements 2ecause /e% too% re!resents a
normal $ie>% a little i&&erent &rom Nell.Ds% an 2ecause /is is t/e $ie> o& an outsier% a male% an a
romantic( 0e is !er/a!s more s.m!at/etic to t/e su!ra+normal !assions o& t/e >ellers at
6ut/ering 0eig/ts% 2ut /is s.m!at/ies are t/ose o& a sentimental s!ectator rat/er t/an% as in Nell.Ds
case% t/ose o& an acti$e !artici!ant(
T/e stor.% t/ere&ore% &ilters t/roug/ t>o i&&erent normal mins% one /ealt/.% one trou2le%
an ta7es on ae a!!eal as t/e reaer res!ons !art in agreement% !art in !rotest% to t/eir $ie>s(
T/ere is in t/e no$el a m.ria o& $ie>s( T/ere are t/e $ie>s o& t/e c/aracters t/emsel$es%
&or e#am!le% 0eat/cli&&Ds account o& /o> Cat/erine% 2itten 2. t/e Linton ogs% came to sta. at
T/rus/cross BrangeI Cat/erineDs !assionate a$o>al to Nell. o& >/at 0eat/cli&& means to /er( In
aition% t/ere are Nell.Ds $ie>s an Loc7>ooDs $ie>s( 3inall.% t/ere are t/e reaerDs $ie>s%
com!le# an $arie% &as/ione 2. t/e aut/or t/roug/ t/is intricate a!!roac/(
A5
Anot/er "ie> o& t/e No$el
6ut/ering 0eig/ts is a romantic no$el( It eals 2asicall. >it/ t>o lo$e stories in t>o
generations% one tragic an one &elicitous( -ot/ are !resente as e#isting on an ieal le$el( T/e lo$e
2et>een Cat/erine an 0eat/cli&&% &ostere in c/il/oo an nurture on t/e >il moors% transcens
t/e normal !assions o& realit.( Des!ite its tragic conseLuences% it is a lo$e t/at e#ists in a >orl o&
reams( It is a lo$e also t/at is so emaning t/at it e$ours its !artici!ants( It is a lo$e t/at men an
>omen .earn &or an &in unattaina2le( It is 2ecause o& t/is t/at t/e ungo$erna2le an torture
Cat/erine an t/e -.ronic an su&&ering 0eat/cli&& are a!!ealing(
T/e lo$e 2et>een .oung Cat/. an 0areton is o& anot/er 7in% an it% too% e#ists on an ieal
le$el( It is a lo$e t/at 2egins >it/ isgust on Cat/.Ds !art an /atre on 0aretonDs !art( -ut 2elo>
t/e sur&ace o& t/e antagonism o& t/e t>o lur7s a !/.sical attraction &ostere 2. /ealt/ an $igour(
Alone toget/er% an not trou2le 2. 0eat/cli&&Ds aggressions an Nell.Ds mortali,ingDs% t/e t>o
2ecome a>are o& t/e anot/er as an ini$iual 2eings% an t/e. 2egin to tr. to !lease one anot/er( It
is a more normal li&e an it >or7s out >ell 2ecause it is ieali,e in terms o& a resolution o& t/e
in/erite !assions o& t/e t>o lo$ers( Cat/.% >it/ /er mot/erDs stu22orn% !assionate nature% an
0areton% >it/ t/e !otential o& /is &at/erDs sel&+inulgent an $iolent nature% su2ue t/e unrest an
su2mit to t/e 2eaut. o& mutual res!ect an mutual /el!( T/e. are on t/e >a.% t/e stor. suggests% to
a goo li&e on t/e >il an roug/ moor% rea. to matc/ t/eir strengt/s as &ree s!irits an as !artners
against an.t/ing t/e moor can o&&er( T/is is t/e ieal an romantic ening o& 86ut/ering 0eig/ts9
an &orms a com!anion &aeout to t/e !/antom a!!earances on t/e moor o& t/e g/osts o& Cat/erine
an 0eat/cli&&(

Anne Bron!e
S/e is% 2. &ar% t/e least im!ortant &igure o& t/e t/ree( 0er t>o no$els% 8Agnes Bre.9 )141?*
an 8T/e Tenant o& 6il&ell 0all9 )1414* are muc/ in&erior to t/ose o& /er sisters% &or s/e lac7s
nearl. all t/eir !o>er an intensit.(
T/eir Im!ortance in t/e 0istor. o& t/e No$el
=@
6it/ t/e -rontes t/e &orces >/ic/ /a$e trans&orme Englis/ !oetr. at t/e 2eginning o& t/e
centur. >ere &irst &elt in t/e no$el( T/e. >ere t/e !ioneers in &iction o& t/at as!ect o& t/e romantic
mo$ement >/ic/ concerne itsel& >it/ t/e /aring o& t/e /uman soul( In !lace o& t/e etac/e
o2ser$ation o& a societ. or a grou! o& !eo!le% suc/ as >e &in in Cane Austen an t/e earlier
no$elists% t/e -rontes !ainte t/e su&&erings o& an ini$iual !ersonalit.% an !resente a ne>
conce!tion o& t/e /eroine as a >oman o& $ital strengt/ an !assionate &eelings( T/eir >or7s are as
muc/ t/e !roucts o& t/e imagination an emotions o& t/e intellect% an in t/eir more !o>er&ul
!assages t/e. 2orer on !oetr.(
In t/eir concern >it/ t/e /uman soul t/e. >ere to 2e &ollo>e 2. Beorge Eliot an
Mereit/(
IX Geor'e E%#o! 1/2/6-267
Mar. Ann E$ans% >/o >rote uner t/e !en+name o& Beorge Eliot >as t/e aug/ter o& a
6ar>ic7s/ire lan+agent% 2eing eucate at 0uneaton an Co$entr.( A&ter /er &at/erDs eat/% s/e
too7 u! to literature an in later li&e s/e tra$elle e#tensi$el. an in 144@ marrie C(6(Cross( S/e
ie at C/elsea in t/e same .ear(
0er >or7s
Beorge Eliot isco$ere /er 2ent &or &iction >/en >ell into t/e mile .ears o& /er li&e( 0er
no$els eal >it/ t/e trage. o& orinar. li$es% un&ole >it/ an intense s.m!at/. an ee! insig/t
into t/e trut/ o& c/aracter(
A!!earing in 14A5% an annus mira2ilis o& "ictorian !u2lication% >it/ man. nota2le >or7s%
/er &irst no$el 8Aam -ee9 >as a runa>a. success an esta2lis/e Beorge Eliot 8at once among
t/e masters o& t/e art9 as >ritten in T/e Times on A!ril 1;% 14A5(
T/e 2asic !lot o& t/e /um2l.+2orn !oetr. girl caug/t 2et>een a ecent &ait/&ul lo$e &rom /er
o>n class an a more glamorous 2ut un!rinci!le ric/ amirer )>ic7e 2aronet% sLuire% 8
gentleman9% inustrial magnate* >as $er. &amiliar in contem!orar. rama an &iction )Emil.R 0amR
Steer&ort/ in Da$i Co!!er&iel* 2ut EliotDs treatment o& it >as c/aracteristicall. original( Not onl.
oes t/e girl &ail to esca!e intact in time &rom t/is im2roglio% 2ut instea% tragicall. an realisticall.%
2ecomes !regnant% lets /er 2a2. ie an is sentence to eat/ &or in&anticieI 2ut also t/e c/aracters
an moti$es o& t/e girl an /er seucer are e#!lore >it/ uncommon intelligence% in>arness%
=1
sagacit.% an s.m!at/. )>/ic/ oes not in/i2it &irm moral :ugement*( 0enr. Cames regare t/e
girl% 0ett. Sorrel% as EliotDs most success&ul &emale &igure( Aam -ee% /er /um2le car!enter
lo$er% /as 2een less amire as a creation% t/oug/ at a non+literar. le$el /is e!iction >as muc/
!raise 2. an ol &rien o& t/e aut/orDs &at/er: 9T/atDs Ro2ert )$ans*% t/atDs Ro2ert to t/e li&eT9
Inee% Aam% as Beorge Eliot recore% /as some o& /er &at/erDs Lualities: stea.% !rou
cra&tsmans/i!% u!rig/t c/aracter(
T/e no$elDs climatic e$ent( T/e girlDs con$iction &or in&anticie+came &rom &amil. memor.%
too( EliotDs Met/oist !reac/er aunt% Mrs( Samuel E$ans /a accom!anie a lass uring /er &inal
nig/t in a conemne cell an on /er >a. to t/e sca&&ol an /a recei$e /er con&ession to 7illing
/er c/il( T/is incient im!lie a seucer an% gi$en t/e &ictional con$entions o& t/e a.% anot/er
)sociall. /um2ler 2ut morall. su!erior* lo$er( To marr. t/e latter o&& to t/e estima2le Met/oist
la.% Dina/ Morris% a&ter a ecent inter$al% >as as !reicta2le as t/e girlDs last+minute re!rie$e at
t/e sca&&ol )8a /orseman clea$ing t/e cro> at &ull gallo!Sit is Art/ur Donnit/orne )t/e seucer*%
carr.ing in /is /an a /ar+>on release &rom eat/9*(
T/ese later e$ents an e$elo!ments carr.ing less con$iction t/an t/e rest o& t/e narrati$e
>/ere% as Eliot !uts it in /er &amous c/a!ter 1? mani&esto% s/e is 8reaing not/ing% inee% 2ut
&alsit.% >/ic/% in s!ite o& oneDs 2est e&&orts% t/ere is reason to rea( 3alse/oo is so eas.% trut/ so
i&&icult9( 0er later succum2ing to tem!tation oes not% /o>e$er% negate t/e $er. su2stantial merits
o& t/e 2o. o& /er 8sim!le stor.9% a!!ro!riatel. !re&i#e 2. an e!igra!/ &rom 6ors>ort/%
!romising 8clear images S O& natureDs unam2itions unergro>t/9 an 8somet/ing more t/an
2rot/erl. &orgi$eness9 &or t/ose >/o >ent astra.( 8Our su!reme no$el o& !astoral li&e9 "(S( Pritc/ett
/as calle it% t/oug/ /e >as irritate 2. >/at /e regare as &ailures in its !resentation o& se#ualit.(
Eliot certainl. &ul&ille /er !romise to /er !u2lis/er t/at it >oul 2e 8a countr. stor. + &ull o& t/e
2reat/ o& co>s an t/e scent o& /a.9( Memories o& rural 6ar>ic7s/ire >ere 2ac7e 2. t.!icall.%
sc/olarl. researc/ into e$ents 2e&ore /er li&e+time )t/e action 2egins in 1?55 an ens in 14@?*( T/is
relate es!eciall. to Met/oist acti$ities% /ere e!icte >it/ uncommon unerstaning an res!ect(
T/e >ell+name $illage o& 0a.slo!e >it/ its manor an !arsonage% &arms% >or7s/o!% an !laces o&
assem2l.% is !resente in lo$ing an con$incing etail( Mrs( Po.ser% t/e 7inl. 2ut reou2ta2le
&armerDs >i&e >/o is 0ett.Ds an Dina/Ds aunt% 2ecame a legenar. &igure o$ernig/t )Luote in
Parliament soon a&ter !u2lication ata* &or /er &luent &ort/rig/t &ol7+>isom $igorousl. e#!resse
in 2ucolic imager.(
T/e narrator% a more so!/isticate an 2etter in&orme Mrs( Pa.ser% is eLuall. li2eral >it/
toug/+mine generali,ations% an >it/ s/ar! assessments o& ini$iuals( )8Fes% t/e actions o& a
=;
little tri$ial soul li7e 0ett.Ds% struggling amist t/e serious% sa estinies o& a /uman 2eing are
strange9*( O!inions i&&er on /o> &ull. an &airl. Eliot 8s.m!at/ises9 >it/ !rett. 2ut sim!le+
mine 0ett. an /ig/+mine gre.+cla Dinc/(( -ut 0ett.Ds &oolis/ reams o& marr.ing t/e /eir o&
t/e manor an 2ecoming a la.9 >it/ a !lenti&ul >arro2e% an /er lone su&&ering 2e&ore an a&ter
c/il2irt/% are s!lenil. renere% as is t/e !rocess >/ere2. t/e &unamentall. ecent% 2ut >o22l.+
conscience Art/ur allo>s /imsel& to continue seeing 0ett. an e$entuall. to seuce /er an to lost
t/e res!ect o& Aam )>/om /e muc/ $alues* an e$entuall. o& t/e >/ole $illage )0ett.Ds trial
coincies >it/ /is coming into /is in/eritance*(
As o&ten in Eliot% elements o& t/e con$entional /a!!. ening + t/e no$elDs !enultimate
c/a!ter is entitle 8Marriage -ells9 + are 2alance 2. se$erer &ates: eat/ &or 0ett. as s/e >as ue
&or release% isa!!ointment &or AamDs 2rot/er Set/% >/o /a unsuccess&ull. courte Dina/ an is
!ro$ie >it/ no alternati$e mate% an isgrace &or Art/ur t/oug/ /e is &inall. grante a !urgatorial
illness a&ter >/ic/ /e ma. 2e largel. &orgi$en ) a &reLuent enouement e$ice in &iction o& t/e
!erio*(
0er ne#t >or7% consiere 2. man. /er 2est% >as 8T/e Mill on t/e 3loss9% !u2lis/e
in14=@( T/e most auto2iogra!/ical o& Beorge EliotDs &iction% it ra>s on /er c/il/oo in t/e
6ar>ic7s/ire countr.sie% recalle some <@ .ears later% /er struggles to assert /ersel& against a
2ac7groun o& sti&ling con$entionalit.% an /er !ain&ul lo$e &or /er 2rot/er Isaac( T/ere are
im!ortant i&&erences: Eliot% unli7e Maggie Tulli$er% su&&ere &rustration 2ut al>a.s /a enoug/
mone. to !a. &or lessons in t/e su2:ects t/at intereste /er( S/e >as ne$er reuce% as !oor Maggie
is% to rel.ing on c/urc/ ser$ices &or t/e onl. music a$aila2le a&ter t/e sale o& t/e &amil. !iano( T/e
re2ellious girl+c/il /a 2een in$ente in &iction 2. C/arlotte -ronte in Cane E.re% 2ut t/e
tur2ulence o& Mr( Tulli$erDs 8little >enc/9 o>es muc/ to t/e .oung Mar. Ann E$ans% >/o also trie
>it/ all /er mig/t to 2e goo(
T/e &irst c/a!ter !aints a scene o& rural 2eaut.% 2ut t/e li&e >it/in it is not i.llicI t/e secon
c/a!ter o!ens >it/ Mr( Tulli$erDs ruminations% in ialect% a2out gi$ing /is son an 8eication9%
>/ic/ >ill &it /im &or 2usiness( 6e o not get muc/ im!ression o& t/e manDs >isom( T/e
con$ersation 2et>een /im an /is >i&e is inconseLuential( 6e learn t/at t/eir aug/ter is more
intelligent t/an t/eir son an t/at Maggie is too cute &or a >omanS9
Mrs( Tulli$er is uncon$ince t/at MaggieDs intelligence is not amaging >/ile s/e is still
small: 8it all run to naug/tiness9( S/e com!lains t/e c/il is 8/al& an iiot9 in !ractical matters% an
/er /air re&uses to curl( Clearl.% MaggieDs !ros!ects o& intellectual encouragement are not goo(
Mrs( Tulli$er is concerne >it/ cleanliness an res!ecta2ilit.( T/e interaction o& /er an /er sisters%
=<
&ormerl. t/e Misses Doson% is t/e comic /ig/lig/t o& t/e 2oo7( 6it/ t/em% Eliot creates a !icture
o& !ro$incial li&e in t/e earl. .ears o& t/e 15
t/
centur.% >/ic/ s/o>s 2ot/ t/eir amira2le sel& res!ect
an t/eir a2surl. narro> $ie>s(
Maggie o2:ects to oing !atc/>or7 8tearing t/ings to !ieces to se>Dem toget/er again9( An
s/e oes not >ant to !lease /er Aunt Blegg 2. oing it% 2ecause s/e oesnDt li7e Aunt Blegg( Li7e
ot/er c/ilren Maggie cuts /er o>n /air( S/e :ealousl. !us/es /er !rett. 2lone cousin Luc. into
t/e co>+manure% an runs a>a. to :oin t/e B.!sies% !lanning to 2ecome t/eir instructress an
Lueen( 3our+.ear+ol Mar. Ann E$ans% una2le to !la. a note o& music% sat o>n at t/e !iano in
orer to im!ress t/e ser$ant >it/ /er !ro>ess% an t/e mature Eliot rut/lessl. satiri,es t/is as!ect o&
/er .ounger sel&( E$en more !ain&ul is /er treatment o& t/at lorl. 2ull.% 2rot/er Tom% secure in /is
con$iction o& su!eriorit. to an. mere &emale% an in /is rig/t to rule( Maggie sla$is/l. >ors/i!s
Tom an li$es &or /is a!!ro$al( All t/is c/ilis/ emotion >as re$isite 2. t/e >riter a&ter /er o>n
2rot/er /a re:ecte /er &or li$ing >it/ Beorge 0enr. Ce>es% .et 2eing una2le to marr. /im(
-ut a&ter Mr( Tulli$er 2ecomes a 2an7ru!t our !erce!tion o& Tom c/angesI /e is no
intellectual 2ut /e is a .oung man o& integrit.% an at 1= sets to >or7 in /is Unc/ DeancDs >/ar&%
sa$ing mone. an !a.ing o&& /is &at/erDs e2ts( Tulli$er is reuce to >or7ing &or /is ol enem.%
la>.er 6a7em( Maggie 8gets religion9 an ecies to renounce t/e >orl an its !leasures( -ut one
secret !leasure remains to /er: s/e meets 6a7enDs /unc/2ac7 son% P/ili!% in t/e isuse Luarr.% T/e
Re Dee!s( P/ili! is t/e intellectual com!anion Maggie nees a&ter t/e &amil. 2oo7s are sol(
P/ili! >isel. tells /er s/e is merel. tr.ing to 8stu!e&.9 /ersel&(
Maggie /as not .et gras!e t/at 8renunciation remains sorro>% t/oug/ a sorro> 2orne
>illingl.9 )-oo7 1% C/a!ter <*( T/e real t/eme o& t/e no$el is MaggieDs attem!t to come to terms
>it/ t/e loss o& /er 2rot/erDs lo$e( T/e stor. 2etra.s uneaseI it sa.s t/e lo$e 2et>een t/e c/ilren
>as mutual% .et >e ne$er see TomDs a&&ection% a!art &rom &amil. !rie% in action + >e /a$e to ta7e it
on trust( T/e stor. slac7ens >/en Maggie an Luc.Ds .oung man &alls in lo$e an go 2oating%
>/ic/ causes Maggie% >/o /as im!ro2a2l. renounce /im an.>a. to a$oi /urting Luc. an
P/ili!% to lose /er re!utation( -ecause t/e lo$e+su2:ect is neit/er /ansome Ste!/en% nor
/anica!!e P/ili!% t/e con&lict is insolu2le( T/ere is not/ing to o >it/ t/e 2rot/er an sister% 2ut
reunites t/em in eat/ 2. ro>ning( Eliot coul not in$ent crei2le lo$ers &or Maggie or con$incing
reasons &or /er 2rot/erDs% 2ecause t/e real reasons &or t/e 2rea7 2et>een t/e aut/or an /er 2rot/er
>ere too !ersonal an too !ain&ul( So% s/e /as to sa. goo+2.e s.m2olicall. to t/e c/ilren s/e an
/er 2rot/er use to 2e(
=1
Silas Marner: t/e 6ea$er o& Ra$eloe )14=1*
It is a s/orter no$el% >/ic/ again gi$es e#cellent !ictures o& $illage li&eI it is less earnest in
tone% an /as scenes o& a ric/ /umour% >/ic/ are 2lene >it/ t/e trage.( Li7e 8T/e Mill on t/e
3loss9 it is some>/at marre 2. its meloramatic ening(
Ot/er no$els are 8Romola9 )14=<*% 83eli# 0olt t/e Raical9 )14==*% 8Milemarc/% a Stu.
o& Pro$incial Li&e9 )14?1+;* an 8Daniel Derona9 )14?=*(
3eatures o& 0er No$els
0er C/oice o& Su2:ect
Beorge Elliot carries still &urt/er t/at !reoccu!ation >it/ t/e ini$iual !ersonalit. >/ic/
>e /a$e seen to 2e t/e !rime concern o& t/e -rontes( 3or /er% t/e e$elo!ment o& t/e /uman soul%
in t/e stu. o& its relations/i!s to t/e Luarter t/ings 2e.on itsel&% is t/e all+im!ortant t/eme( T/ere
is relati$el. little stri7ing incient in /er no$els 2ut /er !lots are s7il&ull. manage( -e/in all /er
>riting t/ere lies a sense o& t/e trage. o& li&e% in >/ic/ sin or &oll. 2rings its o>n retri2ution( 0er
!reoccu!ation >it/ t/is t/eme gi$es to /er later >or7 some o& t/e &eatures o& t/e moral treatise
0er C/aracters
T/e. are usuall. ra>n &rom lo>er classes o& societ.% an /er stuies o& t/e Englis/
countr.man s/o> great unerstaning an insig/t( An ae!t at t/e e$elo!ment o& c/aracter% s/e
e#cels in t/e ee! an minute anal.sis o& t/e moti$es an reactions o& orinar. &ol7( S/e 2rings to
2ear u!on /er stu. o& t/e soul t/e 7no>lege o& t/e stuent o& !s.c/olog.% an /er
c/aracteri,ation ma7es no concessions to sentiment( 0er sinners% an s/e is !articularl. intereste
in sel&+ecei$ers an stu!i !eo!le% are !ortra.e >it/ an uns>er$ing trut/&ulness(
T/e tone o& /er no$els
It is one o& moral earnestness% an at times in /er later >or7 o& an austere grimness(
-ut almost al>a.s it is lig/tene 2. /er /umour( In t/e earlier no$els t/is is ric/ an genial% t/oug/
e$en t/ere it /as some o& t/e iron. >/ic/ a!!ears more &reLuentl. an more causticall. in t/e later
2oo7s(
Beorge EliotDs St.le
=A
It is luci% an% to 2egin >it/% sim!le 2ut later in re&lecti$e !assages% it is o&ten
o$er>eig/e >it/ a2stractions( 0er ialogue is e#cellent &or t/e re$elation o& c/aracter% an /er
comman o& t/e iioms o& orinar. s!eec/ ena2les /er to ac/ie$e a &ine naturalness( Onl. rarel.
oes s/e rise to t/e im!assione !oetical /eig/ts o& t/e -rontes% 2ut /er earlier no$els !articularl.
8T/e Mill on t/e 3loss9% are &ull o& &ine escri!tions o& t/e Englis/ Countr.sie% an /er &acult. &or
natural escri!tion s/e ne$er lost entirel.(
0er Place in 0istor. o& t/e Englis/ No$el
S/e is o& a great im!ortance in t/e /istor. o& &iction( 0er serious concern >it/ t/e !ro2lems
o& t/e /uman !ersonalit. an its relations/i! >it/ &orces outsie itsel&% /er interest in etaile
!s.c/ological anal.sis o& t/e realms o& t/e inner consciousness% i muc/ to etermine t/e &uture
course o& t/e Englis/ no$el( T/e ;@
t/
centur. /as seen t/e ra!i e$elo!ment o& t/ese interests an
it is signi&icant t/at t/e re!utation o& Beorge Eliot% >/ic/ su&&ere a tem!orar. ecli!se a&ter /er
eat/% /as reco$ere uring t/e last ecaes to a sur!rising egree(
/4 T0o+$ <$rd9 1/2A4 - /6827
3eatures o& /is No$els
0is Su2:ects
0ar.Ds su2:ect is t/e same in most o& /is no$els( In all /is greatest >or7s /e e!icts /uman
&eelings &acing u! to t/e onslaug/ts o& a malign !o>er( Acce!ting as /e i t/e t/eor. o& e$olution%
0ar. sa> little /o!e &or man as an ini$iual% an t/oug/ /is greatest &igures /a$e a mar7e
ini$iualit.% 0ar.Ds aim >as to !resent MAN or 6OMAN rat/er t/an a !articular man or a
!articular >oman( 0e >as a serious no$elist attem!ting to !resent t/oug/ &iction a $ie> o& li&e% an
one entirel. i&&erent &rom t/at o& /is great contem!oraries Tenn.son an -ro>ning( Most
&reLuentl. /is moo >as one o& isillusione !essimism% e#cellentl. summe u! at t/e en o& 8T/e
Ma.or o& Caster2rige9 2. Elisa2et/ Cane 8>/ose .out/ /a seeme to teac/ t/at /a!!iness >as
2ut t/e occasional e!isoe in a general rama o& !ain9( An .et 0ar. >as ne$er Luote certain o&
/is !/iloso!/.I /e /o$ere 2et>een t/e $ie> o& man as a mere !la.t/ing o& an im!ersonal an
malign 3ate an man as a 2eing !ossessing &ree >ill% in >/om c/aracter is &ateI until in 8T/e
D.nasts9% /e e$ol$e t/e conce!tion o& t/e 8Immanent 6ill9(
==
0is Treatment o& /is T/emes
0ar.Ds !reoccu!ation >it/ /is 8!/iloso!/. o& li&e 8 is seen in t/e >a. in >/ic/ /e intrues
/imsel& into /is no$els to !oint an accusing &inger at estin. or to ta7e t/e sie o& /is !rotagonists%
an in t/e o$er + &reLuent use o& coincience% t/roug/ >/ic/ /e see7s to !ro$e /is case( Too o&ten
/is !lots /inge u!on a seLuence o& accients >/ic/ /a$e t/e most ire conseLuences an% t/ere&ore%
>/ile /e selom &ails to ins!ire in /is reaers /is o>n ee! !it. &or t/e su&&erings o& /is c/aracters
/e &reLuentl. &ails to attain t/e /ig/est tragic le$els( Allie >it/ t/is use o& coincience are a
&onness &or t/e grotesLue or unusual an a >ea7ness &or t/e meloramatic( Fet /e /anles stri7ing
situations >it/ great &irmness o& touc/ an a telling realism% an all /is 2est no$els contain
ini$iual scenes >/ic/ are un&orgetta2le(
0is C/aracters
T/e. are mostl. orinar. men an >omen li$ing close to t/e soil( T/e ini$iualit. o& some
is sacri&ice to 0ar.Ds $ie> o& li&e% 2ut >/ile /e is% 2. more moern stanars% not reall. ee! in
/is !s.c/ological anal.sis% c/aracters li7e Cue an Sue% Tess% 0enc/ar an Eustacia ".e s/o>
consiera2le su2tlet. o& inter!retation(
Suc/ &igures as Ba2riel Oa7 )83ar &rom t/e Maing Cro>9* an Diggor. "enn )8T/e
Return o& t/e Nati$e9* are &inel. reali,e% countr. t.!es 2lening >it/ t/e countr.sie to >/ic/
t/e. 2elong% >/ile t/e minor rustics >/o are 2rie&l. s7etc/e 2ut reail. $isuali,e% are a &reLuent
source o& !it/. /umour% an act as a c/orus commenting on t/e actions o& t/e c/ie& !rotagonists(
0is Hno>lege o& t/e Countr.sie
In t/is 0ar. stans su!reme( 0is 2o./oo >as s!ent mainl. in t/e countr.% an /e /a
an acute an sensiti$e o2ser$ation o& natural !/enomena( As a uni&.ing in&luence in /is no$els% T/e
6esse# scene >/ic/ /e immortali,e is secon onl. to /is !/iloso!/.( -ut nature !ro$ies more
t/an a men 2ac7groun% o&ten it is a !rotagonist in t/e stor.% an un&eeling% im!ersonal &orce e#erting
its in&luence u!on t/e li$es o& t/e c/aracters( Pro2a2l.% t/e &inest e#am!les o& 0ar.Ds use o& nature
are in T/e 6oolaners an in T/e Return o& t/e Nati$es(
0is >or7
0ar. is among t/e leaing no$elists o& t/e late "ictorian era an one o& t/e greatest
!oets o& t/e earl. t>entiet/ centuries( 0e >rote !oetr. t/roug/out /is career% 2ut /is &irst !u2lis/e
>or7 >as in !rose(
=?
A&ter t/e re:ection o& 8T/e Poor Man an t/e La.9 in 14=4% Beorge Mereit/ suggeste
0ar. >rite a >or7 in t/e sensationalist moe o& 6il7ie Collins( T/e result >as 8Des!erate
Remeies9 )14?1*% a ensel. !lotte no$el o& coincience an intrigue% muc/ concerne >it/ class
con&lict% t/at some >ere to censure on moral grouns( Ot/ers /a !raise t/e rural scenes in 0ar.Ds
earliest >or7 /o>e$er% an on t/is /int /e >rote 8Uner t/e Breen>oo Tree9( 0ere /is amuse 2ut
elicate s.m!at/. >it/ countr. !eo!le an /is intimate 7no>lege o& t/eir >a.s o& li&e create a
gentle come. o& lo$e an !astoral incient as 0ar. s/o>s t/e acti$ities o& t/e Mellstoc7 c/oir
an /o> 3anc. Da. e$entuall. c/ooses t/e /um2le Dic7 De>. as /er /us2an((
In 8A Pair o& -lue E.es9 )14?<*% 0ar. returns to t/e ironicall. constructe no$el o&
.out/&ul lo$e an class i&&erence( T/e !lot in >/ic/ t/e .oung arc/itect% Ste!/en 3it,maurice
Smit/% commissione to restore a c/urc/ to>er% &alls in lo$e >it/ t/e $icarDs aug/ter o>es
somet/ing to t/e circumstances o& 0ar.Ds &irst marriage to Emma Bi&&or( In t/e no$el /o>e$er%
t/e /eroDs ner$e &ails /im as t/e cou!le !lan to elo!e( El&rie is !ursue 2. t/e col an literar.
Hnig/t% Ste!/enDs erst>/ile !atron% 2ut >/en Hnig/t learns o& /er earlier a&&air >it/ Ste!/en /e
re:ects /er( At t/e conclusion o& t/e >or7% 2ot/ men tra$el o>n to Corn>all on t/e same train onl.
to isco$er t/at El&rieDs cor!se /as accom!anie t/em in t/e 2aggage $an(
Suc/ 8Satires o& Circumstance9 !oint to &unamental concerns in 0ar.Ds &iction( T/e
situation is grotesLue >/ile it also suggests a !reoccu!ation >it/ /o> !assion an as!iration are
constantl. t/>arte 2. t/e ini&&erent Immanent 6ill( As a .oung man% /ar. /a lost /is &ait/
ami t/e ou2ts unleas/e 2. Dar>in% an t/e scene in 8A Pair o& -lue E.es9 >/ere Hnig/t clings
es!eratel. to t/e sig/t o a cli&& >/ile a &osili,e trilo2ite stares 2linl. across at /im gi$es earl.
e#!ression to 0ar.Ds $ie> o& man li$ing in an uncaring uni$erse t/at stretc/es 2ac7 o$er aeons o&
time an inn >/ic/ man /imsel& is no s!eciall. &a$oure creation(
In 83ar &rom t/e Maing Cro>96esse# 2ecomes &or t/e &irst time 0ar.Ds great
imaginati$e omain( 0is account o& t/e lo$es o& -at/s/e2a E$erene+ /er relations/i! >it/ t/e
as/ing Sergeant Tro.% >it/ t/e luc7less -ol>oo an &inall. >it/ Ba2riel Oa7 Eis istinctl.
sensational in its !lotting% an 0ar. ac/ie$es suc/ &ine e&&ects in t/is moe as t/e moment >/en
lam!lig/t suenl. re$eals to -at/s/e2a t/e !resence o& Tro. /imsel&( T/e grotesLue an t/e
!at/etic merge in t/e scene >/ere >ater &rom a gargo.le >as/es a>a. t/e &lo>ers t/e re!entant
Tro. /as !lace on 3ann. Ro2inDs gra$e( It is t/e integration o& suc/ action >it/ t/e seasons
/o>e$er t/at gi$es t/e no$el its satis&.ing resonance( T/e ageless c.cles o& t/e li&e o& t/e lan an
t/e relation o& t/e /uman !assion to t/e turning .ear are e#cellentl. ac/ie$e( 0ar.Ds 6esse# E /is
e$ocation o& t/e li&e an lansca!es o& t/e 6est Countr. an o& Dorset in !articular+ !lace is
=4
c/aracters against a uni$ersal setting( Benerations a!!ear to /a$e 2roug/t man into some unit. >it/
suc/ a >orl% an no !assage in t/e no$el more clearl. s/o>s 0ar.Ds ee! res!onse to t/is t/an t/e
t>ent.+ secon c/a!ter% escri2ing t/e !lace occu!ie in t/e li$es o& t/ese !eo!le 2. t/e great 2arn(
In 8T/e Return o& t/e Nati$e9)14?4*% 0ar.Ds remar7a2le a2ilit. to &use t/e local >it/ t/e
cosmic s/o>s as!ects o& nature t/at are altoget/er more narro>ing an malign( Egon 0eat/ is
timeless an ini&&erent nature itsel&% enuring rat/er t/an !icturesLue% c/astening rat/er t/an 7in(
It crus/es or su2ues to its o>n >isom t/ose >/o li$e t/ere% an &or 0ar.% t/e /eat/ is nature
itsel& as moern man must see /er( T/ose li7e Cl.m Feo2rig/t >/o are isillusione 2. 8t/e e&ects
o& t/e natural la>s 9come to lo$e t/e /eat/ !recisel. &or its re&lection o& t/eir o>n isenc/antment(
In t/is t/e. are late "ictorians >rac7e in a >orl >/ere 8ol+ &as/ione re$elling in t/e general
situation gro>s less an less !ossi2le(
Science an agnosticism re$eal an inimical >orl >/ere man must eit/er enure or% as >it/
Mic/ael 0enc/ar in 8T/e Ma.or o& Caster2rige9) 144=*% 2ecome t/e $ictim o& /is o>n c/aracter
as its energies >ea$e /is &ate(
Mic/ael 0enc/ar% 0ar.Ds 8Man o& C/aracter9% is /is creatorDs most /eroic &igure(
0enc/ar is at once 2ot/ agent an $ictim in a !lot >/ere remorseless tragic coincience !ro$ies
&ar more t/an sensationalism( 8T/e Ma.or o& Caster2rige9 o&&ers one o& 0ar.Ds most ela2orate
e#am!les o& /is c/anging t/e natural orer an !ro!ortion o& e$ents to s/o> /o>% in an ini&&erent
uni$erse% man is tra!!e 2. /is c/aracter% /is !ast an t/e &ar+&rom+2ene$olent marc/ o& !rogress(
T/is last e$entuall. re!laces 0enc/ar >it/ t/e t/in an 2looless 3ar&rae% t/e accountant an man
o& t/e mac/ine( -ut i& t/e !lot /as an almost So!/oclean ine$ita2ilit.% 8T/e Ma.or o& Caster2rige9
ac/ie$es at its clima# es!eciall. somet/ing o& t/e graneur an !at/os o& Hing Lear( 0enc/arDs
eat/ ins!ires 2ot/ !it. an a>e( 3ar&rae an Eli,a2et/+Cane arri$e too late% an A2el 6/ittleDs
account o& t/e /eroDs eat/ an t/e reaing o& /is >ill are moments un2eara2l. !oise 2et>een
rustic sim!licit. an an anni/ilating% uni$ersal es!air(
Tess DDUr2er$illes
T/e no$el is consiere one o& t/e su!reme ac/ie$ements o& Englis/ &iction( T/e tragic
!assions o& an o2scure countr. girl !er&ectl. integrate 0ar.Ds a2iing concern >it/ lo$e t/>arte
2. an im!laca2le uni$erse an t/e rut/less islocation >roug/t 2. class( T/e lansca!e o& 6esse#%
=5
e$o7e >it/ great !oetic !o>er% relate t/e !articular to t/e uni$ersal >it/ consummate master.%
>/ile t/e narrati$e also allo>s 0ar. to engage >it/ contem!orar. issues o& religion an moralit.(
T/e a. o& TessDs >eing to Angel Clare s/o>s /o> !er&ectl. t/ese t/emes are &use
>it/ /ig/ rama( Tess an Angel /a$e courte eac/ ot/er troug/ a long summer o& /ea. !astoral
lu#uriousness( Nature !ulses t/roug/ t/em an all t/e >orl( -ut t/e >eing itsel& ta7es !lace in
t/e ismal gre.nness o& Ne> FearDs Da. an% on t/eir &irst e$enings man an >i&e% eac/ con&esses
to an earlier a&&air as t/e &ire glo>s >it/ a KLast Cugement luriness( Tess% in !articular% tells /er
/us2an o& /er seuction 2. t/e &ec7less Alec DDUr2er$ille% a su!!ose aristocratic relati$e >/ose
c/il s/e 2ore( T/oug/ nature oes not conemn /er &or >/at /as /a!!ene% memories o& a c/ilDs
eternal amnation% an in little ceremon. o& /er o>n e$ising s/e c/ristene t/e 2a2. Sorro>
2e&ore 2ur.ing it in a scne o& t/e utmost !at/os(
It is restorati$e !o>er o& nature t/at 2roug/t Angel an a re$i$e Tess toget/er( T/oug/
Angel /as iscare most o& t/e C/ristian 2elie&s in >/ic/ /e /as 2een reare )/is !rogress to
agnosticism >as t/at o& man. intelligent .oung "ictorians* /e is /orri&ie to isco$er t/at /i >i&e is
not% in /is o!inion% a K!ureD >oman( 0is lo$e &ree,es uner t/e >it/ering s!ectre o& con$entional
moralit. an /e e!arts &or -ra,il( 6it/ Ange gone% Tess enures t/e !urgator. o& >inter &arm >or7
until /er &amil. is all 2ut ruine 2. eat/ o& /er &oolis/ &at/er( In orer to su!!ort t/em% Tess%
&la>e 2. /er Krec7les acLuiescence in c/anceD% returns to t/e >orll. an rootless DDUr2$er$ille(
0er lo$e /o>e$er is still &or Angel: KS/e trie to !ra. to Bo% 2ut it >as /er /us2an >/o reall. /a
/er su!!lication( 0er iolatr. o& t/is man >as suc/ as s/e /ersel& almost &eare it to 2e ill+omeneD(
T/at &ear is :usti&ie(
Angel returns in c/astene /umanit.% an Tess /ersel&% /.stericall. grie$ing% murers
DDUr2er$ille an rus/es to gi$e /ersel& to t/e one man s/e lo$es( T/e great closing scene at
Stone/enge E 0ar.Ds s.m2ol o& an ancient an male$olent natural >orl o& /uman sacri&ice E is
one o& su!reme ac/ie$ements( As t/e !olicemen ta7e Tess a>a. to trial an e#ecution% so >e see
/o>% in t/is 2rutal an im!laca2le >orl% K8Custice9 >as one% an t/e Presient o& t/e Immortals% in
Aesc/.lean !/rase% /a ene /is s!ort >it/ Tess(D
?@