UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA TITULARUL DISCIPLINEI

FACULTATEA DE LITERE SORIN CAZACU

CATEDRA DE STUDII ANGLO-AMERICANE
PROGRAMA ANALITICA
DISCIPLINA: REDACTARE (CURS PRACTIC)
Specializarea: ROMANA - ENGLEZA
An de studiu: I, Sem II
I. OBIECTIVELE DISCIPLINEI:
Cursul practic urmareste familiarizarea studentilor cu principalele tehnici si standarde
folosite in exprimarea scrisa. Drept modele pentru analiza or seri articole de presa!
eseuri sau fra"mente din opere literare. #xercitiile de compozitie or reflecta "radul de
intele"ere a formelor literare a$ordate si capacitatea cursantilor de a pune in aplicare
tehnicile creatie studiate.
O$iectie: %a finalul cursului studentii tre$uie
Sa recunoasca principalele formate ale exprimarii scrise
Sa identifice tehnicile de redactare
Sa recunoasca fi"urile de stil
Sa cunoasca cerintele textului scris
b. TEMATICA
&. 'he sentence.
(. 'he para"raph.
). 'he essa*.
+. #ffectieness of expression
,. Narration
-. Description.
.. Definition.
/. Analo"*.
0. Comparison.
&1. Contrast.
c. BIBLIOGRAFIE
2ane! S. 'homas! Oxford Essential Guide to Writing! 3ar4le* 3oo4s! Ne5 6or4! (111
Derrida! 7ac8ues! Writing and Difference! Routled"e! %ondon! &0./
2ress! Nanc*! Beginnings, Middles and Ends! 9riters: Di"est 3oo4s! Cincinnati! Ohio! &00)
Di$ell! Ansen! ;lot! 9riters: Di"est 3oo4s! Cincinnati! Ohio! &0//
<illoc4s! =eor"e. Teaching writing as Reflective Practice! 'eachers Colle"e ;ress! &00,.
3ean! 7ohn C.! Engaging deas! The Professor"s Guide to ntegrating Writing, #ritical
Thin$ing, and %ctive &earning in the #lassroo', (11&.
>ul5iler! 'o$*! and Art 6oun"! eds. Progra's that Wor$! Models and Methods for Writing
%cross the #urriculu', &001.
<erteis! #ileen ?. and 9. Alan 9ri"ht! eds. &earning Through Writing! % #o'(endiu' of
%ssign'ents and Techni)ues! (nd ed! (11&.
d. EVALUAREA STUDENTILOR
Colociu
CURS PRACTIC - REDACTARE
Asist. SORIN CAZACU
UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA - FACULTATEA DE LITERE - CATEDRA DE
STUDII ANGLO-AMERICANE
CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION

.. p. 3
1. Types o !"iti#$

p.3
%. St&$es i# t'e p"o(ess o !"iti#$
. p.)
II. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE

p.*
1. T'e Se#te#(e

p.*
%. T'e P&"&$"&p'

. p.+
III. T'e Ess&y

.. p.11
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I. INTRODUCTION
T,E -RITING PROCESS
Good writing does not just happen but it is the result of a process that can
be learned and used. Although the process appears to have a beginning, a
middle, and an end, it varies according to the purpose, audience, and the writing
assignment or task. The important thing to know is what works for you as a
writer and to apply the process fexibly, knowing that sometimes you need to
stop and to go back to an earlier step even though you might feel nished with
other portions of your paper. !riting in its broad sense " as distinct from simply
putting words on paper " has three steps# thinking about it, doing it, and doing
it again $and again and again, as often as time will allow and patience will
endure%. The rst step, &thinking,& involves choosing a subject, exploring ways of
developing it, and devising strategies of organi'ation and style. The second step,
&doing,& is usually called &drafting&( and the third, &doing again,& is &revising.&
&. T:PES OF /RITING
'he arious effects a 5riter ma* 5ish to hae on his or her readers@to inform! to
persuade! to entertain@result in different 4inds of prose. 'he most common is prose that
informs! 5hich! dependin" on 5hat it is a$out! is called exposition! description! or narration.
Ex(osition explains. <o5 thin"s 5or4@an internal com$ustion en"ine. Ideas@a
theor* of economics. >acts of eer*da* life@ho5 man* people "et diorced. <istor*@5h*
Custer attac4ed at the %ittle 3i" <orn. Controersial issues laden 5ith feelin"s@a$ortion!
politics! reli"ion. 3ut 5hateer its su$Aect! exposition reeals 5hat a particular mind thin4s
or 4no5s or $eliees. #xposition is constructed lo"icall*. It or"anizes around causeBeffect!
trueBfalse! lessBmore! positieBne"atie! "eneralBparticular! assertionBdenial. Its moement is
si"naled $* connecties li4e therefore, however, and so, *esides,*ut, not onl+, 'ore
i'(ortant, in fact, for exa'(le.
Descri(tion deals 5ith perceptions@most commonl* isual perceptions. Its central
pro$lem is to arran"e 5hat 5e see into a si"nificant pattern. Unli4e the lo"ic of exposition!
the pattern is spatial: a$oeB$elo5! $eforeB$ehind! ri"htBleft! and so on.
'he su$Aect of narration is a series of related eents@a stor*. Its pro$lem is t5ofold:
to arran"e the eents in a se8uence of time and to reeal their si"nificance.
Persuasion see4s to alter ho5 readers thin4 or $eliee. It is usuall* a$out
controersial topics and often appeals to reason in the form of argu'ent, offerin" eidence or
lo"ical proof.
Another form of persuasion is satire, 5hich ridicules foll* or eil! sometimes su$tl*!
sometimes crudel* and coarsel*. >inall*! persuasion ma* $e in the form of elo)uence,
appealin" to ideals and no$le sentiments.
9ritin" that is primaril* entertaining includes fiction! personal essa*s! s4etches. Such
prose 5ill receie less attention here. It is certainl* important! $ut it is more remote from
eer*da* needs than exposition or persuasion.
%. STAGES IN T,E -RITING PROCESS
)rewriting# Getting ideas. !hat do you have to say*
!hether you are given a specic prompt $writing assignment% to answer
or a general purpose such as writing a persuasive essay or writing about
something that you have experienced, you need to think through and to gather
your ideas. Ask yourself# !hat do + know about this topic, or what would + like to
write about* +deas may come from your past experiences, your reading, your
interests, your thoughts or feelings about a subject, or your class discussion.
Get your ideas written down in some way so that you can see them on the
page. ,ou might brainstorm by clustering, listing, or freewriting to discover what
you have to say.
)recomposing-)lanning# .rgani'ing your ideas in a way that gets you started on
your writing.
This stage may take formal forms such as graphic organi'ers or outlines,
or informal forms
such as a numbering system on a cluster or list. +n other cases it may be an
actual draft of some kind further exploring your ideas. /ow you organi'e
depends on your purposes and your time frame. The larger the task $a term
paper% or the less time available $a timed writing%, the more important it is to
plan rst if you can.
!riting# Getting your ideas into a draft.
0or some people this is a distinct stage that comes after they have
organi'ed their ideas in
some fashion( for others, the movement from prewriting to writing is less clear.
1ome people start with the introduction and work straight through to the
conclusion, while others start with the thesis or the body and then go back to
write an introduction and a conclusion.
2evising# Going back to your draft to add, delete, substitute, and rearrange the
parts into a more e3ective paper.
All good writers spend signicant time revising their papers. They
understand that writing
must be carefully crafted both for content and for style.
4diting for 5orrectness# 0ixing Grammar, )unctuation, 1pelling, etc.
+f the reader sees grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors in the nal
draft, all of the
previous e3ort to produce a good piece of writing will be lost. 6ost readers will
be annoyed by these kinds of errors and will lose their focus on what you have to
say.
II. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE
. T;E SENTENCE
=ood sentences are the sine5 of st*le. 'he* "ie to prose its for5ard thrust! its
flexi$ilit*! its stron" and su$tle rh*thms. 'he cardinal irtues of such sentences are clarit*!
emphasis! concision! and ariet*. <o5 to achiee these 8ualities 5ill $e our maAor concern in
this part. >irst! ho5eer! 5e must understand! in a $rief and rudimentar* 5a*! 5hat a
sentence is.
It is not eas* to sa*. In fact! it is pro$a$l* impossi$le to define a sentence to
eer*oneCs satisfaction. On the simplest leel it ma* $e descri$ed as a 5ord or "roup of
5ords standin"
$* itself! that is! $e"innin" 5ith a capital letter and endin" 5ith a period! 8uestion mar4! or
exclamation point. DIn speech the separateness of a sentence is mar4ed $* intonation and
pauses.E
And *et an effectie sentence inoles more than startin" 5ith a capital and stoppin"
5ith a period. 'he 5ord or 5ords must ma4e sense! expressin" an idea or perception or
feelin"
clear enou"h to stand alone. >or example! consider these t5o sentences:
The (ac$age arrived. ,inall+.
'he first consists of a su$Aect and er$. 'he second is onl* a sin"le 5ord! an ader$
detached from a er$ DarriedE. 'he idea mi"ht hae $een expressed in one sentence:
The (ac$age finall+ arrived.
The (ac$age arrived, finall+.
,inall+, the (ac$age arrived.
3ut 5e can ima"ine a situation in 5hich a spea4er or 5riter! 5antin" to stress
exasperation! feels that finall+ should $e a sentence $* itself. As that example indicates! there
are sentences 5hich contain su$Aects and er$s and sentences 5hich do not. 'he first 4ind
-The(ac$age arrived. is F"rammaticall* completeF and is the conentional form sentences
ta4e in composition. 'he
second t*pe of sentence -,inall+ in our exampleE does not contain a su$Aect and er$ and is
called a frag'ent. >ra"ments are more common in speech than in 5ritin"! $ut een in formal
composition the* hae their place! 5hich 5eCll consider in a su$se8uent chapter.
T!e G#$mm$%*c$7 Se+%e+ce
'he "rammaticall* complete sentence is independent! contains a su$Aect and a
predicate! and is properl* constructed. 'hat definition ma* sound a $it formida$le! $ut it
reall* isnCt. %etCs $riefl* consider each of those three criteria.
G#$mm$%*c$7 I+de'e+de+ce
=rammatical independence simpl* means that the 5ords constitutin" the sentence are
not actin" as a noun or modifier or er$ in connection 5ith an* other 5ord or 5ords. >or
example!
/arr+ was late is independent. Beca'e /arr+ was late is not. Because turns the 5ords into
an ader$ Dmore exactl*! an ader$ial clauseE. 'he construction should modif* another er$
or clause as in The 'en were dela+ed in starting *ecause /arr+ was late.C
&. 'he fact that Because /arr+ was late is not independent does not mean it cannot sere as a
sentence. In the ri"ht context it could effectiel* stand alone. 3ut it 5ould $e a fra"ment.
'o ta4e one more case. The+ failed to agree is a "rammatical sentence. That the+ failed to
agree is not. It is a noun clause and could function as the su$Aect of a er$:
That the+ failed to agree was unfortunate.
Or as the o$Aect of one:
9e 4no5 that the+ failed to agree.
Su$Aect and ;redicate
'he heart of a "rammatical sentence is the su$Aect and predicate. In a narro5 sense
the su$Aect is the 5ord or 5ords identif*in" 5ho or 5hat the sentence is a$out! and the
predicate is the er$! expressin" somethin" a$out the su$Aect. In a $roader sense! the su$Aect
includes the su$Aect 5ordDsE plus all modifiers! and the predicate includes the er$ to"ether
5ith its o$Aects and modifiers. >or instance in The 'an who lives next door decided last wee$
to sell his house, the narro5! or "rammatical! su$Aect is 'an, and the narro5! or "rammatical!
er$ is decided. 'he $road! or notional! su$Aect is The 'an who lives next door, and the
$road! or notional! predicate
is decided last wee$ to sell his house.
'he er$ in a "rammatical sentence must $e finite! that is! limited 5ith reference to
time or person or num$er. #n"lish has seeral nonfinite er$ forms called participles and
infinities
-*eing, for example! and to *e.. 'hese can refer to an* interal of time and can $e used 5ith
an* person or 5ith either num$er. 3ut $* conention these nonfinite forms cannot $*
themseles ma4e a sentence. 'hus /arr+ was late is a "rammatical sentence! $ut /arr+
*eing late isnCt $ecause it contains onl* the participle *eing instead of a finite form such as
was.
Clauses
A clause is a functional 5ord "roup that does contain a su$Aect and a finite er$.
'here are t5o $asic clauses@independent and dependent. An independent clause can stand
alone as a sentence. In fact a simple sentence li4e We saw +ou co'ing is an independent
clause. 3ut usuall* the term is resered for such a construction 5hen it occurs as part of a
lar"er sentence. 'he sentence $elo5! for instance! consists of t5o independent clauses:
9e sa5 *ou comin"! and 5e 5ere "lad.
A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a "rammaticall* complete sentence. It seres as
part of a sentence@a su$Aect! o$Aect! adAectie! or ader$. If 5e 5ere to place when $efore
the openin" clause in the example a$oe! 5e 5ould turn it into a dependent Dader$ialE
clause modif*in" the second clause D5hich remains independentE:
When we saw +ou co'ing 5e 5ere "lad.
Dependent clauses ma* also act as nouns! either as su$Aects Das in the first of the follo5in"
sentencesE or as o$Aects Das in the secondE:
Wh+ he went at all is a m*ster* to me.
9e 4ne5 that she would *e (leased.
And as adAecties:
'he point that +ou"re tr+ing to 'a$e Aust isnCt er* clear.
S2mm$#.
&. A sentence is a "roup of 5ords Dand sometimes a sin"le 5ordE that ma4es sense standin"
alone.
(. Some sentences are "rammaticall* completeG others@called fra"ments@are not.
). =rammatical sentences must satisf* three criteria: the* must DaE $e "rammaticall*
independent! D$E hae a su$Aect and a finite er$! and DcE $e properl* constructed.
+. 'he parts of a sentence are su$Aect! er$! o$Aect! and modifier.
,. 'hese parts ma* $e filled $* sin"le 5ords or $* functional 5ord "roups.
-. >unctional 5ord "roups act "rammaticall* as thou"h the* 5ere one 5ord. 'he* include
phrases and dependent clauses.
.. A phrase does not contain a su$AectHfinite er$ com$ination! thou"h it ma* hae a su$Aect
and a nonfinite er$ form! either a participle or an infinitie.
/. 'here are seeral 4inds of phrases@er$ phrases! prepositional! participial! "erundie! and
infinitie.
0. Clauses ma* $e independent or dependent. Onl* dependent clauses act as functional 5ord
"roups.
&1. Dependent clauses are classified accordin" to their "rammatical role as noun! ader$ial!
or adAectial clauses.
&&. An a$solute is more than a functional 5ord "roup $ut less than a sentence. It is related in
idea $ut not in "rammar to the rest of the sentence in 5hich it occurs.
&(. =rammatical sentences come in three $asic t*pes@simple! compound! and complex@
plus a com$ination of the last t5o! the compoundHcomplex sentence.
(. T;E PARAGRAP;
#xpositor* para"raphs deal 5ith facts! ideas! $eliefs. 'he* explain! anal*ze! define!
compare! illustrate. 'he* ans5er 8uestions li4e 9hatI 9h*I <o5I 9hat 5as the causeI 'he
effectI %i4e 5hatI Unli4e 5hatI 'he* are the 4inds of para"raph 5e 5rite in reports or term
papers or tests. 'he term (aragra(h has no simple definition. Occasionall* a sin"le sentence
or een a 5ord ma* sere as an emphatic para"raph. Conentionall* in composition!
ho5eer! a para"raph is a "roup of sentences deelopin" a common idea! called the to(ic.
An expositor* para"raph is essentiall* an enlar"ement of a su$AectBpredicate pattern
li4e FDo"s $ar4.F 3ut the su$Aect is more complicated and needs to $e expressed in a clause
or
sentence! called the to(ic state'ent, 5hich is usuall* placed at or near the $e"innin". 'he
predicate@that is! 5hat is asserted a$out the topic@re8uires seeral sentences.
No one can sa* ho5 lon" a para"raph should $e. Su$Aect! purpose! audience! editorial
fashion! and indiidual preference! all affect the len"th and complexit* of para"raphs. As a
rou"h rule of thum$! ho5eer! *ou mi"ht thin4 of expositor* para"raphs in terms of &(1 or
&,1 5ords. If most of *our para"raphs fall $elo5 &11 5ords@,1 or -1! sa*@the chances are
the* need more deelopment. If *our para"raphs run consistentl* to (11 or )11 5ords! the*
are pro$a$l* too lon" and need to $e shortened or diided. Numerous $rief para"raphs are
lia$le to $e disAointed and underdeeloped. =reat lon" ones fati"ue readers. 3ut remem$er@
5e are tal4in" a$out a er* $road aera"e. An occasional short para"raph of &, to (1 5ords
ma* 5or4 er* 5ellG so ma* an occasional lon" one of )11.
T!e T"'*c Se+%e+ce
A "ood topic sentence is concise and emphatic. It is no lon"er than the idea re8uires! and it
stresses the important 5ord or phrase. <ere! for instance! is the topic statement 5hich opens
a para"raph a$out the collapse of the stoc4 mar4et in &0(0:
'he 3i" 3ull ?ar4et 5as dead. >rederic4 %e5is Allen
Notice seeral thin"s. D&E AllenCs sentence is $rief. Not all topics can $e explained in
six 5ords! $ut 5hether the* ta4e six or sixt*! the* should $e phrased in no more 5ords than
are a$solutel* necessar*. D(E 'he sentence is clear and stron": *ou understand exactl* 5hat
Allen means. D)E It places the 4e* 5ord@FdeadF@at the end! 5here it "ets hea* stress and
leads naturall* into 5hat 5ill follo5. Of course! if a topic sentence ends on a 4e* term! it
must do so naturall*! 5ithout iolatin" an* rules of 5ord order or idiom. D+E 'he sentence
stands first in the para"raph. 'his is 5here topic statements "enerall* $elon": at or near the
$e"innin".
'o attract attention topic sentences sometimes appear in
the form of rhetorical 8uestions:
9hat then is the modern ie5 of 7oanCs oices and messa"es from =odI =eor"e 3ernard
Sha5
9hat did %incolnCs #mancipation ;roclamation accomplishI
7. =. Randall
P$#$0#$'! U+*%.
;ara"raph unit* inoles t5o related $ut distinct concepts: coherence and flo5.
#oherence means that the ideas fit to"ether. ,low means that the sentences lin4 up so that
readers are not conscious of "aps. >lo5 is a matter of st*le and exists in specific 5ords and
"rammatical patterns t*in" one sentence to another. Coherence $elon"s to the su$structure of
the para"raph! to relationships of thou"ht! feelin"! and perception. 3oth are necessar* if a
para"raph is to $e trul* unified.
C"!e#e+ce
'o $e coherent a para"raph must satisf* t5o criteria: >irst! relevance@eer* idea
must relate to the topic. Second! effective order@ideas must $e arran"ed in a 5a* that
clarifies their
lo"ic or their importance. 'here is! in addition! a ne"atie criterion@inclusiveness, that
nothin" ital must $e omitted.
Re7e3$+ce
A topic sentence ma4es a promise that the para"raph must fulfill. Do not 5ander from
the topic. No matter ho5 attractie an idea ma* seem! let it "o if *ou cannot fit it into the
topic *ou hae sta4ed out or cannot reise the topic to include it. <ere is an example of a
para"raph marred $* irreleance:
J&K Colle"e is er* different from hi"h school. J(K 'he professors tal4 a "reat deal more and
"ie lon"er home5or4 assi"nments.
J)K 'his interferes 5ith *our social life. J+K It ma* een cost *ou *our "irlfriend. J,K =irls
donCt li4e to $e told that *ou hae to sta* home and stud* 5hen the* 5ant to "o to a sho5 or
"o dancin".
J-K So the* find some other $o* 5ho doesnCt hae to stud* all the time. J.K Another 5a*
colle"e is different is the examinations. . . .
'he para"raph $e"ins 5ell. 'he first sentence esta$lishes the topic and the second
supports it. 'hen the 5riter $e"ins to slide a5a*. Sentences ) and + mi"ht $e allo5ed if the*
5ere su$ordinated. 3ut , and - lose contact. 'rue! some people do not li4e to ta4e second
place to home5or4! $ut that is not pertinent here. In sentence . the 5riter tacitl*
ac4no5led"es
that he has 5andered! thro5in" out a lon" transitional lifeline to haul us $ac4 to the topic.
Rid of irreleance! the para"raph mi"ht read:
Colle"e is er* different from hi"h school. 'he professors tal4 a "reat deal more and "ie
lon"er home5or4 assi"nments! 5hich interfere 5ith *our social life. Colle"e examinations!
too! are different. . .
O#de# "6 T!"20!%
Releance alone is not enou"h to esta$lish coherence. All the ideas in a para"raph can relate
to the topic *et $e poorl* arran"ed. Arran"ement often inheres in the su$Aect itself. A
para"raph
a$out $a4in" a ca4e or preparin" to 5aterHs4i is committed to follo5in" the steps of the
process it descri$es. 'ellin" a stor*! *ou must follo5 a certain se8uence of eents. And in
some su$Aects there is a lo"ical structure implicit in the su$Aect that determines order of
thou"ht! as in this example a$out the alue of opposition in politics:
The o((osition is indis(ensa*le. % good states'an, li$e an+ other sensi*le hu'an *eing,
alwa+s learns 'ore fro' his o((onents than fro' his fervent su((orters. ,or his su((orters
will (ush hi' to disaster unless his o((onents show hi' where the dangers are. 0o if he is
wise he will often (ra+ to *e delivered fro' his friends, *ecause the+ will ruin hi'. But,
though it hurts, he ought also to (ra+ never to *e left without o((onents1 for the+ $ee( hi'
on the (ath of reason and good sense. 9alter %ippmann
'here is a necessar* order of thou"ht here: first the assertion! next a reason
supportin" it! and then a conclusion! introduced $* Fso.F 'here are times! ho5eer! 5hen the
order of thou"ht is less a function of the su$Aect itself than of the 5riterCs ie5 of it. >or
instance! if *ou 5ere 5ritin" a$out the three thin"s that most surprised *ou the first time *ou
isited! sa*! Ne5 6or4
Cit*! *ou mi"ht not find an* lo"ical or temporal relationship $et5een those thin"s. One
solution in such cases is to arran"e ideas in order of relatie importance! either climacticall*!
placin" the most important last! or anticlimacticall*! puttin" it first. If *ou cannot discern an*
shadin"s of importance! consider 5hich order $est connects 5ith 5hat has "one $efore or
5ith 5hat 5ill
come next. Should *ou find no $asis 5hateer for arran"in" the ideas 5ithin a para"raph!
then! of course! an* order is le"itimate. 3ut this is not li4el* to happen often. ?ost of the
time a proper or at least a most effectie 5a* of se8uencin" ideas does exist.
P$#$0#$'! F7"<
>lo5! those isi$le lin4s 5hich $ind the sentences of a para"raph! can $e esta$lished in t5o
$asic 5a*s. D'he* are compati$leG a para"raph ma* emplo* $oth.E 'he first is to
III. T;E ESSA:
An essa* is a relatiel* short composition. It does not claim scholarl* thorou"hness
Dthat $elon"s to the 'onogra(h., $ut it does exhi$it "reat ariet*. #ssa*s can $e a$out almost
an*thin"G the* can $e speculatie or factual or emotionalG the* can $e personal or o$Aectie!
serious or humorous. 'he er* looseness of the term is a conenienceG it 5ould $e a mista4e
to define it precisel*. <ere essa+ reall* 5ill simpl* mean a short prose piece. 'here are
differences amon" articles and reports and essa*s. 3ut the* hae much in common! and 5hat
5e sa* a$out the essa*@its $e"innin"! closin"! structure! and so on@applies to compositions
"enerall*.
Readers approach an* piece of prose 5ith a set of 8uestions. 9hat is this a$outI 9ill
it interest meI 9hat does the 5riter intend to do Dor not doEI 9hat 4ind of person is the
5riterI 'o $e"in effectiel* *ou must ans5er these 8uestions! one 5a* or another. >rom the
5riterCs point of ie5! $e"innin" means announcin" and limitin" the su$Aect! indicatin" a
plan! catchin" the readerCs attention! and esta$lishin" an appropriate tone and point of ie5.
Not all of these matters are e8uall* important. Announcin" and limitin" the su$Aect are
essential. %a*in" out the plan of the paper and an"lin" for the readerCs interest! on the other
hand! depend on *our purpose and audience. 'one and point of ie5 are ineita$le: 5heneer
*ou 5rite *ou impl* them.
In the $e"innin"! then! *ou must esta$lish a tone and point of ie5 conducie to *our
purpose. 'he len"th of the $e"innin" depends on the len"th and complexit* of 5hat it
introduces. In a $oo4 the openin" mi"ht ta4e an entire chapter 5ith dozens of para"raphs. In
a short article a sin"le sentence mi"ht $e ade8uate. >or most essa*s a
sin"le para"raph is enou"h. 9hateer their len"th! all effectie openin"s fulfill the same
functions.
1. T'e o".&t
6any academic assignments re7uire a ve paragraph essay. +n reality, the
ve paragraph essay is a fexible frame that can easily be expanded or
contracted depending on your thesis. 0or example, it might take three
paragraphs just to discuss the rst idea in the thesis, which would expand this
frame to a seven8paragraph essay. .n the other hand, it might re7uire only four
paragraphs to support another thesis.
)aragraph 9 +ntroduction $: to ; sentences, <=8>; words approximately%
? 1tarts with an interesting lead.
? 4nds with your thesis statement.
)aragraph @ 0irst Aody )aragraph $B to 9= sentences, 9@;8@== words
approximately%
? Aegins with a transition and a topic sentence that is the rst idea to develop
the thesis.
? Gives appropriate examples, information and explanation to support the topic
sentence $chunks containing concrete details-commentary%.
? 6ay provide a transitional sentence to conclude the paragraph and link it to
the next.
)aragraph : 1econd Aody )aragraph $B to 9= sentences, 9@;8@== words
approximately%
? Aegins with a transition and a topic sentence that is the second idea to
develop the thesis.
? Gives appropriate examples, information and explanation to support the topic
sentence $chunks containing concrete details-commentary%.
? 6ay provide a transitional sentence to conclude the paragraph and link it to
the next.
)aragraph < Third Aody )aragraph $B to 9= sentences, 9@;8@== words
approximately%
? Aegins with a transition and a topic sentence that is the third idea to develop
the thesis.
? Gives appropriate examples, information and explanation to support the topic
sentence $chunks containing concrete details-commentary%.
? 6ay provide a transitional sentence to conclude the paragraph and link it to
the next.
)aragraph ; 5onclusion $<=8>; words approximately%
? Ties back to the thesis. $6ay or may not restate or use key words from the
thesis. 4nglish teachers may prefer few repeats( teachers in other subject areas
may have other re7uirements.%
? Arings together or sums up the information or the arguments presented.
? 6akes the paper feel &nished.&
? Goes beyond the thesis to show insight, make connections, or apply the
information in a new way, depending on the subject of the essay.
%. T'e t'esis st&te.e#t
6ost academic essays contain a thesis statement located at the end of
the introductory paragraph. The thesis states the subject of the essay and takes
a stand, gives a position, or makes a claim about the subject which will be
supported or argued throughout the essay. +f you are answering a writing
prompt, you may think of the thesis statement as your short answer to the
7uestion. +f you are developing your own subject, the thesis lets the reader know
what subject you will discuss and what your position is on that subject. +n
addition, the thesis should suggest the organi'ation or overall movement of your
discussion.
!rite your thesis after you have generated ideas. Cook at your clusters,
lists, freewrites, or
graphic organi'ers to see what you have available to write about and what
groups together. !hat do you think about your subject* !hat facts led you to
your ideas* /ow can you support your position and convince others of your
position* /ow will you organi'e your essay so that others can follow your logic*
Dow put your thinking into one or two sentences. This will be your thesis. The
more specic your thesis is, the easier it will be for the reader to follow your
argument.
0or example#
General# )ollution should be stopped.
6ore specic# 4veryday pollution by household products such as oil and lawn
fertili'er should be stopped because these products are entering our sewage
systems and critically damaging our sea life.
The second example narrows the subject of pollution to household products and
forecasts the discussion. ,ou can expect that the essay will show how these
products are entering the sewage systems and then how this hurts sea life. This
subject is more manageable than the general subject of pollution. Cikewise, you
know the direction the argument will take, a presentation of the critical damage
the household products are creating for sea life.
3. E/posito"y !"iti#$
The main goal of expository writing is to inform or explain. 4xpository
writing is used to share knowledge and convey messages, instructions or ideas.
The writer skillfully produces a thesis statement and supports it with relevant
evidence to provide the reader with knowledge that answers the &who, what,
where, when, why, or how& of a subject. 5onnections are made between the
thesis and primary and secondary sources to support claims and enhance the
readerEs understanding of the subject. This genre re7uires the writer to use a
range of thinking skills from recall to analysis and evaluation. This type of writing
has many functions# to present information through reporting, explaining,
summari'ing, and dening( or to organi'e and analy'e information through
explaining, comparing, contrasting, stating cause-e3ect. The most successful
expository compositions provide the reader with new knowledge. 5lear and
interesting information is shared through a condent authoritative voice giving
the reader the impression that the writer is truly knowledgeable about the topic.
The introduction engages the readerEs interest. Faluable and signicant
information is given from a variety of sources to support the thesis. The
information provided goes beyond the obvious. The composition synthesi'es the
ideas and information into a thoughtful conclusion.
To write a successful expository essay, the writer#
? Gnows the topic
? 5reates a meaningful and interesting thesis
? 4ngages the readerEs interest in the introduction
? Hses valuable and signicant information from a variety of sources to support
the thesis
? )rovides information that goes beyond the obvious
? Hses relevant and interesting details to support ideas
? Anticipates readersE 7uestions, misunderstandings, biases, and expectations
? 1ynthesi'es the ideas and information into a thoughtful conclusion
? 5orrectly uses the conventions of the 4nglish language
1ample expository topics
? 4xplain in writing how something works.
? 4xplain how to complete a task you know how to do well.
? !rite an article about an event that occurred at your school.
? !rite a letter to a younger person explaining how to succeed at your school or
in a specic class at your school.
? !rite a report about an event in history that you know well.
? Iescribe your classroomEs appearance.
? Iescribe an invention that has had an impact on society.
). Pe"s0&si1e !"iti#$
The main goal of persuasive writing is to convince. The writer skillfully
defends a position about a topic and supports it with relevant evidence to
provide the reader with a convincing argument about the topic. 1upport is given
to each claim to persuade the reader of the validity of the writerEs position on
the topic. )ersuasive writing moves the reader to take an action or to form or
change an opinion. +t re7uires thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis and
evaluation. )ersuasive writingEs functions are to state and support a position,
opinion or issue( or to defend, refute or argue.
The most successful persuasive compositions provide the reader with
convincing evidence. 5lear and persuasive support is shared through a condent
and authoritative voice, giving the reader the impression that the writer is truly
knowledgeable about the topic. The writer knows the topic, creates a convincing
thesis, and appeals to the readerEs interest in the introduction. A position is
claried and defended with precise and relevant evidence. 1upport goes beyond
the obvious and details are relevant and convincing. The readerEs concerns,
counterclaims, biases, and expectations are addressed. The ideas in the
composition are structured in a logical fashion.
To write a successful persuasive essay, the writer#
? Gnows the topic.
? 5reates a convincing thesis.
? Appeals to the readerEs interest in the introduction.
? 5laries and defends a position with precise and relevant evidence.
? )rovides support that goes beyond the obvious.
? Hses relevant and convincing details to support ideas.
? Addresses readersE concerns, counterclaims, biases, and expectations.
? 1tructures the ideas in a sustained and logical fashion.
? 5orrectly uses the conventions of the 4nglish language.
)ossible modes of )ersuasive !riting#
? 5ontroversial issues
? 4valuations
? 4ditorials
? 1peculations of causes and e3ects
? Advertisements
? Cetters to 4ditor
? Aook 2eviews
? 1peeches
? Ceafets
? Articles
? Citerary 2eviews
? Cetters of 5omplaint
1ample persuasive topics
? !rite to persuade someone that itEs better to eat healthy food than junk food.
? !rite to persuade a reader that the best class in school is JJJJJJJJ and why.
? !rite a letter to a younger person explaining why itEs important to do well in
school.
? !rite about what the best invention is and why*
? !rite about what is the best place to visit and why*
? !rite about what is the most important thing to maintain a friendship and
why*
? !rite an essay explaining the best way to study and explain why itEs the best.
? !rite a book or movie review that convinces your readers that it is the best.
? !rite about whether there should be a dress code at your school* !hy*
*. Respo#se to 2ite"&t0"e
The main goal of responding to literature is to demonstrate thoughtful
comprehension of
a literary passage. The process of responding to a piece of literature involves the
thinking skills of analy'ing, evaluating, making inferences, and drawing
conclusions. The writer skillfully produces an idea about a text and supports it
with textual evidence to demonstrate a thoughtful response to the text.
5onnections are made among the main ideas of the text, the readerEs viewpoint
and the authorEs style.
The most successful responses to literature or text are supported with
textual references. These responses illustrate a clear, comprehensive grasp of
the main ideas of the text and extend beyond what is present in the text with
original ideas, thoughts, and connections. To successfully respond to literature,
the writer reads and understands the literature, creates a meaningful and
interesting thesis about the text, and engages the reader. Thoughtful conclusions
are drawn about the text. The response demonstrates an awareness of the
authorEs style and purpose within the text and is a refection of the readerEs
experiences.
!riting about literature also provides students with the opportunity to
express their opinions on a wide range of topics and respond in8depth. !riting
about literature also provides students with the opportunity to express their
opinions on a wide range of topics and respond in8depth.
To successfully respond to literature or text, the writer#
? 2eads and understands the literature or text.
? 5reates a meaningful and interesting thesis about the text.
? 4ngages the readerEs interest in the introduction.
? )rovides textual evidence to support the thesis.
? Iraws thoughtful conclusions about the text.
? Hses relevant and interesting details to support ideas.
? Iiscusses the ambiguities, nuances, and complexities within the text.
? Iemonstrates an awareness of the authorEs style and purpose within the text.
? 5orrectly uses the conventions of the 4nglish language.
)ossible modes of 2esponse to Citerature !riting#
? Kournal responses
? Iouble entry journals-Iialectical journals
? 5ritical book reviews
? 2eading response logs
? +nterpretive or response to literature or text essays
? )oetry inspired by literature
Luestions to 1tart ,ou Thinking About Theme# Theme is insight about
human life that is revealed in literary work. Themes are rarely stated directly in
literature. 6ost often, a reader has to infer the theme of a work after
considerable thought. Theme is di3erent from subject. A storyEs subject might be
stated as &growing up,& &love,& &heroism,& or &fear.& The theme is the statement
the writer wants to make about the subject# &0or most young people, growing up
is a process that involves the pain of achieving self8knowledge.& Theme must be
stated in at least one sentence( most themes are complex enough to re7uire
several sentences, or even an essay.
"The answers you get from literature depend on the questions you pose"
Margaret Atwood
9. +s the central character static or does s-he learn or mature in the story* +s this
a child8to8adult initiation story*
@. !hat insight does the central character experience, if any* /as the insight
been benign or destructive*
:. Ioes the character take a real or psychological journey* +s it symbolic* !hat
is the destination* +s the journey successful*
<. +s the central character a victim* +f so, does s-he know it* !hat or who is
doing the victimi'ing* +s escape possible*
;. Ioes the central character have free will or is s-he controlled by fate* +f
controlled by fate, is it fate of character*
M. +s there a central confict in the story* +s this a universal confict*
>. Are the characters or situations archetypal $universal characters we fre7uently
encounter in life and literature%* +s the story a retelling of a traditional myth*
B. +n what way are the events of the story ironical, in the sense that they can be
&looked at two ways*&
N. /ow does the author feel about his characters and his narrator* +s he for them
against them, or neutral*
9=. +n what way is the structure of the story a clue to what the story means*
99. !hat does the authorEs style tell us*
9@. !hat symbols or repeated details has the author used and why*
9:. !hat point of view is the story told from* +s this a rst person story* +s the
narrator inside or outside the story* Ioes the narrator know everything, or is his
point of view limited* Ioes he know what the characters are thinking and
feeling, or does he just see what they are doing and hear what they are saying*
9<. !hat is the theme of the story* +n other words, what is the author saying
about life in this story*
1ample response to literature topics
? 4xplain how the setting a3ected the story.
? 4xplain how the author depicts the character as the person he-she is.
? Iiscuss how two characters in the story relate to each other.
? Ietermine the authorEs purpose and prove it through the use of textual
support.
? !rite an essay in which you connect the ideas with an event or a period of
history.
? 4xplain what a person might learn from this passage.
? Iiscuss what the protagonist or main character learned about life and connect
this lesson to people in general.
? Iescribe how the ending was ironic and how the author surprised you with this
ending.
? !rite an essay in which you describe the theme of the story and how it relates
to people
in general.
? 4xplain how the authorEs use of facts helped make the reader understand the
main idea
of the text.
? 4xplain how the authorEs use of gurative language added to the readerEs
understanding
of the passage.
? 4xplain how the author supported the main idea of the passage.
? !rite an essay in which you explain how the events in the story motivated the
protagonist
or main character.
? !rite a response to the story in which you predict what may happen next and
explain
why you feel this way.
? !rite an essay in which you explain the meaning of the title of the passage.
? 4xplain how the clues the author provided leads the reader to predict what
might happen
next in the story.
? 4xplain how the protagonist, or main character changed throughout the story
and explain
why.
? +dentify the protagonist or main character as static $unchanging% or dynamic
$changing%.
3. Re4e(ti1e !"iti#$
The main goal of refective writing is to allow a writer to explore and
discover meaning in his
or her own experiences( often an ordinary thing that is seen, done, read,
overheard or experienced will, upon refection, trigger a comment on life. !riters
are provided the opportunity to consider feelings, concerns, or reactions to
important issues. Anything that is a part of your life provides the starting point
for a refective essay. 5onsider ideas in your journal as possible topics.
To produce a refective essay, writers use a variety of strategies to explore
their beliefs about
ideas or issues. The writer may use a narrative style to share personal
experiences. )ersuasive strategies are often used when writing about personal
beliefs and strong convictions. !hen the writer wishes to convey a sense of
authority about the topic, an expository strategy may be the best choice.
To compose a refective essay, writers#
? choose a topic that is personally signicant and will encourage readers to think
or wonder.
? craft an introduction that will create interest about a topic.
? include a controlling thesis in the introduction.
? connect the ideas, events, or issues with beliefs or convictions.
? organi'e the essay to maintain a balance between the issue or ideas $topic%
and beliefs and refections.
? write from a personal point of view. The essay becomes a form of self8study.
? choose a tone that is candid and sincere.
? searches for a meaning applicable to the human condition.
? write a retrospective with some distance between the writer and the subject
being written about.
? correctly use the conventions of the 4nglish language.
1ample 1trategies to 1timulate 2efective Thinking
? 5ollect possible occasions for refection# Geep a journal chart of everything that
happens
during a @<8hour period. Cist the particular conversations overheard, scenes
observed, incidents experienced in the left column and the general life8symbols
they might represent in the right
1ample writing assignments
.rdinary events
? a grain of sand in your eye
? the sound of bells
? a blister
? the scent of aftershave
? bumper stickers
? a home run
? gossip in the hall
? body language
? winning a ball game
Aspects of nature
? an ant colony
? moths beating against the light
? the calm before the storm
? a snailEs path
? the smell of new8mown grass
.bjects or events from childhood
? toys
? relationships
? games
? family events
? friendships
Lualities of behavior
? egotism
? loyalty
? success
? othersE expectations
? materialism
? creativity
Luotations
? &The dismal fact is that self8respect has nothing to do with the approval of
others.&
--Joan Didion
? &!herever we go, whatever we do, self is the sole subject we study and learn.&
--Emerson (Journals)
? &.nly the strong survive.&
? &,ou canEt teach an old dog new tricks.&
? &!hat goes around comes around&
? &Cove is blind.&
5onnections
? .f 6ice and 6en and 2omeo and Kuliet# what men and women will sacrice for
love
? The )earl and Arave Dew !orld# social corruption
? 4xplore ways that friendships between people of di3erent cultures a3ect the
growth of human understanding.
? 2efect on how the existence of nuclear bombs a3ects human lives.
? 4xplain how an incident or event in a novel or play are similar to an incident or
event that youOve experienced.
? Iiscuss how experience is the key to learning.
? 4xplain how the experiences of a famous person made that person who he-she
is today.
? 1elect someone who has been infuential in your life $a relative, a teacher, a
coach, or a friend% and explain the e3ect of his-her infuence.
? )redict what might happen in the future based on an event that has already
occurred.
? Any 7uotations from the 5hicken 1oup for the 1oul series.
5. -"iti#$ te('#i(&2 6o(0.e#ts
The main goal of writing technical documents is to report information and
ideas. The writer skillfully introduces what the document will explain and
supports this explanation with details and specicity. Technical documents
provide the reader with the who, what, where, when, why, or how of the
information and ideas being explained. The purpose may be to explain how
something works, what the rules of behavior are in an oPce, procedures for
conducting a meeting, the minutes of a meeting, etc. 5lear and accurate
explanations are provided in a logical way to ensure the readersE comprehension
The most successful documents present information in a straight8forward and
authoritative manner to give the reader the impression that the writer knows the
topic well.
To write a successful technical document, the writer#
? learns the specics of the information and ideas being presented.
? creates a clear and meaningful introduction.
? claries the readersE need to know the information.
? organi'es the information in a logical manner to help aid the readersE
comprehension.
? includes critical information using accurate and specic language.
? anticipates readersE problems, mistakes, and misunderstandings.
? incorporates scenarios, denitions, and examples to aid the readersE
comprehension.
? synthesi'es the ideas and information into a thoughtful conclusion.
? correctly uses the conventions of the 4nglish language.
1ample ideas for writing a technical document#
? !rite the minutes of a meeting.
? )repare a plan for how to put on a school function $dance, fundraiser, festival,
art show, etc.%.
? 4xplain how to complete a task.
? !rite a report on how a science project was completed.
? 5reate a document explaining the results of an event that occurred at your
school.
? Ievelop a school brochure explaining how to succeed at your school.
? 1ubmit a proposal to a teacher on how youEd like to change the appearance of
the classroom.
? 5raft a proposal to your principal explaining the need for more computers in
your school.
? )roduce a brochure explaining how a make8believe invention works.
? !rite a document in which you describe the activities and rides at your favorite
amusement park.
? )repare a document in which you explain the rainy day procedures and
behaviors at
your school.
? Iesign a brochure in which you campaign for a student body oPce at your
school.
? )repare a document that explains the dress code at your school for boys and
girls.
? !rite a document in which you identify activities families can do instead of
watching
television in the evenings.
IV. DOCUMENTING 7I7LIOGRAP,IC ENTRIES
The 6.1T 5.66.D T,)41 .0 1.H2541 are listed below with both a description
of the information needed and an example. 1ee the seful A!!re"iations section
that follows to interpret abbreviations that are new to you. Dotice that only the
rst line of a bibliographic entry begins at the left margin( any following lines are
indented.
Aook
Cast Dame of Author$s%, 0irst. Title of Aook. )lace of )ublication# )ublisher, ,ear
of )ublication.
Gunther, Kohn. Ieath Ae Dot )roud. Dew ,ork# /arper 5ollins, 9N<N.
6aga'ine Article
Cast Dame of Author, 0irst. QTitle of Article.R Title of 6aga'ine $Iay% 6onth ,ear#
)age Dumber$s%.
5hang, ,ahlin. QAloom the Aardolator.R Dewsweek 9; 0ebruary 9NNN# M<.
Dewspaper Article
Cast Dame of Author, 0irst. QTitle of Article.R Title of Dewspaper Iay 6onth ,ear#
1ection )age Dumber.
Caso, 6aria I. QAard ,ard# Translating the 0lowery Canguage of 1hakespeareEs
!ork +s Cike )lucking Aou7uets of )oetry.R Cos Angeles Times @: August 9NN>#
D9.
4ncyclopedia or Iictionary
QTitle of Article.R Title of 4ncyclopedia. Dumber of 4dition. ,ear of )ublication.
Q5roatia.R The Dew 4ncyclopedia Aritannica. 9;th ed. 9NN@.
5I82.6 Iatabase
0or 5I82.6 databases, begin the bibliographic entry according to a maga'ine or
newspaper citation $see above%. 5omplete the entry with the name of the
database source, the date of access, and the electronic address $H2C% of the
source in angle brackets#
Caso, 6aria I. QAard ,ard# Translating the 0lowery Canguage of 1hakespeareEs
!ork +s Cike )lucking Aou7uets of )oetry.R Cos Angeles Times @: August 9NN>#
D9. +nfotrack# Dational Dewspaper +ndex. 5I82.6. +nformation Access. 9< .ct.
9NN>.
1ources from the !orld !ide !eb
1ources on the !orld !ide !eb that students and scholars use in their research
include scholarly projects, reference databases, the texts of books, articles in
periodicals, and professional and personal sites. 4ntries in a works8cited list for
such sources contain as many items from the list below as are relevant and
available.
0ollowing this list are sample entries for some common kinds of !eb sources.
9. Dame of the author, editor, compiler, or translator of the source $if
available and relevant%, reversed for alphabeti'ing and followed by an
abbreviation, such as ed., if appropriate.
@. Title of a poem, short story, article, or similar short work within a
scholarly project, database, or periodical $in 7uotation marks%( or title of a
posting to a discussion list or forum $taken from the subject line and put in
7uotation marks%, followed by the description
:. Title of a book $underlined%.
<. Dame of the editor, compiler, or translator of the text $if relevant and if
not cited earlier%, preceded by the appropriate abbreviation, such as Qed.R
;. )ublication information for any print version of the source.
M. Title of the scholarly project, database, periodical, or professional or
personal site $underlined%( or, for a professional or personal site with no
title, a description such as
>. Dame of the editor of the scholarly project or database $if available%.
B. Fersion number of the source $if not part of the title% or, for a journal, the
volume number, issue number, or other identifying number.
N. Iate of electronic publication, of the latest update, or of posting.
9=.0or a work from a subscription service, the name of the service and88if a
library is the subscriber88the name and city $and state abbreviation, if
necessary% of the library.
99. 0or a posting to a discussion list or forum, the name of the list or forum.
9@.The number range or total number of pages, paragraphs, or other
sections, if they are numbered.
9:.Dame of any institution or organi'ation sponsoring or associated with the
!eb site.
9<.Iate when the researcher accessed the source.
9;.4lectronic address, or H2C, of the source Sin angle bracketsT( or, for a
subscription service, the H2C of the serviceOs main page $if known% or the
keyword assigned by the service.
Fictorian !omen !riters )roject. 4d. )erry !illett. Apr. 9NN>. +ndiana H. @M Apr.
9NN>
Shttp#--www.indiana.edu-Uletrs-vwwp-T.
)rofessional 1ite
)ortuguese Canguage )age. H of 5hicago. 9 6ay 9NNN
Shttp#--humanities.uchicago.edu-
romance-port-T.
)ersonal 1ite
Cancashire, +an. /ome page. 9 6ay 9NN> Shttp#--
www.chass.utoronto.ca#B=B=-Uian-
index.htmlT.
Aook
Desbit, 4dith. Aallads and Cyrics of 1ocialism. Condon, 9N=B. Fictorian !omen
!riters
)roject. 4d. )erry !illett. Apr. 9NN>. +ndiana H. @M Apr. 9NN> Shttp#--www.indiana.
edu-Uletrs-vwwp-nesbit-ballsoc.htmlT.
)oem
Desbit, 4dith. &6arching 1ong.& Aallads and Cyrics of 1ocialism. Condon, 9N=B.
Fictorian
!omen !riters )roject. 4d. )erry !illett. Apr. 9NN>. +ndiana H. @M Apr. 9NN>
Shttp#--www.indiana.edu-Uletrs-vwwp-nesbit-ballsoc.htmlVpNT.
Article in a 2eference Iatabase
&0resco.& Aritannica .nline. Fers. N>.9.9. 6ar. 9NN>. 4ncyclopaedia Aritannica. @N
6ar. 9NN>
Shttp#--www.eb.com#9B=T.
Article in a Kournal
0lannagan, 2oy. &2efections on 6ilton and Ariosto.& 4arly 6odern Citerary
1tudies @.:
$9NNM%# 9M pars. @@ 0eb. 9NN> Shttp#--unixg.ubc.ca#>==9-=-e8sources-emls-=@8:-
fanmilt.htmlT.
Article in a 6aga'ine
Candsburg, 1teven 4. &!ho 1hall +nherit the 4arth*& 1late 9 6ay 9NN>. @ 6ay
9NN>
Shttp#--www.slate.com-4conomics-N>8=;8=9-4conomics.aspT.
!ork from a 1ubscription 1ervice
Goret', Gene. &4conomic Trends# Hh8.h, !arm !ater.& Ausiness !eek @9 Kuly
9NN># @@.
4lectric Cib. 1am Aarlow /igh 1chool Cib., Gresham, .2. 9> .ct. 9NN>
Shttp#--www.elibrary.com-T.
0ilm or Fideotape
6uch Ado about Dothing. Iir. Genneth Aranagh. !ith 4mma Thompson, Genneth
Aranagh,
Ien'el !ashington, 6ichael Geaton, and Geanu 2eeves. Goldwyn, 9NN:.
Through the !ire. Fideotape. Iir. Dina 2osenblum. Darr. 1usan 1arandon.
0ox-Corber /ome
Fideo, 9NN=.
2adio or Television )rogram
5oracao Arasileiro. !6A2, Aoston. 9 Aug. 9NN:. QThis .ld )yramid.R !ith 6ark
Cehner and 2oger /opkins. Dova. )A1. !GA/, Aoston. < Aug. 9NN:.
USEFUL A77REVIATIONS
The following is a key to some of the most common abbreviations you will
encounter
and possibly use in preparing your research paper#
dir. Qdirector,R used to identify the director of a lm or play.
ed., eds. Qeditor$s%R or Qedition,R used in the rst sense to identify the compiler
or compilers who also added notes, introductory statements, and the like.
e.g. exempli gratia $Catin% Qfor example,R always preceded and followed by
commas.
et al. et alii $Catin% Qand others,R used to refer to others involved in the writing of
a source without naming them.
i.e. id est $Catin% Qthat is,R Qin other words,R preceded and followed by commas.
narr. Qnarrator,R used to identify the narrator of a lm or sound recording.
p., pp. Qpage$s%R used before the number, means on page$s%( used after the
number, means merely Qnumber of pages.R
rev. Qreview,R used to indicate the item reviewed in a book or lm review.
7I7LIOGRAP,8
2ane! S. 'homas! Oxford Essential Guide to Writing! 3ar4le* 3oo4s! Ne5 6or4! (111
Derrida! 7ac8ues! Writing and Difference! Routled"e! %ondon! &0./
2ress! Nanc*! Beginnings, Middles and Ends! 9riters: Di"est 3oo4s! Cincinnati! Ohio! &00)
Di$ell! Ansen! ;lot! 9riters: Di"est 3oo4s! Cincinnati! Ohio! &0//
<illoc4s! =eor"e. Teaching writing as Reflective Practice! 'eachers Colle"e ;ress! &00,.
3ean! 7ohn C.! Engaging deas! The Professor"s Guide to ntegrating Writing, #ritical
Thin$ing, and %ctive &earning in the #lassroo', (11&.
>ul5iler! 'o$*! and Art 6oun"! eds. Progra's that Wor$! Models and Methods for Writing
%cross the #urriculu', &001.
<erteis! #ileen ?. and 9. Alan 9ri"ht! eds. &earning Through Writing! % #o'(endiu' of
%ssign'ents and Techni)ues! (nd ed! (11&.