22 Ec Lab Master Manual 14

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page1of73
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering Swarnandhra college of Engineering & Technology
OBJECTIVE

This lab is very important to the EEE engineering students, to know the practical
behaviorofbothpassiveandactivesourceselements.Thestudentsaredirectinteractwith
theactiveandpassiveelements/sourcesandthestudentscangaintheknowledgeabout
the voltage drops, branch currents and power calculations. For different circuits likes RLC
circuits, theorems, resonance, open circuit and short circuit parameters with both the
circuits (AC & DC). After completion of the lab the students are in a position to do the
design of a given circuits and calculations like voltage, currents and they can prove the
practicalandtheoreticalresultsaresame.ThislabalsousefulforthestudentsofEEE,ECE,
MECH&CIVIL.
ELEMENTNAME SYMBOL
RESISTOR
VARIABLERESISTOR
INDUCTOR
CAPACITOR
VARIABLECAPACITOR
DCSOURCE
ACSOURCE
AMMETER

A



Expt. No: 01

Date:
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THEVENINS AND
NORTONS THEOREMS
AIM:
To determine Thevenins & Nortons equivalent circuit and verify the
same theorems for the given circuit where V
1
= 15 Volts; V
2
= 10 Volts;
R
1
=1K; R
2
= 2 K; R
3
= 3 K.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY:
THEVENINS THEOREM STATEMENT:

Thevenins theorem states that any two
terminal linear network having number of voltage,
current sources and resistance can be replaced by a
simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage
source in series with a resistance ,where the value of
the voltage source is equal to the open circuit voltage
across the two terminals of the network, and
resistance is equal to the equivalent resistance
measured between the terminals with all the energy
sources are replaced by their internal resistances.

CIRCUITDIAGRAM: THEVENINSEQUIVALENTCIRCUIT:

+
-
Sl.
No.
Particulars Range &Type Quantity
1 Circuit Board - 1
2 Ammeter 0-200 mA, MC 1
3 Voltmeter 0 30 V,MC 1
4 Multi Meter digital 1
5 Regulated Power Supply 0 - 30 V 1
6 Patch Cords - 10

STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE:

STEP I:
To find the current through the load resistance R
L
divide the network
in to two parts A and B by separating the R
L
from the original network.
STEP II:
FINDV
O.C.
V
O.C.
=V
th
=
1
15
R
V
+
2
10
R
V
=0
=
1000
15 V
+
2000
10 V
=0
=V
|
.
|
\
|
+
2000
1
1000
1
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
2000
10
1000
15

=3V=40 V=
3
40
=13.33V V
th
=13.33V
STEP III:
FINDR
Th.
Replace all the current sources,
voltagesourceswithopencircuitandshort
circuitrespectively.
R
th
=
2 1
2 1
R R
R R
+
=
2 1
2 1
+
X
=0.667K
STEP IV:
THEVENINSEQUIVALENTCIRCUIT:
Now, we can replace the network in to Thevenins equivalent circuit as shown in

figurebelow.

I
L
=
L th
th
R R
V
+
=
( )
3
10 3 667 . 0
33 . 13
X +
=3.64X10
3
A
Therefore V
th
=13.33V
R
th
=0.667K
I
L
=3.64mA
PROCEDURE:
1. Connectionsaremadeasperthecircuitdiagram.
2. Measuretheopencircuitvoltageacrosstheloadterminals.
3. Measure the equivalent resistance (Rth) of the circuit looking form the load
terminals.
4. Fromtheequivalentcircuitdiagram,calculatethevalueofloadcurrent.
Sl.No. DESCRIPTION THEORITICAL PRACTICAL

1. V
Th
(V
O.C.
) 13.33V
2. R
Th
0.667K
3. I
L
3.64mA
RESULT:
Thevenins Theorem is verified since the practical values are same with the
theoreticalvalues.

NORTONS THEOREM STATEMENT:

Nortons theorem states that any two
terminal linear network having number of voltage,
current sources and resistance can be replaced by
a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single
current source in parallel with a resistance ,where
the value of the current source is equal to the
current flowing through the short circuit between
the two terminals of the network, and resistance
is equal to the equivalent resistance measured
between the terminals with all the energy sources
are replaced by their internal resistances.

CIRCUITDIAGRAM: NORTONSEQUIVALENTCIRCUIT:
STEP I:
THEORITICALCALCULATIONSFORI
N
:
DividethenetworkintotwopartsAandB.

STEP II:
CalculationsforI
N
(Isc):
ApplyKVLtoloopABEFA
1000I
1
15=0 I
1
=
1000
15
=15X10
3
A
ApplyKVLtoloopBCDEB
2000I
2
+10=0 I
2
=
2000
10
=5X10
3
A
I
SC
=I
N
=I
1
I
2
=15X10
3
(5X10
3
)=20mA


STEP III:
CALCULATIONSFORR
N
:
Replace the current sources and
voltage sources with its equivalents and find
theReqattheterminalsBE
R
eq
=R
N
=
2 1
2 1
R R
R R
+

=
3 3
3 3
10 2 10 1
10 2 10 1
X X
X X X
+
=0.667K
R
N
=667

STEP III:
CALCULATIONSFORI
L
:
Calculation for IL: connect the current
source IN< Nortons resistance RN, and load
resistanceRLinparallel
I
L
=I
N
X
L N
N
R R
R
+
=20X10
3
x
3
10 3 667
667
X +

=3.64X10
3
AI
L
=3.64mA

I
N
=20mA; R
N
=667 I
L
=3.64mA
TABULARFORM:
Sl.No. DESCRIPTION THEORITICAL PRACTICAL
1.
2.
3.
I
SC
(I
N
)
R
N
I
L

PROCEDURE:
2. Measuretheshortcircuitcurrentflowsthroughtheloadterminals.(ISC)
3. Measuretheequivalentresistanceofthecircuitlookingformtheloadterminals.
4. From the Nortons equivalent circuit diagram and from the measured values,
calculatethecurrentflowsthroughtheload.
RESULT:
Nortons theorem is verified since the practical values are equal to the theoretical
values.



Viva Voce Questions:

(a) For Thevinins Theorem:

1. Statement of Thevinins theorem.
2. Applications of Thevinins theorem.
3. Define electric circuit.
4. Define electric network.
5. Define energy.
6. Define electric current.
7. Define resistance.
8. Define inductance.
9. Define capacitance.
10. Five coulombs of charge flow past a given point in a wire in 2 sec.
how many amps of current is flowing?

(b) For Nortons Theorem:

1. Statement of Nortons Theorem.
2. Applications of Nortons Theorem.
3. Define EMF.
4. Define MMF.
5. Define potential difference.
6. Define current density.
7. Define specific resistance.
8. Define conductivity of a material.
9. What is positive temperature coefficient?
10. What is negative temperature coefficient?


Expt. No: 02
Date:
VERIFICATION OF SUPER POSITION THEOREM AND
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
Aim: To verify superposition theorem and maximum power transfer
theorem with resistive loads under DC excitation for the given circuit where
V
1
= 5 Volts; V
2
= 5 Volts; R1= 2 K; R2= 3 k; R3 = 1 k
Apparatus Required:
Sl. No. Particulars Range Type Quantity
1 Circuit Board WB-102 1
2 Ammeter (0 - 200) mA MC 1
3 Voltmeter (0 - 30) V MC 1
4 Ammeter (0 - 200) ma MC 1
5 Voltmeter (0 - 30) V MC 1
6 Multi Meter Digital 1
7 Resistances 1K, 2K, 3K 1
8 Regulated Power Supply 0 - 30 V DUAL 1
9 Signal generator 1
10 Patch Cords 6
CIRCUITDIAGRAM:
STATEMENT:
The Superposition theorem states that in any linear bilateral network containing
two or more sources, the response in any element is equal to the algebraic sum of the
responses caused by individual sources acting alone, while the other sources are non
operative; that is, while considering the effects of individual sources, other ideal voltage
sources and ideal current sources in the network are replaced by short circuit and open
circuitacrosstheirterminals.Thistheoremisvalidonlyforlinearsystems.Powercannotbe
determinedbysuperposition,sincetherelationbetweenthepowerandcurrentorvoltage
arenonlinear.

THEORY:
TheprincipleofSuperpositionisacombinationofadditivitypropertyandhomogeneity
property.Thepropertyofadditivitysaysthattheresponseinacircuitduetono.ofsources
isgivenbythesumoftheresponseduetoindividualsourcesactingalone.Thepropertyof
Homogeneitysaysthatifallthesourcesmultipliedbyaconstantthentheresponseisalso
multipliedbythesameconstant.
TheresponsesthatcanbedeterminedbySuperpositiontheoremarelistedbelow:
1. Currentinresistance,inductanceandcapacitance.
2. Voltageacrossresistance,inductanceandcapacitance.
3. Currentdeliveredbytheindependentvoltagesources.
4. Voltageacrossindependentcurrentsources.
5. Voltageandcurrentoflineardependentsources.
While calculating the response due to individual sources all other sources are made
inactive. Therefore, while calculating the response due to one source, all other voltage
sourcesandcurrentsourcesarereplacedbyshortcircuitandopencircuitrespectively
THEORITICALCALCULATIONS:
ApplyKCLtonode1
2
5 V
+
1
V
+ =0
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
3
1
1
2
1
V =
2
5
+
3
5
|
.
|
\
| + +
6
2 6 3
V =
6
10 15 +

11
25
= V =2.273V
3
1
10 2
5
X
V
I

= =
3
10 2
5 273 . 2
X
=1.364mA
3
2
10 3
5
X
V
I

= =
3
10 3
5 273 . 2
X
=0.909mA
3
3
R
V
I = =
3
10 1
273 . 2
X
=2.273mA
Negative sign represents the current directions are opposite to the conventional
currentdirectionandthecurrentvaluesarethefinalvalueswhenboththevoltagesources
connectedinthecircuit.
The current values in each branch when the individual voltage source acting alone
andothervoltagesourcereplacedbythecurrentsourceisgivenbelow
STEPI:V
1
SOURCEACTINGALONE:
WhenthevoltagesourceV
1
actingaloneandthe
othersourcesV
1
replacedbythezerointernal
resistance;thecurrentvaluesindifferent
branchesaregivenbelow.
R
eq
=R
1
+R
2
||R
3
=2+
1 3
1 3
+
X
=2.75K.
3
5 V

I=I
1
|
=
eq
R
V
1
=
3
10 75 . 2
5
X
=1.82mA.
I
2
|
=
3 2
3
|
1
R R
XR I
+
=1.82X10
3
X
3
3
10 ) 3 1 (
10 1
X
X
+
=0.455mA.
I
3
|
=
3 2
2
|
1
R R
XR I
+
=1.82X10
3
X
3
3
10 ) 3 1 (
10 3
X
X
+
=1.365mA.
STEPII:
V
2
SOURCEACTINGALONE:
When the voltage source V
2
acting
aloneandtheothersourcesV
1
replacedbythe
zero internal resistance; the current values in
differentbranchesaregivenbelow.
R
eq
=R
2
+R
1
||R
3
=3+
1 2
1 2
+
X
=3.667K.
I=I
2
||
=
eq
R
V
2
=
3
10 667 . 3
5
X
=1.364mA.
I
1
||
=
3 2
3
||
2
R R
XR I
+
=1.364X10
3
X
3
3
10 ) 2 1 (
10 1
X
X
+
=0.455mA.
I
3
||
=
3 2
1
||
2
R R
XR I
+
=1.364X10
3
X
3
3
10 ) 2 1 (
10 2
X
X
+
=0.909mA.
I
1
=I
1
|
I
1
||
=1.820.455=1.364mA
I
2
=I
2
||
I
2
|
=1.3640.455=0.909mA
I
3
=I
3
|
+I
3
||
=1.365+0.909=2.274mA
Bytheobservationthealgebraicsumoftheresponsesareequaltotheresponses
whenboththevoltagesourcesactingsimultaneously.Hencethesuperpositiontheoremis
verified.
PROCEDURE:
1. Maketheconnectionsasperthecircuitdiagramwhilethetwovoltagesources
actingsimultaneously.
2. Notedownthevaluesofcurrentsineachbranch.
3. Replaceonevoltagesourcebytheinternalresistanceandnotedownthecurrent
valuesineachbranchwhiletheothervoltagesourceactingalone.
4. RepeatthesamewhileplacingV
2
inthecircuitandtheothersourceV
1
replacedby
theshortcircuit.

TABULARFORM:
Whenboththevoltagesourcesactinginthecircuit.
DESCRIPTION I
1
(mA) I
2
(mA) I
3
(mA)
Theoretical
Practical

1
isactingalone
DESCRIPTION I
1
1
(mA) I
1
2
(mA) I
1
3
(mA)
Theoretical
Practical

2
actingalone
DESCRIPTION I
11
1
(mA) I
11
2
(mA) I
11
3
(mA)
Theoretical
Practical


MAXIMUMPOWERTRANSFERTHEOREM
AIM: To verify Maximum power transfer theorem on D.C and on A.C with resistive and
reactiveloads.
APPARATUS:
Sl.
No
DESCRIPTION SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
1. Transistorizedpowersupply(T.P.S) (030)V 1
2. Signalgenerator 1
3. DecadeResistanceBox(D.R.B) 3
4. DecadeInductanceBox(D.I.B.) 1
5. DecadeCapacitanceBox(D.C.B.) 1
6. Multimeter Digital 1
7. BreadBoard 1
8. Connectingprobes L.S.
CIRCUITDIARAM:
STATEMENT FOR RESISTIVE LOAD:

The maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum
power is delivered from a source to its load when the load resistance is
equal to the source resistance.
EXPLANATION:
A variable resistance RL is connected to a D.C. source network as
shown in figure 5.2 (a) while figure 5.2 (b) represents the Thevenin voltage
V0 and Thevenin resistance Rth of the source network.

ThemainaimistodeterminethevalueofRLsuchthatitreceivesmaximumpower
fromtheD.C.source.
WithreferencetothefigureI=
) (
0
L th
R R
V
+

Whilethepowerdeliveredtotheresistiveloadis
P
L
=I
2
R
L
= X
R R
V
L th
2
0
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
R
L
P
L
can be maximized by varying RL and hence, maximum power can be delivered
when 0 =
L
L
dR
dP
However,
L
L
dR
dP
=
( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( )
(
+ +
+
2 2
0
2
0
2
2
2
1
L th
L
L L
L
L th
L th
R R
dR
d
R V R V
dR
d
R R
R R
=
( ) | |
4
1
L th
R R +
( ) ( ) | |
L th L L th
R R X R V V R R + + 2
2
0
2
0
2
=
( )( ) | |
( )
4
2
0
2
L th
L L th L th
R R
R R R R R V
+
+ +
=
( )
( )
3
2
0
L th
L th
R R
R R V
+

Finally
( )
( )
3
2
0
L th
L th
R R
R R V
+

=0
whichgivesR
th
R
L
=0 (or)R
th
=R
L
Hence, it has been proved that power transfer from a D.C. source network to a
resistive network is maximum when the internal resistance of the D.C. source network is
equaltotheloadresistance.
P
max
=
( )
2
2
0
L th
L
R R
R V
+
=
( )
2
2
0
2
th
th
R
R V
=
th
R
V
4
2
0
Thisisthepowerconsumedbytheload.
THEORETICALCALCULATIONS:
STEP1:
Remove the load resistance and find
Thevenins Resistance (R
Th
) of the source
network looking through open circuited load
terminals.
R
Th
=
3 1
3 1
+
X
+2=2.75K
STEP2:
As per the maximum power transfer theorem, this R
Th
is the load resistance of the
networki.e.RL=R
Th
thatallowsmaximumpowertransfer

RL=R
Th
=2.75K
STEP 3:
Find the Thevenins voltage V
0
acrosstheopencircuitedterminals
V
o.c.
=V
AB
=V
th
=I
3
R
R
eq
=1+3=4K
I=
eq
R
V
=
3
10 4
10
X
=2.25X10
3
A
I
3
=2.5mA
V
Th
=2.5X10
3
X3X10
3
=7.5V

STEP4:
Maximumpowertransferisgivenby
th
R
V
4
2
0
P
max
=
3
2
10 75 . 2 4
5 . 7
X X
=5.11X10
3
W
R
L
<R
th
=2K
P=
( )
2
2
0
L th
L
R R
R V
+
=
( ) | |
2
3
3 2
10 2 75 . 2
10 2 5 . 7
+
X X
=4.99X10
3
W=4.99mW
R
L
>R
th
=3.5K
P=
( )
2
2
0
L th
L
R R
R V
+
=
( ) | |
2
3
3 2
10 5 . 3 75 . 2
10 5 . 3 5 . 7
+
X X
=5.04X10
3
W=5.04mW
PROCEDUREforD.C.&A.C.:
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram shown in figure.5
2. Adjust the RPS
1
and RPS
2
for the value of Voltage sources V
1
&V
2
given
in the problem and note down the voltmeter reading
4. Measure the resistance value by multimeter and note down the reading
6. Adjust R
L
= R
s
for getting maximum power, set the RPS
1
for the value
of V
S
that has found out in step 2, and note down the ammeter reading
and find the power.
7. Now adjust R
L
< R
s
, note down the ammeter reading and find the
power.
8. Now adjust R
L
> R
s
, again note down the ammeter reading and find the
power.
9. Draw the graph between Power and load current and verify where the
maximum power is obtaining in the graph.

MODELGRAPH.
MAXIMUMPOWERTRANSFERTHEOREMforA.C.CIRCUITS:
CIRCUITDIAGRAM:

STATEMENT:
A load impedance being connected to a linear network receives maximum power,
when the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of the internal impedance of
theactivenetworkasseenfromtheloadterminals.
EXPLANATION:
TheactivelinearnetworktowhichtheloadisconnectedisThevenisedintoasingle
voltagesourceVocinserieswithaninternalimpedanceZ
Th
withrespecttoloadterminals
asshowninabovefigure.

ThenthepowertransferredtotheloadisP
L
=I
L
2
R
L
P
L
=
( ) ( ) | |
2
2 2
2
0
L th L th
L C
X X R R
R V
+ + +
=0
AssumingthatonlyXLisvariableandRLisfixedformaximumpower
L
L
dX
dP
=0
L
L
dX
dP
=
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
2
2 2
2
2
L th L th
L th L OC
X X R R
X X R V
+ + +
+
=0
HenceX
L
=X
th
(2)
NowtomaximizeP
L
further,letR
L
alsobevariedsothat
L
L
dR
dP
=0
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
2
2 2
2 2 2
2
L th L th
L th L L th L th OC
X X R R
R R R X X R R V
+ + +
+ + + +
i.e.= ( )
2
L th
R R + ( ) ( )
2
2
L th L th L
X X R R R + + + =0(3)
Substitutingtheequation(2)inequation(3)
( )( )
L th L th
R R R R + =0
R
th
2
+R
L
2
=0 R
L
=R
th
Therefore for the power transferred to the load is maximum in which R
L
and X
L
are both
variable
Z
L
=R
th
jX
th
conjugateofZ
th
-
=
th L
Z Z

ThemaximumpowertransferredtotheloadunderthisconditionisP
max
=
( )
2
2
2
th
L OC
R
R V
P
max
=
th
OC
R
V
4
2
(R
L
=R
th
)
ThisisindependentofX
th
To find Zth open the terminals of load and determine the resistance looking form
theterminals.


R=1000
X
C
=
fC H 2
1
=
6
10 47 50 2
1
H X X X
=67.73
Z
th
=
2 2
C
X R +
Z
th
=
2 2
63 . 67 1000 + =1002.3
V
th
istheopencircuitvoltage=5V
P
max
=
( )
2
2
2
th
th OC
R
R V
=
th
OC
R
V
4
2
=
1000 4
5
2
X
=6.25mW
TABUALRFORMforD.C.INPUT:
R
th
=2.75K, P
max
=5.11mW
Sl.NO. RL() Voc(V) POWER(mW)

ForA.C.INPUT:
R
th
=1K, P
max
=6.25mW
Sl.NO. RL() Voc(V) POWER(mW)

RESULT:Maximumpowertransfertheoremisverified.



Viva voce Questions:

1. Statement of Superposition theorem.
2. Applications of Superposition theorem.
3. Define RMS value of Complex wave.
4. What is the expression for RMS value of complex wave?
5. What is meant by Harmonic components?
6. What is a linear element? give few examples.
7. What is a Nonlinear element? give few examples.
8. What is an ideal voltage source?
9. What is an ideal current source?
10. Super position theorem is valid for ______


Expt. No: 03

Date:
VERIFICATION OF COMPENSATION THEOREM
AIM:
To verify compensation theorem.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sl. No. Apparatus required Specification Quantity
1. T.P.S (0-30) V 1
2. Ammeter (0-200) mA 1
3. Resistor 1 1
4. Resistor 2.2 k 1
5. Resistor 500 1

STATEMENT:
It states that any element in the linear bidirectional network, may be
replaced by a voltage source of magnitude equal to the current passing
through the element multiplied by the value of the element, provided the
currents and voltages in other parts of the circuit remains unaltered .
THEORY:
STATEMENT:
If the impedance Z of a branch in a network in which a current I
flows is changed by a finite amount Z, then the change in the currents in
all other branches of the network may be calculated by inserting a voltage
source of -IZ into that branch with all other voltage sources replaced by
their internal impedances.
This theorem is useful in finding the changes in current or voltage
when the value of resistance is changed in the circuit. Consider the network
containing a resistance R shown in figure 1. A small change in resistance R
as shown in figure 2, causes a change in current in all branches. This
current increment in other branches is equal to the current produced by
the voltage source of voltage IR which is placed in series with altered
resistance as shown in figure 3.

I
R
N.W
Fig(1)
R
I
R
N.W
Fig(2)
IR
R
R
N.W
Fig(3)


Observations:

Sl. No. Description Theoretical Practical
1

2

3

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

I
1
= 2mA

I
2
= 0.421mA

I
3
= 1.578mA

R+R=2K
I
2
I
3
=I
1
I
2
I
1
A
CircuitdiagramsforCompensationtheorem
1K
O 2K
O 1K O 3K 10V
(0200)mA
+

+
O
A
1K O
2K
O
1K
O 3K
(0200)mA
+
2V
+
R
R
R) (R A +
O
A
1K O
2K
O 2K
O
3
10V
(0200)mA
+

+
Figure 4
Figure 5
1KO
O

V=I
1
*
R
Figure 6

Theoretical calculations :

Step1: Find the current in the
resistor that will be changed (i.e.,
R):

( )
( )
2000 1000 3000
1000 2500 2.5
2000 1000 3000
eq
R K
| | +
= + = O= O
|
+ +
\ .

10
4
2500
T
I mA = =
Applying current divide rule, we get
( )
3
1
3000
(4 10 ) 2
(2000 1000) 3000
I mA
= =
+ +

I
1
= 2 mA
Step2: Find the changing current
in the changed resistor(ie., R+R)
by applying Compensation
theorem:

I
2
= 0.421 mA
According to theorem first we remove
existing source and connect a
compensating voltage source V=I
1
xR =
(2x10
-3
) x 1000 = 2 V, along with the
changed resistor as shown in figure and
find the current.
Now for finding current through R+R, first
find the total resistance as
1000 3000
2000 1000 1000 4750 4.7
1000 3000
eq
R K
| |
= + + + = O= O
|
+
\ .

2
2
0.421
4700
T
I I mA = = =
Step3: Find the changing current
in the changed resistor(ie., R+R):
I
3
= 1.57 mA
( )
( )
2000 2000 3000
1000 2714 2.71
2000 2000 3000
eq
R K
| | +
= + = O= O
|
+ +
\ .

10
3.68
2714
T
I mA = =
Applying current divide rule, we get
( )
3
3
3000
(4 10 ) 1.57
(2000 2000) 3000
I mA
= =
+ +

Step4: Verify the result:

I
3
= I
1
-I
2

Therefore theorem is verified.

Step4: Verifying the result:

I
3
= I
1
-I
2
= (2x10
-3
) (0.421x10
-3
)
= 1.579 mA = I
3
(obtained)


PROCEDURE:

1) Connect the circuit diagram as shown in fig4.
2) Give the rated supply to the circuit through TPS and note down the
ammeter reading and say this current be I
1
.
3) Now connect the circuit diagram with the changed resistor and short
circuiting the voltage source as shown in fig5, giving the
compensation voltage such that
1
V I R = A and note down the
ammeter reading, say this current be I
2
.
4) Now connect the circuit with the changed resistor as shown in fig6,
give the rated voltage and note down the ammeter reading, say this
current be I
3
.
5) Now verify that I
3
= I
1
I
2

RESULT:

Hence Compensation theorem is verified for the given circuit both
theoretically and practically.




1. Statement of Compensation theorem.
2. What are the applications of Compensation theorem?
3. What is the usefulness of this theorem?
4. What is a unilateral element? Give few examples.
5. What is a bilateral element? Give few examples.
6. What are the limitations of Compensation theorem?
7. What is a lumped element?
8. What is a distributed element?
9. Define Ohms law & what are its limitations?
10. Define resistivity.


Expt. No: 04

Date:

VERIFICATION OF RECIPROCITY AND MILLMANS THEOREMS
AIM:
a) To verify Reciprocity Theorem for the given circuit.
b) To verify Millmans Theorem.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No DESCRIPTION SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
1 T.P.S (0 - 30) V 1
2 Resistance 560O 2
3 Resistance 1kO 3
4 Resistance 2kO 1
5 Resistance 3kO 2
6 Resistance 3.3 k 1
7 Resistance 2.2 k 1
8 Ammeter (0-200) mA 1
9 Bread board WB-102 1
10 Multimeter digital 1
11 Connecting wires - L.S.

(A) STATEMENT-RECIPROCITY THEOREM:

In any linear bilateral network, if a single voltage source V
a
in
branch a produces a current I
b
in branch b ,then if voltage source V
a

is removed and inserted in branch b will produce a current I
a
in
branch a. The ratio of excitation to response is same for the two
conditions mentioned above

Figure 5
NW
NW

CIRCUITDIAGRAM
Consider the network shown in figure below. AA

1
denotes the input
terminals and BB
1
denotes output terminals. The application voltage V
across AA
1
produces current I at BB
1
. Now if the position of the source is
change from AA
1
to BB
1
the response will be at AA1. According to
Reciprocity theorem the ratio of input to response should be same in both
the cases
When the excitation is given at the terminals AA
1
the response at BB
1

is given below
R
6
=R
3
||R
5
=
1000 560
1000 560
+
X
=358.97
R
7
=R
2
+R
6
=3000+358.97=3358.97

R
8
= R
7
| | R
4
=
97 . 4358
1000 97 . 3358 X
= 770.59
R
9
=R
eq
=R
8
+R
1
=770.59+560=1.33X
10
3
I=
eq
R
V
=I
1
=
3
10 33 . 1
10
X
=7.52mA
I
2
=IX
7 4
4
R R
R
+
=7.52X10
3
X
1560
10 1
3
X
=1.73mA
I
3
=I
2
X
3 5
5
R R
R
+
=1.73X10
3
X
1560
10 1
3
X
=1.11mA
For10Vexcitationtheresponseis1.11mA.
IftheexcitationischangedfromAA
1
toBB
1
terminalstheresponseatAA
1
isgivenbelow
R
6
=R
1
||R
4
=
1560
1000 560X
=358.97; R
7
=R
6
+R
2
=3000+358.97=3358.97
R
8
=R
7
||R
5
=
97 . 4358
1000 97 . 3358 X
=770.59
R
9
=R
eq
=R
8
+R
3
=770.59+560=1.33X10
3
I=
eq
R
V
=I
3
=
3
10 33 . 1
10
X
=7.52mA
I
2
=I
3
X
2 5
5
R R
R
+
=7.52X10
3
X
97 . 4358
10 1
3
X
=1.73mA
I
3
=I
2
X
1 4
4
R R
R
+
=1.73X10
3
X
1560
10 1
3
X
=1.11mA
For10VexcitationatBB
1
theresponseis1.11mAattheterminalsAA
1
.
From the calculation, the ratio of the excitation to response is same as in the
previous condition (when excitation is at AA
1
and the response is at BB
1
). Hence the
reciprocitytheoremisverified.
PROCEDURE:
1. Designthecircuitandmaketheconnectionsasperthecircuitdiagram.
2. NotedownthereadingofammeterattheterminalsBB
1
whilegivingtheexcitation
of10VattheterminalsAA
1
.
3. Note down the ammeter reading by interchanging the terminals of voltage source
andammeter.
4. Verifytheresultwiththeoreticallycalculatedvalues.

TABULARFORM:
Sl.
No
Condition
Excitation
Response
Theoretical Practical
1.
2.
ExcitationatAA
1
&ResponseatBB
1
ExcitationatBB
1
&ResponseatBB
1
10V
10V
1.11mA
1.11mA
PROCEDURE:
1. Designthecircuitandmaketheconnectionsasperthecircuitdiagram.
2. NotedownthereadingofammeterattheterminalsBB
|
whilegivingtheexcitation
of10VattheterminalsAA
|
3. Notedowntheammeterreadingwhileinterchangingtheterminalsofvoltage
sourceandammeter
4. Verifytheresultwiththeoreticallydesignedvalues.
RESULT:
Reciprocity theorems is verified, since the practical values are approximately equal
tothetheoreticalvalues.
MILLMANS THEOREM:
STATEMENT:
Millmans theorem states that in any network if the voltage sources
V
1
,V
2
,V
3
.. V
n
in series with internal resistances R
1
,R
2
,R
3
R
n

respectively, are in parallel, then these sources may be replaced by a single
voltage source Vm in series with Rm.

Step I:

Consider given circuit:

Step II:
Now remove load resistance, as we want to find
current through R
3
, load resistor is R
3.

After removing R
3
as shown in fig.11, the circuit
looks as many branches, containing voltage
source and resistance in series, are connected
in parallel, there by we can obtain a single
branch containing a voltage source and
resistance in series by applying Millmans
theorem.

Fig.11

+
+
-
-

Step III: Obtaining Millmans equivalent circuit

as shown:
1
1
1
G
R
= &
2
2
1
G
R
= ;
1 2
1
m
R
G G
=
+
;
1 1 2 2
1 2
m
VG V G
V
G G
+
=
+
;

Fig.12
Step IV: Now connect the load
resistor ie., R
3
across the Millmanss
circuit as shown in Fig.13 and find
the load current as shown:

m
l
m l
V
I
R R
=
+

Verify this current by finding current
in R
3
of the original circuit by some
other method.

Fig.13
PRACTICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

(0-200) mA
=560
=3K =2.2K
R1
R3
A
R2
V2=10V
Rm
Vm
(0-200)mA
A
R3
Figure 14 (Direct method)
Figure 15 (Millmans equivalent circuit)
V1=20V

Observations:

Sl. No.
Theoretical load
current through
Millmans
equivalent circuit
Practical load
current through
Millmans
equivalent circuit
Practical load
current by
Direct Method
1 7.77 mA 7.8 mA 7.6 mA

Theoretical Calculations : For Millmans Thorem:

Step1: Given Circuit:

where
V
1
= 20 Volts;
V
2
=10 Volts;
R
1
=3K; R
2
=2.2K; R
3
=560

Step2: Remove load
resistance ie., R
3
:

Step2: Removing load resistance ie., R
3
:

As we want to find current through R
3
, that
resistor is the load resistor, therefore after
removing load resistor circuit obtained is
shown in the figure.
Step3: Find Millmans
equivalent circuit:

1
1
1 1
0.333
3000
G m
R
= = = &
2
2
1 1
0.454
2200
G m
R
= = = ;
( ) ( )
3 3
1 2
1 1
1270.64 1.27
0.333 10 0.454 10
m
R K
G G

= = = O= O
+ +

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
3
1 1 2 2
3 3
1 2
20 0.333 10 3 10 0.454 10
14.23
0.333 10 0.454 10
m
VG VG
V V
G G

+
+
= = =
+ +
V
m
=14.23V; R
m
=1.27K;
Step4: Connect load
resistor and find I
L
:

Connect R
3
across Millmans equivalent circuit
as show in figure and find the load current as
below:
+
+
-
-


14.23
7.77
1270 560
m
l
m l
V
I mA
R R
= = =
+ +

I
L
= 7.77 mA

PROCEDURE:
MILLMANS THEOREM:
1. Connect the circuit diagram for direct method as shown in figure 14,
give the rated voltage and note down the ammeter reading.
2. For connecting the Millmans equivalent circuit, obtain the Millmans
resistance by
1 2
1
m
R
G G
=
+
where
1 2
1 2
1 1
& G G
R R
= =
3. Now obtain the Millmans voltage by
1 1 2 2
1 2
m
V G V G
V
G G
+
=
+

4. Now connect the Millmans equivalent circuit as shown in Fig 15, give
the Millmans voltage through the TPS and note down the ammeter
reading.
5. Verify the currents obtained by direct method and Millmans
equivalent circuit and see that both the currents are equal.

RESULT:
Hence Reciprocity theorem is verified both theoretically and
practically. Also Millmans theorem is verified both theoretically and
practically.




1. Statement of Reciprocity theorem.
2. What is the limitation of Reciprocity theorem?
3. Statement of Millmans theorem.
4. What is the utility of Millmans theorem?
5. What are the applications of Reciprocity and Millmans theorems?
6. What is meant by active element? Give an example.
7. What is meant by passive element? Give an example.
8. Determine I using millmans theorem.

9. Define conductance.
10. What is the limitation of reciprocity theorem?

I
3
5 2
10V
20V

Expt. No: 05
Date:
DETERMINATION OF SELF, MUTUAL INDUCTANCE AND
COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
AIM:
To determine Self and Mutual inductance of a given transform and also
determine the coefficient of coupling.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sl. No. APPARATUS SPECIFICATIONS QUANTITY
1 Voltmeter (0-30)V 1
2 Ammeter (0-300)V 1
3 1- Booster Transformer (0-30)V,10A 1
4 1- Variac 230V/(0-270)V,10A 1
5 1- Transformer 230V/15V 1
6 Connecting wires L.S.

PROCEDURE:
CASE 1:
- Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in fig.1
and apply rated voltage to L.V. winding with the help of single
phase meter.
- Note down the readings of ammeter, voltmeter readings
1 2
V &E
and wattmeter readings
0
(W ) in tabular form.
- Calculate the lone loss current
C 0 0
0
0
1 0
0 1 0 0
I I cos
W
cos
VI
W VI cos
= C
C =
= C

Magnetizing current
2 2
m 0 C
(I ) I I = and
L m
E MI = e
L
m
E
M ....Henrys
I
=
e

1
LV
m
V
L
2 fI
=
t
Where
1
V is the applied voltage.
f 50HZ =
CASE 2:
- Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in fig. 2
and apply rated voltage to H.V. winding with the help of variac.
- Note down the readings of ammeter, voltmeter, and wattmeter.
- Calculate the magnetizing current
m
(I ) by applying the above
formula (case 1 step 3).

- Calculate the
2
HV
m
V
L
2 fI
=
t
H
- Now calculate the coefficient of coupling between two coils
HV LV
M
K
L L
=

THEORY:
The total flux linkage to current flowing through the circuit is called
self inductance and is given by

N
L
I
C
=
The mutual inductance between the two coils defined as the ratio of
flux linkage in first circuit due to current in second circuit to the current
flowing in the second circuit. Thus the inductance
12
M is given by
1 21 2 12
12
2 1
N N
M
I I
C C
= =
Their self inductances
1 11 2 22
1 2
1 2
N N
L ; L
I I
C C
= =
The flux linkage with the circuit 2 due to current in circuit 1 is denoted by
12
C .The flux C which is actually the part of the total flux produced by
current
1
(I ) in the circuit 1.Hence we can write
12 1 11
K C = C .similarly for the
flux
21 2 22
K C = C .
Rewriting the expressions for the mutual inductance
1 21 1 2 22
12 12
2 2
2 12 2 1 11
21 21
1 1
N N K
M M
I I
N N K
M M
I I
C C
= =
C C
= =

Let
21 12
M M M = =

2 1 2 1 2 11 22
12 21
1 2
N N K K
M M M
I I
C C
= =
2 2 11 1 22
1 2
1 1
N N
M K ( )K ( )
I I
C C
=

2
1 2 1 2
M K K L L =
Let
1 2
K K = K
1 2
M K L L =
1 2
M
K
L L
= Where K is coefficient of coupling.


Circuit Diagram:

Circuit diagram for finding L
LV
& M

Circuit diagram for finding L
HV
& M
Tabular Forms:
Case 1:
Sl.
No.
V
1
E
2
I
o1
W
o1
I
c1
I
m1
L
LV
M
1 115 230 1.1 44 0.3817 1.031 0.355 0.71
Case 2:
Sl.
No.
V
2
E
1
I
o2
W
o2
I
c2
I
m2
L
HV
M
1 230 115 0.55 44 0.191 0.515 1.421 0.71

Theoretical Calculations:
Case 1:

We know that
01 1 01 01
01
01
1 01
C1 01 01
W V I cos
W 44
cos 0.347
V I 115 1.1
I I cos 1.1 0.347 0.3817A
= C
C = = =
= C = =
As
2 2 2
01 1 1 c m
I I I = +
,
2 2 2 2
m1 01 C1
I I I 1.1 0.3817 1.031A = = =

LV
1 1
m1
l LV
1
LV
m1
V V
I
X 2 fL
V 115
L 0.355H
2 fI 2 50 1.031
= =
t
= = =
t t

Also
M
2 2
m1
l
2
m1
E E
I
X 2 fM
E 230
M 0.71H
2 fI 2 50 1.031
= =
t
= = =
t t

Case 2:

We know that
02 2 02 02
02
02
2 02
C 2 02 02
W V I cos
W 44
cos 0.347
V I 230 0.55
I I cos 0.55 0.347 0.191A
= C
C = = =
= C = =
As
2 2 2
02 2 2 c m
I I I = +
,
2 2 2 2
m2 02 C2
I I I 0.55 0.191 0.515A = = =

HV
2 2
m2
l HV
2
HV
m2
V V
I
X 2 fL
V 230
L 1.421H
2 fI 2 50 0.515
= =
t
= = =
t t

Also
M
1 1
m2
l
1
m2
E E
I
X 2 fM
E 115
M 0.71H
2 fI 2 50 0.515
= =
t
= = =
t t

Therefore Coefficient of Coupling is,
0.71
0.9996
0.355 1.421
LV HV
M
K
L L
= = =

RESULT:
Hence for the given transformer we have found the coefficient of
coupling between the primary and secondary coils by conducting suitable
experiments on it.




1. Define Self Inductance.
2. Define Mutual Inductance.
3. Define Coefficient of coupling.
4. What are the expressions for L, M and K?
5. State statically induced and dynamically induced emfs with
examples.
6. What is the maximum value for K?
7. What is an inductively coupled circuit? Give an example.
8. What is dot convention?
9. What is meant by time invariant element?
10. What is meant by time invariant element?


Expt. No.: 06
Date:
TWO PORT NETWORK (Z & Y PARAMETERS)
AIM:
To find the impedance (Z) and admittance (Y) parameters of a given
network.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sl.
No.
1 Transistorized Power Supply (0-30)V 1
2 Resistance 1kO 1
3 Resistance 2kO 1
4 Resistance 3kO 1
5 Ammeter (0 - 200) mA 1
6 Bread board WB - 102 1
CIRCUITDIAGRAM:
OPENCIRCUITSIMPEDANCEPARAMETERS:
TofindZ
11
,Z
21
whenI
2
=0i.e.,opencircuited TofindZ
12
,Z
22
whenI
1
=0i.e.,opencircuit
YPARAMETERS:
Port22
|
isShortcircuitedtofindY
11
,Y
21
, Port11
|
isShortcircuitedtofindY
21
,Y
22
,

THEORY:
A two port network is simply a network inside a
black box, and the network has only two pairs of
accessible terminals. A port is defined as any pair of
terminals into which energy is supplied, or from which
energy is withdrawn. Usually one pair represents the
input and the other represents the output. Such a
building block is very common in electronic systems,
transmissionanddistributionsystems.
Figure shows a two port network, or two terminal pair network, in which the four
terminals have been paired into ports 11
|
and 22
|
. The terminals together 11
|
together
constitute a port. Similarly the terminals 22
|
constitute another port. The voltage and
current assigned to each of the two ports. The voltage and current at the input terminals
areV
1
andI
1
whereasV
2
andI
2
arespecifiedattheoutputport.Itisalsoassumedthatthe
currentsI
1
andI
2
areenteringintothenetworkattheupperterminals1and2respectively.
The variables of the two port network are V
1
, V
2
and I
1
, I
2
. Two of these are dependent
variablestheothertwoareindependentvariables.
ZParameters:
TheZparametersofatwoportforthe
positive directions of voltages and currents may
be defined by expressing the port voltages V
1
andV
2
intermsofthecurrentsI
1
andI
2
.HereV
1
andV
2
aredependentvariablesandI
1
andI
2
are
independent variables. The voltage at port 11
|
is the response produced by the two currents I

1
andI
2
.
V
1
=Z
11
I
1
+Z
12
I
2
(1)
V
2
=Z
21
I
1
+Z
22
I
2
(2)
Z
11
,Z
12
,Z
21
,Z
22
arethenetworkfunctionsandarecalledimpedance(Z)parameters.
Theseparameterscanberepresentedbymatrices. [V]=[Z][I]
Thus
(
2
1
V
V
=
(
22 211
12 11
Z Z
Z Z
2
1
I
I
TheindividualZparametersforagivennetworkcanbedefinedbysettingeachport
currentisequaltozero,supposeport22
I
isleftopencircuitedthenI
2
=0
Z
11
=
1
1
I
V
atI
2
=0
Z
11
isthedrivingpointimpedanceatport11
|
withport22
|
open
circuited.Itiscalledtheopencircuitinputimpedance.
Z
21
=
1
2
I
V
atI
2
=0
Z
21
isthetransferimpedanceat11
|
withport22
|
opencircuited.Itis
alsocalledopencircuitforwardtransferimpedance.
Port11
I
isleftopencircuitedtomakeI
1
=0
Z
12
=
2
1
I
V
atI
1
=0
Z
12
isthetransferimpedanceatport22
|
withport11
|
opencircuited.
Itisalsocalledtheopencircuitreverseimpedance
Z
22
=
2
2
I
V
atI
1
=0
Z
22
isthedrivingpointimpedanceatport22
|
withport11
|
open
circuited.Itisalsocalledopencircuitoutputimpedance.

SHORTCIRCUITADMITTANCEPARAMETERS:
The Y parameters of a two port for the
positive directions of voltages and currents may be
defined by expressing the port currents I
1
and I
2
are
dependent variables and V
1
and V
2
are independent
variables. I
1
caused by the effect of two voltages V
1
andV
2.
I
1
=Y
11
V
1
+Y
12
V
2
andI
2
=Y
21
V
1
+Y
22
V
2
TheindividualYparametersforagivennetworkcanbedefinedbysettingeachport
voltagetozero.IfweletV
2
bezerobyshortcircuitingport22
|
then
Y
11
=
1
1
V
I
atV
2
=0
Y
11
isthedrivingpointadmittanceatport11
|
withport22
|
short
circuited.Itisalsocalledshortcircuitinputadmittance
Y
21
=
1
2
V
I
atV
2
=0
Y
21
isthetransferadmittanceatport11
|
withport22
|
shortcircuited.Itis
alsocalledshortcircuitforwardtransferadmittance
Port11
I
isshortcircuitedtomakeV
1
=0
Y
12
=
2
1
V
I
atV
1
=0
Y
12
isthetransferadmittanceatport22
|
withport11
I
shortcircuited.Itis
alsocalledshortcircuitreversetransferadmittance
Y
22
=
2
2
V
I
atV
1
=0
Y
22
isthedrivingpointadmittanceatport22
|
withport11
|
short
circuited.Itisalsocalledshortcircuitoutputadmittance.
ZPARAMETERS:
V
1
=Z
11
I
1
+Z
12
I
2
;V
2
=Z
21
I
1
+Z
22
I
2
WhenI
2
=0,i.e.22
I
isopencircuited.
eq
R
V
I
1
1
=
=
3
10 ) 1 3 (
10
X +
=2.5mA
V
2
=IX1X10
3
=2.5X10
3
X1X10
3
=2.5V
Z
11
=
1
1
I
V
atI
2
=0 =
3
10 5 . 2
10
X
=4K.
Z
21
=
1
2
I
V
atI
2
=0 =
3
10 5 . 2
5 . 2
X
=1K
TofindZ
12
andZ
22
letI
1
bezerobymakingport11
|
opencircuited.
eq
Z
V
I
2
2
= =
3
10 ) 1 2 (
10
X +
=3.33mA.
V
1
=I
2
XZ
3
=3.33X10
3
X1X10
3
V
1
=3.33V
Z
12
=
2
1
I
V
atI
1
=0 =
3
10 33 . 3
33 . 3
X
=1K
Z
22
=
2
2
I
V
atI
1
=0 =
3
10 33 . 3
10
X
=3K
Z
11
=4K , Z
12
=1K, Z
21
=1K, Z
22
=3K

YPARAMETERS:
I
1
=Y
11
V
1
+Y
12
V
2
;I
2
=Y
21
V
1
+Y
22
V
2
TofindthevaluesofY
11
andY
21
,letV
2
bezerobymakingshortcircuitatport22
|
R
eq
=3+2||1=3.667K.
I
1
=
eq
R
V
1
=
3
10 667 . 3
10
X
=2.73mA
I
2
=I
1
X
3 2
3
Z Z
Z
+
=2.73X10
3
X
3
3
10 3
10 1
X
X
=0.91mA
Y
11
=
1
1
V
I
atV
2
=0 =
10
10 73 . 2
3
X
=0.273mU
Y
21
=
1
2
V
I
atV
2
=0 =
10
10 91 . 0
3
X
=0.091mU
TocalculateY
12
andY
22
makeV
1
at1
1
|
portiszero.
Z
eq
=2+3||1=2.75K
eq
Z
V
I
2
2
=
=
3
10 75 . 2
10
X
=3.636mA
I
1
=I
2
X
3 1
3
Z Z
Z
+
=3.64X10
3
X
3
3
10 4
10 1
X
X
=0.91mA
Y
12
=
2
1
V
I
atV
1
=0 =
10
10 091 . 0
3
X
=0.091mU
Y
22
=
2
2
V
I
atV
1
=0 =
10
10 636 . 3
3
X
=0.364mU
Y
11
=0.273mU, Y12=0.091mU, Y21
=0.091mU, and Y
22
=0.364mU
TABULARFORMS:
ZPARAMETERS:
V
1
=10V,I
2
=0A(O.C) V
2
=10V,I
1
=0A(O.C)
Sl.
No.
Parameter Theoretical Practical
Sl.
No.
1 V
2
2.5V 1 V
1
3.33V
2 I
1
2.5mA 2 I
2
3.33mA
3 Z
11
=
I
1
I
1
4k 3 Z
12
=
I
1
I
2
1k
4 Z
21
I
2
I
1
1k 4 Z
22
I
2
I
2
3k

YPARAMETERS:
V
1
=10V,V
2
=0A(S.C) V
2
=10V,V
1
=0A(S.C)
Sl.
No.
Sl.
No.
1 I
1
2.73mA 1 I
2
3.63mA
2 I
2
0.91mA 2 I
1
0.91mA
3
11
=
I
1
I
1
0.273mU 3
12
=
I
1
I
2
0.091mU
4
21
=
I
2
I
1
0.091mU 4
22
=
I
2
I
2
0.364mU
PROCEDURE:
2. TofindthevaluesofZ
11,
Z
21,
opencircuitatport22
I
tomakeI
2
=0,andNotedown
thevaluesofI
1
andV
2
3. TofindthevaluesofZ
12
andZ
22,
makethecurrentI
1
=0byopencircuitingthe
terminalsofport11
I
andthenotedownthevaluesofI
2
andV
1
4. TofindtheYparameters,makingshortcircuitatport22
I
i.3.V
2
=0andnote
downthevaluesofI
1
andI
2
todetermineY
11
andY
21
parameters
5. Shortcircuitatport11
I
i.e.V
1
=0tofindthevaluesofY
12
andY
22
withthe
readingsofI
1
andI
2
.
6. FromtheobtainedreadingscalculateallZandYparametersandverifywith
Theoreticalvalues.
RESULT:
Opencircuitimpedance(Z)parametersandShortcircuit(Y)admittanceparameters
forthetwoportnetworkareverified.


1. Explain two port networks.
2. What are Z & Y parameters?
3. Why Z parameters for series impedance network does not exist?
4. Why Y parameters for parallel impedance network does not exist?
5. What are the applications of Two port networks?
6. Define port.
7. Define passive ports.
8. Define active ports.
9. What is the driving point impedance at port 1 with port 2 open
circuited for the given network.

10. What is the advantage of two port analysis?

2
1
2
1
1
1
3
2 1

Expt. No: 07
Date:
SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE
AIM:
To find the resonant frequency, band width and quality factor in
series and parallel circuits.

APPARATUS:
Sl. No. DESCRIPTION SPECIFICATION QUANTITY
1 Function Generator 1MHZ 1
2 Cathode ray Oscillator 20MHZ 1
3 Decade Resistance Box 1
4 Decade Inductance Box 1
5 Decade Capacitance Box 1
7 Bread board WB-102 1
8 Connecting wires L.S.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
SERIES RESONANCE:

PARALLEL RESONANCE:


THEORY:
SERIES RESONANCE:

RESONANT FREQUENCY:
In any electrical circuits, resonance is very important phenomenon.
In a series RLC circuits, the current lags behind or leads the applied voltage
depending upon the values of X
L
and X
C
. When X
L
> X
C
, the circuit is
predominantly inductive and the current lags behind the voltage and when
X
L
< X
C
, the current is predominantly capacitive and the current leads the
voltage. However if one of the parameters in RLC circuit is varied in such a
way that the current in the circuit is in phase with the applied voltage, then
the circuit is said to be (at resonance) resonating.
Total impedance in RLC series circuit is
Z = R + j(X
L
- X
C
) = R + j (L 1/C)
It is clear from the circuit that the current I = V/Z
In a series RLC circuit, series resonance occurs when X
L
=X
C
. The
frequency at which the resonance occurs is called the resonant frequency.
Since X
L
= X
C
the impedance in series RLC circuit is purely resistive at the
resonant frequency f
r
(X
L
= X
C
. i.e. L = 1/C)

2f
r
L =
C f
r
H 2
1

r
f
2
=
LC
2
4
1
H

r
f =
LC H 2
1

Where f
r
= Resonant frequency
At resonant frequency, the capacitive reactance is equal to inductive
reactance, and hence the impedance is minimum. Because of minimum
impedance, maximum current flows through the circuit, the current
variation with frequency is plotted.
BANDWIDTH:
The bandwidth of any system is the range
of frequencies for which the current on
voltage is equal to 70.7% of its value at
the resonant frequency and it is denoted
by band width.
Here the frequency f
1
is the
frequency at which the current is 0.707
times the current at resonant value and it
is called the Lower cut-off frequency.
The frequency f
2
is the frequency at
which the current is 0.707 times the
current at resonant value and is called
the Upper cut-off frequency.
The Bandwidth or B.W is defined
as the frequency difference between f
2

and f
1

Lower cut-off frequency
1
=
-
R
4nL

Upper cut-off frequency
2
=
+
R
4nL

Bandwidth =
2
-
1

QUALITY FACTOR:
It is known as figure of merit and is an indication of the quality of the
coil.
=
oL
R
or =
1
oCR
or =
]
r
(]
2
- ]
1
)

A higher value of Q results in smaller bandwidth and a lower value of
Q causes higher bandwidth.

CONDITIONS AT RESONANCE IN SERIES CIRCUIT:

1. The inductive and capacitive reactances are equal.
2. The net reactance is zero.
3. Impedance is minimum and is equal to Resistance.
4. The current is maximum and is equal to V/R.
5. The V and I are in phase and power factor is unity.

PARALLEL RESONANCE:
The parallel circuit consisting of energy storage elements (L and C)
behaves as a resistive network at resonance and the applied voltage and the
resulting current is in phase.
In parallel circuit, the net Susceptance is zero at resonance.
I
L
sin
L
= I
C
sin
C
=
v
_R
L
2
+X
L
2

X
L
_R
L
2
+X
L
2
=
v
_R
C
2
+X
C
2

X
C
_R
C
2
+X
C
2
=
X
L
R
L
2
+X
L
2
=
X
C
R
C
2
+X
C
2

Finally, Resonant frequency
=
1
2nLC
_
R
L
2
-
L
C
R
c-
2
L
C

When R
L =
R
C
, Resonant frequency
r
f =
LC H 2
1

CONDITIONS AT RESONANCE IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
1. The inductive and capacitive susceptances are equal.
2. The net susceptance is zero.
3. Admittance is minimum and is equal to Conductance.
4. The current is minimum at resonance.
5. The V and I are in phase and power factor is unity.

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:
SERIES RESONANCE:
r
f =
LC H 2
1
=
6 3
10 1 . 0 10 200 2
1

H X X X
= 1,125.39 Hz. = 1.125 k Hz.
Lower cut-off frequency
1
=
r
-
R
4nI

= 1,12S.S9 -
50
4n 200 10
-3
= 1,125.39 19.89 = 1105.5 Hz.
Upper cut-off frequency
2
=
r
+
R
4nI

= 1,12S.S9 +
50
4n 200 10
-3
= 1,125.39 + 19.89 = 1145.28 Hz.
Bandwidth =
2
-
1
= 1145.28 - 1105.5 = 39.78 Hz.
Quality factor =
1 2
f f
f
r
=
1125.39
1145.28-1105.5
= 28.29
PARALLEL RESONANCE:
In a parallel RLC circuit the resonant frequency,
=
1
2nLC
_
R
L
2
-
L
C
R
c-
2
L
C
,
When R
L
= R
C
, the Resonant frequency

is given by
r
f =
LC H 2
1

Resonant frequency,
=
1
2n50 10
-3
0.1 10
-6

= 2250.79 Hz., 2.25 k Hz.


MODEL GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:

SERIES RESONANCE:
- Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig.
- By varying the Input Frequency, note down the corresponding value
of current.
- Plot the graph between Frequency and current for the series circuit.
- Calculate the band width and quality factor to the circuit.
PARALLEL RESONANCE:
- Connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in fig.
- By varying the Input Frequency, note down the corresponding value
of current.
- Plot the graph between Frequency and current for the parallel circuit.
- Calculate the Resonant frequency for the circuit.
OBSERVATIONS:
SERIES RESONANCE

PARALLEL RESONANCE
Sl.
No.
Frequency
(kHz)
Current
(mA)
Sl.
No.
Frequency
(kHz)
Current
(mA)

RESULT:

Resonant Frequency, Bandwidth and Quality factor is calculated for
both Series and Parallel resonating Circuits.


VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by Resonance?
2. What is the condition for resonance in series RLC circuit?
3. Why the RLC series circuit is called Acceptor circuit and RLC
parallel circuit is called Rejecter circuit?
4. Define Q-factor and Bandwidth.
5. Expressions for frequency of Resonance in series and parallel RLC
circuits.
6. What is the total reactance of a series RLC circuit at resonance?
7. What is the phase angle of a series RLC circuit at resonance?
8. Define resonant frequency.
9. Give the expression for frequency at resonance in series RLC
circuit.
10. What is the power factor of series and parallel RLC resonant
circuit?

Expt. No.: 08
Date:
TRANSMISION & HYBRID PARAMETERS
AIM:
To find the Transmission and Hybrid parameters of a given network.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Sl.
No.
1 Transistorized Power Supply (0-30)V 1
2 Resistance 1kO 1
3 Resistance 2kO 1
4 Resistance 3kO 1
5 Ammeter (0 - 200) mA 1
6 Bread board WB - 102 1
CIRCUITDIAGRAMS
TRANSMISSIONPARAMETERS:
I
2
=0i.e.,outputportopencircuitedtofindA,C. V
2
=0i.e.,outputportshortcircuitedtofindB,D.
HYBRIDPARAMETERS:
V
2
=0,outputportshortcircuitedtofindh
11
,h
21
. I
1
=0,inputportopencircuitedtofindh
12
,h
22
.

THEORY:
Atwoportnetworkissimplyanetworkinsideablackbox,andthenetworkhasonly
two pairs of accessible terminals. A port is defined as any pair of terminals into which
energy is supplied, or from which energy is withdrawn. Usually one pair represents the
input and the other represents the output. Such a building block is very common in
electronicsystems,transmissionanddistributionsystems.
Figure shows a two port network, or two
terminal pair network, in which the four
terminals have been paired into ports 11
|
and22
|
.Theterminalstogether11
|
together
constitute a port. Similarly the terminals 22
|
constituteanotherport.
Thevoltageandcurrentassignedtoeachofthetwoports.Thevoltageandcurrent
attheinputterminalsareV
1
andI
1
whereasV
2
andI
2
arespecifiedattheoutputport.Itis
also assumed that the currents I
1
and I
2
are entering into the network at the upper
terminals 1 and 2 respectively. The variables of the two port network are V
1
, V
2
and I
1
, I
2
.
Twoofthesearedependentvariablestheothertwoareindependentvariables.
The Transmission parameters of a two port
forthepositivedirectionsofvoltagesandcurrents
may be defined by expressing the input port
variablesV
1
andI
1
intermsoftheoutputvariables
V
2
and I
2
. Here V
1
and I
1
are dependent variables
andV
2
andI
2
areindependentvariables.
I
1
= A I
2
-B I
2
(1)
I
1
= C I
2
- I
2
(2)
NegativesignindicatestheReversecurrentdirection.
Thus _
I
1
I
1
_ = j
A B
C
[ _
I
2
-I
2
_
Thematrixj
A B
C
[iscalledtheTransmissionmatrix
TheindividualA,Cparametersforagivennetworkcanbedefinedbysettingoutput
portcurrentisequaltozero,supposeport22
I
isleftopencircuitedthenI
2
=0
A =
I
1
I
2
_ ot I
2
= u
1
A
=
v
2
v
1
iscalledOpencircuitvoltagegain
C =
I
1
I
2
_ ot I
2
= u
1
C
=
v
2
I
1
= Z
21
istheopencircuitTransferimpedance.
Outputport22
I
2
=0
B =
I
1
-I
2
_ ot I
2
= u
1
B
=
-I
2
v
1
=
21
istheShortcircuitTransferAdmittance
=
I
1
-I
2
_ ot I
2
= u
1
=
I
2
I
1
= o
21
ShortcircuitCurrentgain

HYBRIDPARAMETERS:
TheHybridparametersofatwoportforthe
positivedirectionsofvoltagesandcurrentsmaybe
definedbyexpressingthevoltageattheinputport
V
1
andthecurrentattheoutputportI
2
intermsof
I
1
and V
2
. Here V
1
and I
2
are dependent variables
andI
1
andV
2
areindependentvariables.
I
1
= b
11
I
1
+b
12
I
2
(1)
I
2
= b
21
I
1
+b
22
I
2
(2)
Thus _
I
1
I
2
_ = _
b
11
b
12
b
21
b
22
_ _
I
1
I
2
_
Outputport22
I
2
=0
b
11
=
I
1
I
1
_ ot I
2
= u Shortcircuitinputimpedance
b
21
=
I
2
I
1
_ ot I
2
= u Shortcircuitforwardcurrentgain
Inputport11
I
isleftopencircuitedtomakeI
1
=0
b
12
=
I
1
I
2
_ ot I
1
= u OpencircuitReversevoltagegain
b
22
=
I
2
I
2
_ ot I
1
= u OpencircuitoutputAdmittance
I
1
= A I
2
- B I
2
I
1
= C I
2
- I
2
WhenI
2
=0,i.e.22
I
isopencircuited.
eq
R
V
I
1
1
=
=
3
10 ) 1 3 (
10
X +
=2.5mA
V
2
=IX1X10
3
=2.5X10
3
X1X10
3
=2.5V
A =
I
1
I
2
_ ot I
2
= u =
1u
2.S
= 4
C =
I
1
I
2
_ ot I
2
= u
=
2.S 1u
-3
1u
= u.2S m U
TofindBandDletV
2
bezerobymakingoutputport22
I
isshortcircuited.
R
eq
=3+2||1=3.667K.
I
1
=
eq
R
V
1
=
3
10 667 . 3
10
X
=2.73mA
I
2
=I
1
X
3 2
3
Z Z
Z
+
=2.73X10
3
X
3
3
10 3
10 1
X
X
I
2
=0.91mA
B =
I
1
-I
2
_ ot I
2
= u =
1u
u.91 1u
-3
= 1u.99 k
=
I
1
-I
2
_ ot I
2
= u
=
2.7S 1u
-3
u.91 1u
-3
= S

A=4; B=10.99k; C=0.25mU; D=3

HYBRIDPARAMETERS:
I
1
= b
11
I
1
+ b
12
I
2
I
2
= b
21
I
1
+ b
22
I
2

Tofindthevaluesofh
11
andh
21
,letV
2
bezerobymakingshortcircuitatport22
|
R
eq
=3+2||1=3.667K.
I
1
=
eq
R
V
1
=
3
10 667 . 3
10
X
=2.73mA
I
2
=I
1
X
3 2
3
Z Z
Z
+
=2.73X10
3
X
3
3
10 3
10 1
X
X
=0.91mA
b
11
=
I
1
I
1
_ ot I
2
= u =
1u
2.7S 1u
-3
= S.66 k
b
21
=
I
2
I
1
_ ot I
2
= u
=
- u.91 1u
-3
2.7S 1u
-3
= -u.SS
Tocalculateh
12
andh
22
makeI
1
at1
1
|
portiszero.
eq
Z
V
I
2
2
= =
3
10 ) 1 2 (
10
X +
=3.33mA.
V
1
=I
2
XZ
3
=3.33X10
3
X1X10
3
V
1
=3.33V
b
12
=
I
1
I
2
_ ot I
1
= u =
S.SS
1u
= u.SSS
b
22
=
I
2
I
2
_ ot I
1
= u
=
S.SS 1u
-3
1u
= u.SSS m U
h
11
=3.66k h
12
=0.333, h
21
=0.33 and h
22
=0.333mU
TABULARFORMS:
V
1
=10V,I
2
=0A(O.C) V
1
=10V,V
2
=0V(S.C)
Sl.
No.
Sl.
No.
1 V
2
2.5V 1 I
1
2.73mA
2 I
1
2.5mA 2 I
2
0.91mA
3 A =
I
1
I
2
4 3 B =
I
1
-I
2
10.99k
4 C =
I
1
I
2
0.25m 4 =
I
1
-I
2
3

HYBRIDPARAMETERS:
V
1
=10V,V
2
=0A(S.C) V
2
=10V,I
1
=0A(O.C)
Sl.
No.
Sl.
No.
1 I
1
2.73mA 1 I
2
3.33mA
2 I
2
0.91mA 2 V
1
0.33
3 b
11
=
I
1
I
1
3.66k 3 b
12
=
I
1
I
2
0.333
4 b
21
=
I
2
I
1
0.33 4 b
22
=
I
2
I
2
0.33mU
PROCEDURE:
2. TofindthevaluesofA,C
opencircuitatport22
I
tomakeI
2
=0,andNotedownthe
valuesofI
1
andV
2
3. TofindthevaluesofB
andD
,
makethevoltageV
2
=0byshortcircuitingthe
terminalsofport22
I
andthenotedownthevaluesofI
1
andI
2
4. Tofindthehparameters,makingshortcircuitatport22
I
i.3.V
2
=0andnote
downthevaluesofI
1
andI
2
todetermineY
11
andY
21
parameters
5. Opencircuitatport11
I
i.e.I
1
=0tofindthevaluesofh
12
andh
22
withthereadings
ofV
1
andI
2
.
6. FromtheobtainedreadingscalculateallTransmissionandhparametersandverify
withTheoreticalvalues.
RESULT:
Transmissionparametersandhybridparametersforthetwoportnetworkare
verified.


1. Explain two port networks.
2. What are Transmission & Hybrid parameters?
3. What are the applications of Two port networks?
4. Define port.
5. Define passive ports.
6. Define active ports.
7. What is the driving point impedance at port 1 with port 2 open
circuited for the given network.

8. What is the advantage of two port analysis?

2
1
2
1
1
1
3
2 1

Expt.No.:09
Date:
TIMERESPONSEOFFIRSTORDERRCNETWORK
AIM:
To find the time response of first order RC network for Non-
Sinusoidal input (Square Input).
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

HIGH PASS RC CIRCUIT LOW PASS RC CIRCUIT

THEORY:
Time response means the response (or) variation of output voltage
with change in time. Here, we consider the RL and RC circuits.
Low pass circuits are those which rejects all frequencies above a
specified value called cut off frequency. The signal of all frequencies is
passed without attenuation.
The High pass circuits are those which rejects all frequencies below a
specified value. This circuit is a compliment of Low pass circuit. This passes
all frequencies above the cut off frequency without attenuation.
TIME CONSTANT:
Time constant is defined as the time during which voltage across the
capacitor would have reached to its maximum value v and it is maintained
its initial rate of rise = RC, the time constant for RL circuit is given by =
L/R.
Sl.No. Description Range&Type Quantity
1 Functiongenerator
1
2 Decaderesistancebox 1ohm10Mohm 1
3 Decadecapacitancebox 100pf1microf 1
4 CathodeRayOscilloscope 1
5 BreadBoard 1
6 Patchcards
L.S.

These RL and RC circuits are useful in many applications. RC

differentiator finds useful applications in converting a triangular into
square wave. By using High pass RC circuits pulses can be considered into
spikes by making time constant small.
Low pass circuit can be used as a voltage sweep generator (or) ramp
generator. We obtain under damped or over damped responses using RLC
circuits. We can obtain average or DC values of output voltages at constant,
whatever the DC value of input voltage using the circuit.
We can study a band of frequencies using these circuits. In electrical
engineering Low pass and High pass filters are also utilized in order to
eliminate the undesired frequency components resulting from control
circuits.
RL CIRCUIT (STEP INPUT):

= V
dt
di
L Ri + (or)
L
V
i
L
R
dt
di
= + |
.
|
\
|
+
L
R
D i =
L
V

Since it is a Non Homogeneous linear equation it (current, i) has two parts
(i) = i
c
+i
p

i
c
= C
t
L
R
e
Amp.
i
p
=
L
R
D
e
L
V
t
+
0
put D = 0, i
p
=
R
L
X
L
V
=
R
V
i
p
=
R
V

p c
i i i + =
= C
t
L
R
e
|
.
|
\
|
+
R
V

At t = 0 i (0) = 0
R
V
C =
Then i =
R
V
t
L
R
e
+
R
V

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
L
R
e
R
V
1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
t
e
R
V
1
amps Here =
R
L

voltage across resistor V
R
= iR
V
R
= R X
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
t
e
R
V
1
= V
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
t
e 1
V

Voltage across inductor V

L
=
dt
di
L
V
L
=
L
R
X
R
V
L
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
t
e
= V
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
t
e
V

RC CIRCUIT (STEP INPUT)

}
+ = idt
C
Ri V
1

By differentiating the above equation, we get
i
C dt
di
R
1
+
= 0 (or)
dt
di
+
RC
1
i= 0
Since the equation is a Homogeneous linear differential equation. It
has only complimentary solution.
t
RC
Ce i
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
amp
At t = 0
R
V
i = substitute in the above equation,
R
V
C =
R
V
i =
t
RC
e
|
.
|
\
|
1
(or)
t
t
e
R
V
i
=
Here = RC sec.
Voltage across resistor R is
R v
R
=
X i = R X
t
t
e
R
V

R
v
= V
t
t
e
--------- 3
Voltage across capacitor C is
C
v =
}
idt
C
1
=
}
R
V
C
1

t
RC
Ce
|
.
|
\
|
1
dt =
RC
V
X -
1
RC

RC
t
e
+ C = - V
t
t
e
+ C
At t = 0 voltage across capacitor is V
C
v = 0 = - V e
0
+ C C = V

C
v
= V
|
|
.
|
\
|

t
t
e 1
V -------- 4


HIGH PASS RC CIRCUIT

Consider the RC circuit shown in figure.

Let V
in
= Input signal and
V
0
= Output voltage
I = Current flows through the circuit.

If the input signal Vi is non-sinusoidal, it can be visualized as
comprising of several sine waves of frequencies which are multiples of the
frequency of the signal, and there may be a d.c. component also. Since the
reactance of the capacitor decrease as the frequency increases Xc=1/2fC,
the capacitor offers very little impedance to harmonics of higher orders.
Hence the high frequency components of the input voltage pass through the
network with very little attenuation. For this reason the circuit is termed as
High Pass RC circuit.
LOW PASS R-C CIRCUIT
Consider the RC circuit shown in figure

Let V
in
= Input signal and
V
0
= Output voltage
I = Current flows through the circuit.

It may be observed that this circuit is same as the high pass RC
circuit, so far as the circuit configuration is concerned. However there is
one basic difference, where as in the high pass circuit the output is taken
across the resistor, in the circuit under consideration the output is taken
across the capacitor.
Since the reactance of a capacitor decreases with increase in
frequency and vice versa it can be seen that the capacitor offers larger
impedance to the low frequency components of the input voltage and hence
these low frequency components pass out easily to the output without any
appreciable attenuation. The circuit is therefore called Low Pass RC
circuit
RESPONSE OF HIGH PASS RC CIRCUIT TO SYMMETRICAL SQUARE WAVE INPUT

Consider the high pass RC circuit as shown in fig. Let the forcing
functio9n be a symmetrical square wave of peak to peak amplitude V and
period T

Case (i) Let RC<<T

If the time constant is far smaller
than the time period the output voltage
decays rapidly and exponentially as
already discussed in step input. At t=T/2,
the input voltage drops from +V/2 to V/2
abruptly. Hence the output voltage also
drop by the same amount V. Therefore
Vo=-V at t=T/2 . The voltage V rapidly
and exponentially decays towards zero as
shown in output wave form.

Again at t=T i.e., at the end of a period, the input voltage rises abruptly from
0 to +V and there it begins to decay exponentially towards zero.
Here the time constant =RC
Case (ii) Let RC>>T
If the time constant is quite large the
exponential decay of the output voltage is
slower, as seen already. This results in a
tilt at the top of the input wave and an
undershoot at the bottom, as is obvious
from the output wave form.
PQ is the tilt at the top of the wave. The
general expression for percentage tilt is
% Tilt =
RC
T
RC
T
e
e
2
2
1
1
X 200

If RC >> T The percentage tilt becomes. % Tilt =
RC
T
2
x 100
RESPONSE OF LOW PASS RC CIRCUIT TO SYMMETRICAL
SQUARE WAVE INPUT

Case (i) Let = RC << T
At time t=0, the input voltage is equal to V/2. The
output voltage is exponentially increasing, we
have V
0
=V(1-e
-t/RC
),
Where V is the amplitude of voltage.
By making the line constant is too low (RC << T)
V
0
reaches to V/2 before T/2, at t = T/2 the input
voltage changes to (V/2) from V/2. So, the
output is progressively decreases and reaches to
(V/2) at some time. The output voltage V
0

waveforms is shown in figure.


Case (ii) Let = RC >> T

At t = 0 the input voltage is at V/2 and the
output voltage is exponentially increasing and it
cannot reaches to its maximum value at t = T/2
because of large time constant. When t = T/2
the input voltage is (V/2), then the output
exponentially decreases and the voltage wave
form is repeats for the successive input wave.
The output wave forms when RC >> T is shown
in figure.


Case (i) At RC = = t
R = 1 K, C = 1 F, T = 1 ms.
= 1 x 10
3
x 1 x 10
-6
s.
V
0
=
2
V
tanh x where x =
RC
T
4

AT V = 20 V, R = 1x10
3
, C = 1x10
-6
F,
t = 1x10
-3
s
V
0
=
2
20
tanh
3
3
10 1 4
10 1
X X
X
= 2.44 V

Case (ii) At RC = << t
t = 1 m sec, = 1 sec
at R = 1 (between 1 to 1 K ), C = 1 F
V
0
=
2
V
tanh x where x =
RC
T
4

V
0
=
2
20
tanh
6
3
10 1 4
10 1
X X
X
=

Case (ii) At RC = >> t
For = 10 m sec, t = 1 m sec,
R = 1 k (between 1 k 10 k), C = 1 F.
V
0
=
2
V
tanh x where x =
RC
T
4

V
0
=
2
20
tanh
3
3
10 10 4
10 1
X X
X
= 0.25 V

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as per the circuit to observe the output
voltage across resistor.
2. Apply Non sinusoidal square input of 20 V peak to peak and with a
time period (t) of 1 m sec.
3. Observe the wave form across R at different conditions viz, (1) = t,
(2) << t, (3) >> t, by varying its Time constant where = RC
4. Draw the observed wave forms on a graph sheet

5. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram to observe the output
wave across capacitor.
6. Apply Non sinusoidal square wave 20 V V
p-p
with a time period (t) of 1
m sec.
7. Observe the wave forms in C.R.O. at different conditions viz, (1) = t,
(2) << t, (3) >> t, by varying its Time constant where = RC

RESULT:

Hence the response of RC circuit is determined and output wave
forms are drawn at different time constants.

Vivavocequestions:
1. Whatismeantbypeaktopeakvalue
2. Defineampereslaw
3. Defineohmslaw
4. Definefaradayslaw
5. Definelenzslaw
6. StatetheKirchhoffslaw
7. WhatisthedifferencebetweenRCandRLdifferentiator
8. Explainthetimeconstant
9. Inelectricalcircuits,transientcurrentsareassociatedwith___________
10. Ifacapacitorisenergizedbyasymmetricalsquarewavecurrent,thenthesteady
statevoltageacrossthecapacitorwill________


Expt. No.: 10
Date:
MEASUREMENT OF ACTIVE POWER FOR STAR CONNECTED
BALANCED LOAD
AIM:
To measure the Active power for Star connected balanced load.
APPARATUS:
Sl.
No.
Apparatus Type & range Quantity
1 Volt meter (0 - 600) V MI 1
2 Ammeter (0 - 5) A MI 1
3 Watt meter 600 V,2.5 A LPF 2
4 Inductive load 415 V/10A 1
5
3- Auto
transformer
(0 - 470) V/10A 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

The relationship between real power, reactive power and apparent
power can be expressed by representing the quantities as vectors. Real
power is represented as a horizontal vector and reactive power is
represented as a vertical vector. The apparent power vector is the
hypotenuse of a right triangle formed by connecting the real and reactive
power vectors. This representation is often called the power triangle. Using

the Pythagorean Theorem, the relationship among real, reactive & apparent
power is:

Real and reactive powers can also be calculated directly from the
apparent power, when the current and voltage are both sinusoids with a
known phase angle between them:

The ratio of real power to apparent power is called power factor and is
a number always between 0 and 1. Where the currents and voltages have
non-sinusoidal forms, power factor is generalized to include the effects of
distortion

TWO WATT METER METHOD:

If the load is balanced, then power factor of the load can also be
found from the two wattmeter readings. Let V
R
, V
Y
, V
B
be the r.m.s. values
of the three phase voltage and I
R
, I
Y
, I
B
be the r.m.s. values of the three
phase currents. Since the base voltages and currents are sinusoidal, they
can be represented by vectors, the current lagging behind their respective
phase voltages by .
Current through wattmeter 1 W
1
is = I
R
.
Potential difference across voltage coil of W
1
is V
RB
= V
R
V
B
.
This V
RB
founded by compounding V
R
and V
B
reversed. It is seen that
phase difference between V
RB
and I
R
= (30 ).
RcoJing o wottmctcr w
1
= I
RB
I
R
cos(Su - )
Similarly the current through wattmeter 2 W
2
is = I
Y

2
is V
YB
= V
Y
V
B
.
Again V
YB
is found by compounding V
Y
and V
B
reversed. The angle
between I
Y
and V
YB
is = (30 + ).
2
= I
B
I
cos(Su + ).
Since load is balanced, V
RB
= V
YB
= Line voltage V
L
, and I
R
= I
Y
= Line
current, I
L
.
w
1
= I
L
I
L
cos(Su -) onJ w
2
= I
L
I
L
cos(Su +)
w
1
+ w
2
= I
L
I
L
cos(Su -) + I
L
I
L
cos(Su +)
= I
L
I
L
(cos Sucos +sinSusin +cos Sucos -sinSusin)
= I
L
I
L
(2 cos Su cos ) = I
L
I
L
(2
3
2
cos )
= S I
L
I
L
cos = Total Power in the 3 phase load.


V
RY
= 415 u
0
V,
V
YB
= 415 -12u
0
V,
V
BR
= 415 -24u
0
V,
I
R
=
I
R
S
+Su
0
=
41S
S
u + Su
0
= 2S9.6 Su
0
I
R = 330 , X
L
= j 1040 ,
Z
R
= (330+j1040) = 1091.172.S9
0

I
R
=
I
R
Z
R
=
2S9.6 u
0
1u91.172.S9
0
= u.2196 -72.S9
0
A

cos =
R
Z
=
SSu
1u91.1
= u.Su2

Total Active Power (P) = 3 x V
Ph
x I
Ph
x cos = 3 x V
R
x I
R
x cos
(P) = 3 x 239.6 x 0.2196 x 0.302 = 47.67 W
(OR) Total Active Power (P) = 3 I
2
R = 3 x 0.2196
2
x 330 = 47.52 W

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2. Apply the suitable voltage to the circuit by using Auto Transformer
3. Note down the reading of the Watt meters, Ammeter and Voltmeter.
4. Calculate the Active power consumed by the load using given
formulae.

TABULAR FORM:

Sl.
No.
Voltage
(Volt)
Current
(Amp)
W
1
in
Watt
W
2
in
Watt
Active Power (P)
Theoretical
P in Watt
P = W
1
+W
2
in Watt
1 415 0.37 68 - 20 47.67 48

RESULT:
The amount of Active Power in a 3 phase balanced system is
measured by using Two watt meter method




1. What is Apparent Power
2. Formula for the Active Power
3. Unit of Active power
4. What is difference between active and reactive power
5. Explain the power triangle
6. What meant by M,L,C,V in wattmeter
7. Explain the types of wattmeter
8. What is the difference between LPF and UPF wattmeter
9. When the LPF wattmeter is used in the circuit
10. Which is the best wattmeter to use in both AC and DC sources


Expt. No.: 11
Date:
MEASUREMENT OF RECTIVE POWER FOR DELTA
CONNECTED BALANCED LOAD
AIM:
To measure the Reactive power for Delta connected balanced load.
APPARATUS:
Sl.
No.
Apparatus Type & range Quantity
1 Volt meter (0 - 600) V MI 1
2 Ammeter (0 - 5) A MI 1
3 Watt meter 600 V,2.5 A LPF 2
4 Inductive load 415 V/10A 1
5
3- Auto
transformer
(0 - 470) V/10A 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
REACTIVE POWER:
Reactive power flow is needed in an alternating-current transmission
system to support the transfer of real power over the network. In alternating
current circuits, energy is stored temporarily in inductive and capacitive
elements, which can result in the periodic reversal of the direction of energy
flow. The portion of power flow remaining, after being averaged over a
complete AC waveform, is the real power; that is, energy that can be used to
do work (for example overcome friction in a motor, or heat an element). On
the other hand, the portion of power flow that is temporarily stored in the

form of magnetic or electric fields, due to inductive and capacitive network

elements, and then returned to source, is known as reactive power.
AC connected devices that store energy in the form of a magnetic field
include devices called inductors, which consist of a large coil of wire. When
a voltage is initially placed across the coil, a magnetic field builds up, and it
takes a period of time for the current to reach full value. This causes the
current to lag behind the voltage in phase; hence, these devices are said
to absorb reactive power.
A capacitor is an AC device that stores energy in the form of an
electric field. When current is driven through the capacitor, it takes a period
of time for a charge to build up to produce the full voltage difference. On an
AC network, the voltage across a capacitor is constantly changing the
capacitor will oppose this change, causing the voltage to lag behind the
current. In other words, the current leads the voltage in phase; hence, these
devices are said to generate reactive power.
Energy stored in capacitive or inductive elements of the network give rise to
reactive power flow. Reactive power flow strongly influences the voltage
levels across the network. Voltage levels and reactive power flow must be
carefully controlled to allow a power system to be operated within
acceptable limits.
TWO WATTMETER METHOD:
If the load is balanced, then power factor of the load can also be
found from the two wattmeter readings. Let V
R
, V
Y
, V
B
be the r.m.s. values
of the three phase voltage and I
R
, I
Y
, I
B
be the r.m.s. values of the three
phase currents. Since the base voltages and currents are sinusoidal, they
can be represented by vectors, the current lagging behind their respective
phase voltages by .
Current through wattmeter 1 W
1
is = I
R
.
1
is V
RB
= V
R
V
B
.
This V
RB
founded by compounding V
R
and V
B
reversed. It is seen that
phase difference between V
RB
and I
R
= (30 ).
1
= I
RB
I
R
cos(Su - )
Similarly the current through wattmeter 2 W
2
is = I
Y

2
is V
YB
= V
Y
V
B
.
Again V
YB
is found by compounding V
Y
and V
B
reversed. The angle
between I
Y
and V
YB
is = (30 + ).
2
= I
B
I
cos(Su + ).
Since load is balanced, V
RB
= V
YB
= Line voltage V
L
, and I
R
= I
Y
= Line
current, I
L
.
w
1
= I
L
I
L
cos(Su -) onJ w
2
= I
L
I
L
cos(Su +)
w
1
- w
2
= I
L
I
L
cos(Su -) - I
L
I
L
cos(Su +)
= I
L
I
L
((cos Su cos +sinSu sin) -(cos Su cos -sinSusin))

= I
L
I
L
(2sinSu sin) = I
L
I
L
(2
1
2
sin)
= I
L
I
L
sin.
Total Reactive Power in the 3 phase load = SI
L
I
L
sin.
Iotol Rcocti:c Powcr = S (w
1
-w
2
)
V
RY
= 415 u
0
V,
V
YB
= 415 -12u
0
V,
V
BR
= 415 -24u
0
V,
I
R
=
I
R
S
+Su
0
=
41S
S
u + Su
0
= 2S9.6 Su
0
I
R = 330 , X
L
= j 1040 ,
Z
R
= (330+j1040) = 1091.172.S9
0

I
R
=
I
R
Z
R
=
2S9.6 u
0
1u91.172.S9
0
= u.2196 -72.S9
0
A

sin =
X
Z
=
1u4u
1u91.1
= u.9SS

Total Reactive Power (Q) = 3 x V
Ph
x I
Ph
x sin = 3 x V
R
x I
R
x sin
(Q) = 3 x 239.6 x 0.2196 x 0.953 = 150.43 VAR
(OR) Total Reactive Power (Q) = 3 I
2
X = 3 x 0.2196
2
x 1040 = 149.76 VAR

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2. Apply the suitable voltage to the circuit by using Auto Transformer
3. Note down the reading of the Watt meters, Ammeter and Voltmeter.
4. Calculate the Reactive power consumed by the load using given
formulae.

TABULAR FORM:

Sl.
No.
Voltage
(Volt)
Current
(Amp)
W
1
in
Watt
W
2
in
Watt
Reactive Power (Q)
Theoretical
Q in VAR
Q = S(w
1
- w
2
)
in VAR
1 415 0.37 68 - 20 150.43 152.42

RESULT:
The Amount of reactive power in a 3 phase balanced system is
measured by using Two watt meter method.




1. What is reactive power
2. Formula for the reactive power
3. Unit of reactive power
4. What is difference between active and reactive power
5. Explain the power triangle
6. What meant by M,L,C,V in wattmeter
7. Explain the types of wattmeter
8. What is the difference between LPF and UPF wattmeter
9. When the LPF wattmeter is used in the circuit
10. Which is the best wattmeter to use in both AC and DC sources


Expt. No.:12
Date:
NODAL ANALYSIS
AIM:
To find out the current through and voltage across a given element
using Nodal Analysis.

APPARATUS:
1. PC 1
2. PSPICE SOFTWARE
THEORY:
In general, in an N node circuit, one of the node is chosen as
reference or datum node, then it is possible to write N-1 nodal equations by
assuming N-1 node voltages. For example a 10 node circuit requires 9
unknown voltages and 9 equations. Each node in a circuit can be assigned
a number or a letter. The node voltage is the voltage of a given node with
respect to one particular node, called the reference node, which we assume
at zero potential. In the following circuits, node 3 is assumed as the
reference node. The voltage at node 1 is the voltage at that with respect to
node 3. Similarly the voltage at node 2 is the voltage at that node with
respect to node 3. Applying Kirchhoffs current law at node 1, the current
entering is equal to the current leaving.
Where V
1
and V
2
are the voltages at node 1 and 2 respectively.
Similarly, at node 2, the current entering is equal to the current leaving
that junction.
(V
2
V
1
)/R
2
+ V
2
/R
3
+ V
2
/ (R
4
+R
5
) = 0
Rearranging the above equation, we have
V
1
[(1/R
1
) + (1/R
2
)] V
2
(1/R
2
) = I
1

-V
1
(1/R
2
) + V
2
[(1/R
2
) + (1/R
3
) + (1/ (R
4
+R
5
))] = 0
From the above equations, we can find the voltages at each node.


CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROGRAM:
v1 1 0 dc 10
r1 1 2 1K
r2 2 3 2K
r3 3 4 3K
r4 2 0 1.2K
r5 3 0 1K
v2 4 0 dc 15
.DC v2 15V 15 V 15 V
.PRINT DC V(1) V(2) V(3) V(4)
.END

PROCEDURE:
ANALYSIS BY PROGRAM:
1. Write the program in a new text file in PSpice AD.
2. Save the file using the notation filename.cir.
3. Activate the file by opening it.
4. Run the simulation process using blue button.
5. Open the output file and observe the simulated results.

ANALYSIS BY CIRCUIT:
1. Open the Orcad PSPICE.
2. Select Capture.
3. Open new project file from file menu.
4. Enter the name of the new file
5. Then Select analog or mixed A/D
6. Select create a blank project from project file.
7. Go to place on menu bar line that get all required parts and select a
part and drop on new file.
8. Draw the circuit diagram using wire.
9. Enter Ground potential at Zero value

10. Save the file.

11. Set the new simulation profile under PSPICE menu.
12. Enter the name where simulation results are required.
13. Select time domain analysis and set run time to a suitable value.
14. Simulate the file by selecting run from pspice menu
15. If the simulation is successful output wave form are displayed in the
probe window

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
Applying Nodal analysis:
Applying KCL at node 2, we get
( ) ( )
2 3 2 2
2 2 2 3
2 2 2 3
2 3
10
0
1000 1200 2000
Rearranging the above equation, we get
6 10 5 3
=0
6000
6 60 5 3 3 0
14 3 60 --------------------1
V V V V
V V V V
V V V V
V V

+ + =
+ +
+ + =
=

( ) ( )
3 2 3 3
3 2 3 3
3 2 3 3
2 3
Applying KCL at node 3, we get
15
0
2000 1000 3000
Rearranging the above equation, we get
3 6 2 15
0
6000
3 3 6 2 30 0
3 11 30 -------------------2
V V V V
V V V V
V V V V
V V

+ + =
+ +
=
+ + =
+ =

2
3
Solving 1 and 2 equations, we get
5.17
4.13
V V
V V
=
=

CONCLUSIONS:
Multisim software is very useful for an electrical circuit designing
and for the calculations of current and voltages, power, frequency,
resistance, speed, phase etc. at the nodes most accurately and fast.
Because simulation is very fast process (i.e., input gives output).

RESULT:
Thus the given circuit is solved theoretically using Nodal Analysis and
verified the results through simulation.




1. Define node.
2. What is NODAL ANALYSIS?
3. State KCL.
4. State OHMS law.
5. Define power.
6. What are the limitations of NODAL ANALYSIS ?
7. What are the advantages of NODAL ANALYSIS ?
8. State KVL.
9. What is MESH ANALYSIS ?
10. Define super node ?
11. What is Pspice ?
12. Mention the differences between step, pulse and sinusoidal inputs?
13. What is the procedure to get transient response in Capture CIS?

22 Ec Lab Master Manual 14

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

22 Ec Lab Master Manual 14

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page1of73

STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE:

Now, we can replace the network in to Thevenins equivalent circuit as shown in

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page5of73

Sl.No. DESCRIPTION THEORITICAL PRACTICAL

NORTONS THEOREM STATEMENT:

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page12of73

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page13of73

STATEMENT FOR RESISTIVE LOAD:

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page14of73

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page16of73

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page18of73

Sl.NO. RL() Voc(V) POWER(mW)

Sl.NO. RL() Voc(V) POWER(mW)

Consider the network shown in figure below. AA

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page27of73

Step III: Obtaining Millmans equivalent circuit

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page39of73

is the response produced by the two currents I

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page40of73

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page42of73

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page43of73

Viva voce Questions:

CONDITIONS AT RESONANCE IN SERIES CIRCUIT:

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page49of73

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page50of73

A=4; B=10.99k; C=0.25mU; D=3

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page53of73

Electrical Circuits Lab Manual Page54of73

Viva voce Questions:

These RL and RC circuits are useful in many applications. RC

Voltage across inductor V

HIGH PASS RC CIRCUIT

Case (i) Let RC<<T

Case (ii) Let = RC >> T

form of magnetic or electric fields, due to inductive and capacitive network

10. Save the file.

Вам также может понравиться