0

SUBMITTED BY- :
NAVIN DIXIT;NAVIN
B.Tech( 3rd year)
Mechanical Engineering
IET Lucknow
REPORT ON SUMMER TRAINING (9 June-6 July)
RDSO(Research Design and Standard Organisation)

1
S.
No
Description PAGE
No.
1. Acknowledgement 2
2. Introduction 3
3. Testing Directorate 4
4. Fatigue Testing Laboratory 8
5. Brake Dynamometer Laboratory 15
6. Air Brake Laboratory 20
7. Test Cell Laboratory 29
8. Conclusion 44
9. References 45


2

3


4

HISTORY:
After independence in the year 1952 Railway Testing and Research
Centre (RTRC) was set up for carrying out Developmental Research
and for investigation into Railway problems. All type of testing
activities was being done by this RTRC organisation.
Present organisation RDSO was created in the year 1957 by merger of
Central Standards Organisation (Simla) and Railway Testing and
Research Centre (RTRC). Testing activities were then made part of
Research directorate which was working under Director Research.
In the year 1989 the present Testing directorate was created for
carrying out all dynamic and static mechanical testing activities of all
type Railway Rolling stocks.
This directorate is looked after by Executive Director Research
Testing.
This directorate undertakes design validation of all newly
designed/modified rolling stock developed, in house or imported.
Besides undertaking actual fields and static trials this directorate has
three laboratories for conducting simulated trials on rolling stock
subassemblies and its components.

5
In addition to these static and dynamic filed trials this directorate is
also entrusted with carrying out track monitoring and route proving
runs on Shatabdi/Rajdhani and all A routes of Indian Railways.

Laboratories and its Contribution:

Testing directorate has following testing Laboratories:

AIR BRAKE LABORATORY:

The main function of laboratory is to study and optimise train brake
characteristics with different type of distributor valves, multiple
locomotive operation, varying leakage rate, compressive and main
reservoir capacities, effect of train parting, performance of distributor
vales etc.
The laboratory is equipped with test rig having the complete pneumatic
circuits of 192 Wagons and 30 coaches with twin pipe air brake system.
Three locomotive controls stands can be used any where in the
formation with varying compressed air flow rate up to 16Kilo litre per
minute with seven compressor. The laboratory is also equipped with
single car test rig and endurance test rig for distributor valves. Data
acquisition and analysis is fully digitals.


6
FATIGUE LABORATORY:

This laboratory is installed for fatigue testing and structural strength
analysis of bogie frames and their components for rolling stocks and
FRP sleepers. These are tested by simulating service loads in order to
optimise the design, study of residual life of components and endurance
test of rubber components etc.
The laboratory is equipped with different type of load actuators. The
laboratory is also equipped with Universal Spring Testing machine.

BRAKE DYNAMOMETER LABORATORY :

The dynamometer is extensively used for type tests and performance
audit tests of cast iron and composition brake blocks. Parameters
commonly determined are coefficient of friction; wear rate and
temperature rise in brake block and wheel. The effect of sustained
down gradient and consequent application of brakes constantly, over
along time is also studied. The laboratory equipped with a gyrating
mass brake dynamometer supplied by M/s MAN OF GERMANY, is
capable of testing up to a speed of 250 Kmph. Under simulation of axel
load up to 25t, brake torque of 4800 kg-meter and brake force of
maximum 6000 kg in wet and dry conditions, with continuous
recording and computerized analysis of data.

TEST CELL LABORATORY:


7
The field units of Testing Directorates conducts field trials for
modified/new designed rolling stock as Oscillation trial, Braking trial,
Rating Performance trials, Controllability Trials, coupler force trials,
Compressive End Load Tests (Squeeze test) etc. along with Track
Monitoring Runs.
Earlier, Testing Directorate were used Analogue Recorder and signal
condition units for conducting these trials and partially starts
conducting field trials with Digital Data Recording system supplied by
AAR in the year of 1991 in which the digital data recording system was
HP make and the acquisition program was based on Basic and Pascal
language. Further analogue recording system was completely replaced
to digital data recording system in the year 2003-04 in which the data
acquisition card PCI-16E4 was used and installed in one the slot of PC.
The analogue signals were connected to SCXI connecting card and
further this card was used for analogue to digital conversion.

Further in continuous process of development the Testing Directorate
have procured the new technology for modernization of testing
infrastructure for field trials in which the Compact Digital data
recording system, signal conditioners modules, sensors and cables etc.
have been procured in the Year of 2009-10.

With the modernization of testing facilities in Testing Directorate, the
accuracy of test result has been increased as well as time duration of
test/trials and analysis have been reduced.





8
INFRASTRUCTURE:
Facilities:
Two dynamic actuators of 150 ton capacity and two dynamic
actuators of 25 ton capacity of +125 mm stroke.
Four static actuators of 75 ton capacity of 300 mm stroke.
500 ton reaction frame
Two dynamic actuators of 10 ton capacity of +50 mm stroke
Four dynamic actuators of +25 ton capacity of +50mm stroke.
30 ton and 50 ton capacity reaction frame
Frame Mounted Shock Absorber Testing Machine, with + 50KN
load capacity and + 150mm stroke Hydraulic Actuator
96 channels on line stress measuring system.
Features:
Structural strength of Bogie frames, Bolster & Brake beam of
rolling stock
Fatigue test of FRP sleepers for track by simulating service loads.
Endurance test of sand-witch rubber components.

9
Endurance test and damping characteristics of shock absorber.

STRESS INVESTIGATION AND FATIGUE TEST OF BOGIE
FRAME:

ABOUT THE TEST:

Newly designed bogie frames are subjected to stress investigation
and Fatigue Test. The object of these tests is to determine stress
levels, both in nature and magnitude, at different critical locations on
the bogie frame, by simulating static and dynamic loads likely to be
experienced by the bogie frame under actual service conditions. Also,
the adequacy of the design of the bogie frame, from structural
strength point of view is determined by applying dynamic load up to
6 or 10 million cycles, as the case may be, for conducting fatigue
tests and monitoring the stresses at different critical locations.

PREPARING FOR THE TEST:

The test system basically consists of a closed loop electro-hydraulic
fatigue testing equipment. It is provided with a hydraulic power supply
for generating high-pressure hydraulic fluid required for producing the
desired forces. The high-pressure hydraulic fluid at 210 kg/mm is fed
to the hydraulic actuator through a servo valve. The actuator, which is a
cylinder with a piston, applies the compressive / tensile forces to the
specimen mounted on the test bed.
10
The electronic control equipment on the control panel achieves the
desired level of loading. A command signal is fed to the input
module that passes it on to a servo controller. A function generator
provides the desired dynamic waveform. The controller sends
electrical signal to the servo valve to regulate its port openings in
such a manner as to achieve the desired load level. A feedback
transducer, introduced in the system, senses the load applied to the
specimen and sends a proportional signal to the input module. Here,
the feedback is compared with the command and any difference in
their magnitudes or polarity is corrected through an electrical signal
to the controller. With this arrangement any continuously varying
command can be faithfully reproduced.
As the load application capacity of the existing actuators of the
fatigue testing equipment and number of actuators available are
limited, static hydraulic jacks are used to supplement the load
requirements of the tests. Load cells, manufactured locally, are used
to sense the load at axle box locations.
Strain gauges to the following specifications are being used for
monitoring strain / stress at different critical locations of the bogie
frame-

Linear Gauge Rossette Gauge
Gauge Length 5 mm 5 mm
Gauge Resistance 120 ohm 120 ohm
Gauge Factor 2.14 2.11
Analogue pen recorders (brush) are used to monitor the loads during
load equalisation and optical recorders (visicorders) are used to
monitor the strains / stresses.


11
A counter provided on control panel of the fatigue testing equipment
is used to register the number of test cycles applied to the bogie
frame.
All the fixtures, brackets and stools suitable for holding the
specimens and for taking reactions, are designed and fabricated by
the Testing Directorate in-house, or through railway workshops, or
from the local market.

FATIGUE TESTING MACHINE

STRESS MEASUREMENTS:

The bogie is strain gauged at locations specified in the test scheme,
which are mostly linear gauges and a few three-directional Rossette
gauges. Each gauge (the arm in the case of Rossette gauges) fixed on
the bogies frame, functions as an active arm of Wheatstone bridge for
monitoring the strain / stress. The remaining three gauges required to
form the Wheatstone bridge, called the dummy gauges, are cemented
on steel strips mounted on a junction box, kept close to the bogie
frame during the course of the tests. Terminals of the bridge, thus
formed, are connected to the recorder (visicorder). During the stress
recording in static condition, the bogie is subjected to the desired
load combinations and three sets of readings are taken for every load

12
combination. It is generally noticed that the difference between the
three readings is practically negligible. Before conducting the
dynamic stress measurement, the bogie frame is subjected to the
desired load combinations for at least for 3 to 5 minutes and
thereafter, the readings are taken.
BOGI E FRAME
FATIGUE TEST:
The bogie frame is subjected to fatigue test by applying dynamic load
combinations as per test scheme. The load application is of
sinusoidal nature, which is achieved with the help of the function
generator available with control panel of the fatigue testing
equipment. Fatigue tests are carried out upto 10 million cycles. The
test frequency, with the stablised test set up, is achieved as 3 to 4 Hz.
All the dynamic load actuators are applying load at the same
frequency and in the same phase.

13

VERTICAL LOAD APPLICATION AND REACTION:
The bogie frame is placed on the four vertical stools clamped with
the test bed. The loading is done with the help of load actuators, each
with the capacity of +10 or 25 t mounted on the two separate main
reaction frames capable of bearing 30 or 50 t force and located
longitudinally on both the sides of test bed, through two loading
beams placed at the ends of bolster which, in fact, is kept on two
specially designed steel tubes (in place of secondary springs) placed
in the spring seat guide located in the middle of the side frames.
Reaction of the vertical load at axle box location is attained through
fabricated steel tubes placed between the bogie frame and vertical
stool at all the four locations. Specially designed load cells, one each
at all the four axle box locations, are inserted between the stool and
the steel tubes for equalizing the load distribution.

TRANSVERSE LOAD APPLICATION AND REACTION:

A U-type clamp is mounted in the middle of the one of the side
frames on the existing bracket welded to the bogie frame. The
transverse load is applied centrally with the help of the +10 t
capacity dynamic actuators, held horizontally on the specially
designed brackets mounted on the test bed.
Transverse reaction is taken at all the axle box locations by suitable
reaction brackets clamped on the test bed.

TRACTIVE LOAD / BRAKING FORCE AND REACTION:


14
Longitudinal loads, simulating tractive / braking load and their
reactions, are applied on the bogie frame separately. For the purpose
of braking force, loads are applied simultaneously at four brake
hanger locations, through two static jacks in the upward direction,
and through two pre-calibrated helical springs in the downward
direction. The tractive / braking loads are applied on the two anchor
links in the same direction through two static jacks mounted
horizontally on the two brackets, and their reactions are taken in the
opposite direction at the end of each side frame.

VISUAL EXAMINATION:

Visual examination of the bogie frame is to be done regularly
throughout the test to check if any crack or deterioration in the bogie
frame, has got developed.



15
INFRASTRUCTURE:

The laboratory equipped with a Gyrating Mass Brake Dynamometer
supplied by M/s MAN of Germany, is capable of testing up to a
speed of 250 km/h under simulation of axle load up to 25 t, brake
torque of 4800 kg-m and brake force of maximum 6000 kg in wet
and dry conditions, with continuous recording and computerised
analysis of data.

TYPE ACCEPTANCE TEST OF BRAKE BLOCKS:

PHYSICAL CHECK:
After the receipt of the brake block samples in the laboratory, these
are registered and identification numbers are stamped on each brake
block. These brake blocks are physically checked to ensure that they
match the wheel profile of the rolling stock for which testing is to be
done.


16
GYRATING BRAKE DYANAMOMETER

BEDDING:
The brake blocks are fixed on the dynamometer for bedding to
achieve about 80% of the block contact area. This exercise is
necessary to have a uniform distribution of brake blocks force over
the full brake block area during the tests. Bedding of the brake block
is done at a speed of 60 km/h and with a brake block force of 1500
kg.
During bedding a wheel temperature of 20 to 60 deg. C is
maintained. After the contact area of the brake block is bedded to
about 80%, tests are started under dry condition.
DRY TESTS:

Brake blocks are tested under dry condition at speeds of 20 to 140
km/h with an increment of 20 km/h with a brake block force as per
test scheme. Three applications are made at each speed. The wheel
temperature of 60 to 120 deg. C is maintained, as far as possible,
before each brake application.


17
After switching on the system, the DC motor is first run at slow
speed. The motor is then accelerated to the desired rpm,
corresponding to the required speed. The motor rpm is kept slightly
higher than the required braking speed. After attainment of the
slightly higher rpm, motor is switched off and brakes are applied at
corresponding speed with the help of brake-on switch provided on
the control desk. Blower fan, at a speed of 750 rpm, is normally kept
running during the tests.
Various parameters e.g. braking speed, braking time, run out
revolution, brake energy and mean coefficient of friction, are
recorded on the data acquisition system.
Iron-constantin thermocouples are embedded on the brake blocks to
monitor the brake block temperature.
Wheel temperature is, however, measured with a highly sensitive
contact less sensor mounted almost at the top of wheel tread, close to
the rubbing surface. This temperature is digitally displayed.
At the end of the test the brake blocks are inspected for cracks,
chipping, flaking, hot spot and metallic inclusion. Wheel is also
checked for any abnormality.
Brake blocks are weighed for wear, before and at the end of each
brake block force applied, during the dry tests.

WET TESTS:

After completion of dry tests, wet tests are conducted on the same set
of brake blocks at the same speed and brake forces as dry tests.

18

Continuous flow of water at the rate of 14 litres per hour is allowed
to fall on the top of the wheel through small nozzles of 1 mm
diameter during wet test. It simulates the rainy season conditions.
During wet tests, blowers are not used, to avoid water falling on the
top of the wheel, from flying away.
Acceleration, running and braking at desired force and wheel
temperature are done in the same manner as the dry tests.
Brake blocks are weighed for wear, before and at the end of each
brake block force, during the wet tests.
After completing the wet tests, inspection of both wheel and brake
blocks is done for any abnormality.

BRAKE BLOCK SAMPLES FOR TESTING




19
DRAG TEST:

After dry and wet tests on the brake blocks are over, all the samples
are subjected to the most severe type of braking, simulating the
controlling of the train on the ghat section by application of brakes
continuously.
The brakes are kept applied on the wheel for 20 minutes without
switching off the motor at a constant speed of 60 km/h. During drag
tests, torque equivalent of about 45 BHP is maintained. For
maintaining constant torque, the brake force on the brake block is
kept on changing. The temperature of the wheel and brake block is
recorded at every 100 seconds. At the end of 20 minutes, maximum
temperatures attained by the wheel and brake blocks are recorded. In
case of brake blocks catching fire, or any abnormality observed in
course of testing, further drag testing is stopped.
Immediately after the test, motor is shut off and brake block force is
increased to a level specified in the test scheme and brakes are
applied and various brake characteristics are studied. During drag
tests, phenomena like emission of smoke and spark, formation of red
band and flaming etc. are recorded. At the end of the test, inspection
of the wheel and brake block is done to see any abnormality on the
wheel and brake blocks.


20
INFRASTRUCTURE:

The laboratory is equipped with a Test Rig having the complete
pneumatic circuits of 192 wagons and 30 coaches with twin pipe air
brake system. Three locomotive control stands can be used
anywhere in the formation, with varying compressed airflow rate up
to 16 kl per minute with the help of 7 compressors. Data acquisition
and analysis is completely computerised. The laboratory is equipped
with a single car test rig and an endurance test rig for distributor
valves.

AIR BRAKE LABORATORY


Background:
Prior to the introduction of air brakes, stopping a train was a difficult
business. In the early days when trains consisted of one or two cars

21
and speeds were low, the engine driver could stop the train by
reversing the steamflow to the cylinders, causing the locomotive to
act as a brake. However, as trains got longer, heavier and faster, and
started to operate in mountainous regions, it became necessary to fit
each car with brakes, as thelocomotive was no longer capable of
bringing the train to a halt in a reasonable distance.
The introduction of brakes to railcars necessitated the employment of
additional crew members called brakemen, whose job it was to move
from car to car and apply or release the brakes when signaled to do so
by the engineer with a series of whistle blasts. Occasionally, whistle
signals were not heard, incorrectly given or incorrectly interpreted,
and derailments or collisions would occur because trains were not
stopped in time.
Brakes were manually applied and released by turning a large brake
wheel located at one end of each car. The brake wheel pulled on the
car's brake rigging and clamped the brake shoes against the wheels.
As considerable force was required to overcome the friction in the
brake rigging, the brakeman used a stout piece of wood called a
"club" to assist him in turning the brake wheel.
The job of a passenger train brakeman wasn't too difficult, as he was
not exposed to the weather and could conveniently move from car to
car through the vestibules, which is where the brake wheel was (and
still is, in many cases) located. Also, passenger trains were not as
heavy or lengthy as their freight counterparts, which eased the task of
operating the brakes.
A brakeman's job on a freight train was far more difficult, as he was
exposed to the elements and was responsible for many more cars. To

22
set the brakes on a boxcar (UIC: covered wagon) the brakeman had
to climb to the roof ("coon the buggy" in railroad slang) and walk a
narrow catwalk to reach the brake wheel while the car was swaying
and pitching beneath his feet. There was nothing to grasp other than
the brake wheel itself, and getting to the next car often required
jumping. Needless to say, a freight brakeman's job was extremely
dangerous, and many were maimed or killed in falls from moving
trains.
Complicating matters, the manually operated brakes had limited
effectiveness and controlling a train's speed in mountainous terrain
was a dicey affair. Occasionally, the brakemen simply could not set
enough brakes to a degree where they were able to reduce speed
while descending a grade, which usually resulted in a runaway
followed by a disastrous wreck
.

When adopted, the Westinghouse system had a major effect
on railroad safety.Reliable braking was assured, reducing the
frequent accidents that plagued the industry. Brakemen were no
longer required to risk life and limb to stop a train, and with the
engineer now in control of the brakes, misunderstood whistle signals
were eliminated. As a result, longer and heavier trains could be safely
run at higher speeds.
During his lifetime, Westinghouse made many improvements to his
invention. The United States Congress passed the Safety Appliance
Act in 1893 making the use of some automatic brake system
mandatory. By 1905, over 2,000,000 freight, passenger, mail,
baggage and express railroad cars and 89,000 locomotives in the
United States were equipped with the Westinghouse Automatic
Brake.

23

The set-up in the laboratory consists of-

- 192 BOXN wagon twin / single pipe air brake equipment
- 30 coach passenger twin pipe air brake equipment
- 7 compressors with total capacity upto 16000 lts/m
- Computersied data acquisition and analysis
- 3 portable locomotive control stands
- Single car test device
- 16 reservoirs of 200 litres capacity each
- Air dryers to supply dry compressed air to the system
- Distributor valve test rig
- Endurance test rig for distributor valves
- Test rig for brake cylinder
- Simulation for train parting by solenoid valve
- Locomotive compressed air dryer


TESTS BEING CONDUCTED:

Brake characteristics for the following types of train formations and
train brake equipment are being carried out by the laboratory-

- Freight train upto 192 BOXN wagons with single or twin pipe
- Passenger train upto 30 coaches
- Effect of leakage on release of brakes
- Optimum compressor and reservoir capacity for various train lengths
- Effect of over charge feature on train operation

24
- Indication to drivers in case of train parting
- Optimum location of locomotives in long freight train
- Effect of change in design of locomotive brake system on train brake
performance
- Effect of distributor valve design changes on train brake
characteristics
- Brake characteristic of passenger train with locomotives at both ends
- Performance testing of distributor valves
BRAKE TESTING SET UP


Overview:

In the air brake's simplest form, called the straight air system,
compressed air pushes on a piston in a cylinder. The piston is
connected through mechanical linkage to brake shoes that can rub on
the train wheels, using the resulting friction to slow the train. The
mechanical linkage can become quite elaborate, as it evenly
distributes force from one pressurized air cylinder to 8 or 12 wheels.


The pressurized air comes from an air compressor in the locomotive
and is sent from car to car by a train line made up of pipes beneath
each car and hoses between cars. The principal problem with the
straight air braking system is that any separation between hoses and

25
pipes causes loss of air pressure and hence the loss of the force
applying the brakes. This deficiency could easily cause a runaway
train. Straight air brakes are still used on locomotives, although as a
dual circuit system, usually with each bogie (truck) having its own
circuit.
In order to design a system without the shortcomings of the straight
air system, Westinghouse invented a system wherein each piece of
railroad rolling stock was equipped with an air reservoir and a triple
valve, also known as a control valve.

The triple valve is described as being so named as it performs three
functions: Charging air into an air tank ready to be used, applying the
brakes, and releasing them. In so doing, it supports certain other
actions (i.e. it 'holds' or maintains the application and it permits the
exhaust of brake cylinder pressure and the recharging of the reservoir
during the release). In his patent application, Westinghouse refers to
his 'triple-valve device' because of the three component valvular parts
comprising it: the diaphragm-operated poppet valve feeding reservoir
air to the brake cylinder, the reservoir charging valve, and the brake
cylinder release valve. When he soon improved the device by
removing the poppet valve action, these three components became
the piston valve, the slide valve, and the graduating valve.

- If the pressure in the train line is lower than that of the reservoir, the
brake cylinder exhaust portal is closed and air from the car's reservoir
is fed into the brake cylinder to apply the brakes. This action
continues until equilibrium between the brake pipe pressure and
reservoir pressure is achieved. At that point, the airflow from the
reservoir to the brake cylinder is lapped off and the cylinder is
maintained at a constant pressure.
- If the pressure in the train line is higher than that of the reservoir, the
triple valve connects the train line to the reservoir feed, causing the
air pressure in the reservoir to increase. The triple valve also causes

26
the brake cylinder to be exhausted to the atmosphere, releasing the
brakes.

- As the pressure in the train line and that of the reservoir equalize, the
triple valve closes, causing the air pressure in the reservoir and brake
cylinder to be maintained at the current level.

Unlike the straight air system, the Westinghouse system uses
a reduction in air pressure in the train line to apply the brakes. When
the engineer (driver) applies the brake by operating the locomotive
brake valve, the train line vents to atmosphere at a controlled rate,
reducing the train line pressure and in turn triggering the triple valve
on each car to feed air into its brake cylinder. When the engineer
releases the brake, the locomotive brake valve portal to atmosphere is
closed, allowing the train line to be recharged by the compressor of
the locomotive. The subsequent increase of train line pressure causes
the triple valves on each car to discharge the contents of the brake
cylinder to the atmosphere, releasing the brakes and recharging the
reservoirs.

Under the Westinghouse system, therefore, brakes are applied by
reducing train line pressure and released by increasing train line
pressure. The Westinghouse system is thus fail safeany failure in
the train line, including a separation ("break-in-two") of the train,
will cause a loss of train line pressure, causing the brakes to be
applied and bringing the train to a stop, thus preventing a runaway
train.
Modern air brake systems are in effect two braking systems
combined:

- The service brake system, which applies and releases the brakes
during normal operations (generally referred to as
the independent brake), and

27
- The emergency brake system, which applies the brakes rapidly in
the event of a brake pipe failure or an emergency application by the
engineer (generally referred to as the automatic brake).
When the train brakes are applied during normal operations, the
engineer makes a "service application" or a "service rate reduction,
which means that the train line pressure reduces at a controlled rate.
It takes several seconds for the train line pressure to reduce and
consequently takes several seconds for the brakes to apply
throughout the train. In the event the train needs to make an
emergency stop, the engineer can make an "emergency application,"
which immediately and rapidly vents all of the train line pressure to
atmosphere, resulting in a rapid application of the train's brakes. An
emergency application also results when the train line comes apart or
otherwise fails, as all air will also be immediately vented to
atmosphere.

In addition, an emergency application brings in an additional
component of each car's air brake system: the emergency portion.
The triple valve is divided into two portions: the service portion,
which contains the mechanism used during brake applications made
during service reductions, and the emergency portion, which senses
the immediate, rapid release of train line pressure. In addition, each
car's air brake reservoir is divided into two portionsthe service
portion and the emergency portionand is known as the "dual-
compartment reservoir. Normal service applications transfer air
pressure from the service portion to the brake cylinder, while
emergency applications cause the triple valve to direct all air in both
the service portion and the emergency portion of the dual-
compartment reservoir to the brake cylinder, resulting in a 2030%
stronger application.

The emergency portion of each triple valve is activated by the
extremely rapid rate of reduction of train line pressure. Due to the

28
length of trains and the small diameter of the train line, the rate of
reduction is high near the front of the train (in the case of an
engineer-initiated emergency application) or near the break in the
train line (in the case of the train line coming apart). Farther away
from the source of the emergency application, the rate of reduction
can be reduced to the point where triple valves will not detect the
application as an emergency reduction. To prevent this, each triple
valve's emergency portion contains an auxiliary vent port, which,
when activated by an emergency application, also locally vents the
train line's pressure directly to atmosphere. This serves to propagate
the emergency application rapidly along the entire length of the train.

Use of distributed power (i.e., remotely controlled locomotive units
midtrain and/or at the rear end) mitigates somewhat the time-lag
problem with long trains, because a telemetered radio signal from the
engineer in the front locomotive commands the distant units to
initiate brake pressure reductions that propagate quickly through
nearby cars





29
Oscillation trial is conducted on a new or modified design of rolling
stock, which is proposed to be cleared for running on IR track. The
purpose of oscillation trial is, thus, an acceptance of a railway vehicle
by conducting dynamic behaviour tests in connection with safety,
track fatigue and quality of ride.
Policy Circular No.6 issued vide ME/Railway Board letter No.
92/CEDO/SR/4/0 Pt. dated 23.12.1999 (refer chapter XIV) and Third
criteria report of Standing Criteria Committee issued in
January2000 and amendment no. RM2/MCI/21 dated 10.07.2000
(refer chapter XV) are the two reference documents based on which
an oscillation trial is conducted.
An oscillation trial can be commenced only after receipt of CRS
sanction. CRS sanction is accompanied by Joint Safety Certificate
from the Railway and Speed Certificate issued by RDSO. In addition,
documents like, List of curves and bridges, Permanent and
temporary speed restrictions on the route from the railway
applicable on the day of run, Test scheme from the
sponsoring/design directorate and latest summarised TRC results
for selected detailed test stretches are needed to conduct the trials.
The test scheme includes objective of trial, background of trial,
various trial conditions, measurements and parameters to be
recorded, design particulars of the test vehicle, load vs. deflection

30
charts for individual and nested springs, necessary drawings of bogie,
axle box etc for load-cell fitment, instrumentation etc.
The oscillation trial is carried out either on Main line for operation
at less than 110 kmph on 52 kg rail or on 90R rail track and/or on
High-speed line for operation at 110 kmph or above and up to 140
kmph on track maintained to C&M1-Vol.1 standard. The criteria for
assessment is detailed in the Third report of standing criteria
committee issued in January2000 and amended on 10.07.2000.

Quality of Ride:

Human sensation of comfort is dependent on displacement,
acceleration and the rate of change of acceleration. In other words,
the product of displacement, acceleration and the rate of change of
acceleration could be used as a measure of discomfort during travel.
The term Ride quality means that the vehicle itself is to be judged.
Ride comfort means that the vehicle is to be assessed according to the
effect of mechanical vibrations on people in the vehicle.
The following classification of RI with reference to subjective
appreciation is usually adopted on Sperlings scale as per ORE report
no. 8 of C-116:


31


RIDE QUALITY

Ride Index Appreciation
1 very good
2 good
3 satisfactory
4 accepted for running
4.5 not accepted for running
5 dangerous
RIDE COMFORT

Ride Index Appreciation
1 just noticeable
2 clearly noticeable
2.5 more pronounced but not unpleasant
3 strong, irregular but still tolerable
3.25 very irregular
3.5 extremely irregular, unpleasant, annoying, prolonged
exposure intolerable
4 extremely unpleasant, prolonged exposure harmful

32

In the analogue or chart recorder method, the correction factor for
frequencies below 0.5 Hz are not relevant since the average common
frequency is always above 0.5 Hz. In DAS method, since the
frequency of every half wave has to be considered individually, some
of the half waves may have frequencies less than 0.5 Hz for which a
correction factor of 0 has been assigned. This is because frequencies
below 0.5 Hz have very low energy levels and do not affect the ride
comfort.
The accelerometers are placed on the floor level of the vehicle near
the center pivot for measuring the acceleration and calculating RI.

Stability & Dynamic Forces:

Vertical and lateral forces are developed between the rail and the
wheel as a result of dynamic interplay of track and vehicle
characteristics. It is important to understand these forces because of
their role in vehicle stability and track stresses. Generally these
forces can be classified into three categories, namely, static forces,
quasi-static forces and dynamic forces.
Static forces arise due to static wheel load applied on the rail. Quasi-
static forces are developed due to one or several factors, which are
independent of the parasitic oscillations of the vehicle and do not
vary in a periodical manner. Centrifugal forces caused by cant excess
or deficiency, curving action on points and crossings and forces due
to cross winds fall in this category.

33

Dynamic forces are caused by track geometry and stiffness
irregularities, discontinuities like rail joints and crossings, wheel set
hunting and vehicle defects like wheel flats. Dynamic forces are the
most significant ones in the study of vehicle stability and rail stresses
and are also the most difficult to mathematically determine or to
experimentally measure.
According to Esveld, the frequency ranges for the vertical dynamic
forces are 0-20 Hz for sprung mass, 20-125 Hz for un-sprung mass
and 0-2000 Hz for corrugations, welds and wheel flats. The vertical
forces in the lower frequency range are produced due to vehicle
response to changes in the vertical track geometry like unevenness
and twist whereas forces in the higher frequency range are caused by
discontinuities like rail joints, crossings, rail and wheel surface
irregularities. A wheel flat produces high frequency peaks at regular
intervals, which is easily distinguishable from other surface
irregularities.
The net lateral forces acting on the track by the wheel set can lead to
the distortion of track laterally, causing derailment. In other words,
this force is a measure of lateral strength of the track. This force is
equal to the lateral force at axle box level as a result of reaction of the
wheel set with the vehicle body/bogie. This force, usually denoted by
the symbol H
y
, can be measured with the help of a load-cell placed
between the journal face and the axle box cover or the bogie frame
and the axle box.

Derailment Coefficient:

34


Derailment can happen when the values of lateral and vertical forces
acting at the rail-wheel contact point assume a critical combination
leading to mounting of the flange on the rail. This phenomenon is
known as derailment by flange mounting.
The fundamental forces that are to be considered in this context are
the lateral forces as a result of flange reaction; tread friction and
lateral creep on the rail and the dynamic vertical load of the wheel at
that instant. All the theories that have been evolved to explain the
phenomena of derailment have tried to establish a suitable ratio
between the instantaneous values of lateral force and vertical force at
the rail-wheel contact point beyond which derailment may occur.
Mr J.Nadal, Chief Mechanical Engineer of French State Railway
propounded the earliest of these theories of derailment by wheel
flange mounting the rail in 1908.
Provided that the vehicle does not overturn and that the outer rail is
capable of sustaining the lateral load, the limiting lateral force, which
may be applied to a wheel, is determined by the possibility of the
flange climbing the rail, thus producing derailment. As the vertical
load carried by the wheel opposes this action, it is necessary to
determine the relationship between the limiting horizontal force and
the vertical load coming on the wheel.
Consider a flanged wheel supporting a load Q and subjected to a
lateral thrust Y passing round a curve. It is seen that the point of
contact between the flange and the rail will be slightly ahead of the
wheel center line so that at the point of contact the flange will have a
small movement downwards, producing a frictional reaction Y in an
almost vertical direction.







35


Wheel

Y

Rail


The flange will begin to climb the rail as soon as the frictional force
Y exceeds the load Q. Let the flange make contact with the rail at
some angle and the lateral force Y produce a reaction Q
R
from the
rail at the point of contact.

Q

u

Wheel

Rail

Y


Q
R
u



Q
R

Where, Y and Q are the instantaneous values of the lateral and
vertical forces at the rail-wheel contact point, u is the angle of
flange with horizontal plane and is the coefficient of static friction
between wheel tread and rail.

It can be seen from Nadals formula that for =0.27 and u =60
0
, Y/Q
=0.997 or ~ 1. This is the limiting value beyond which the wheel
flange will tend to mount on the rail table. The other question is that
of the duration for which this ratio can exceed the value of 1. It is
well known that derailment by flange mounting is not an
instantaneous, but a gradual process. In Japanese Railways, the

36
limiting value of Y/Q is taken as 0.04/t if t is less than 1/20 seconds
and 0.8 if exceeds 1/20 seconds.


Instrumentation:


The instrumentation is done as per test scheme. Normally,
instrumentation used for recording data is transducers as input
device, signal conditioners as processing device and chart recorders
and/or computerised data acquisition system as output device. Power
supply unit is used to provide power supply to signal conditioners
and recorders and excitation to passive transducers.
Transducers are used to measure acceleration, deflection and force.
Signal picked up from transducer is fed into signal conditioner for
processing. The processed output from signal conditioner can be
recorded on chart recorder and/or acquired on computer (PC or
laptop) through data acquisition cards.
Transducers normally used are passive types either resistive or
inductive. Transducer used for measurement of acceleration in x, y
and z directions is also called accelerometer and can be either strain
gage type or piezo electric. Transducer used for measurement of
deflection of spring, bolster, bogie movement etc can be either
LVDT, i.e., linear voltage differential transformer or string-pot.
Transducer used for measurement of force or load at axle box level is
normally a load-cell. Measuring wheel measures lateral and vertical
forces at rail wheel level. Transducers are excited either by 5V rms
2.5 kHz AC or DC voltage to provide output signal.
One unit of signal conditioner is required for processing a channel
or input signal from a transducer. The function of a signal conditioner
is to make signal suitable for input to a DAS and can be divided into
six broad activities. The first activity is application of excitation
potential or power. The second activity is balancing. A Bridge

37
Balancing Device or Balancing unit can be either a potentiometer-
comprising resistor and capacitor knobs or an auto balancing push
button. The balancing unit is used to balance the input signal to a
datum or reference line called null point. This is done under no load
condition. The third activity is demodulation. Rectifier or
Demodulation unit cuts off the carrier frequency and allows only the
output signal from the transducer. This is required only in case of AC
voltage excitation (about 2.5 kHz) of transducer. The fourth activity
is filtering. A Filter unit has different filter setting conditions. The
low-pass filter knob can be selected to a desired level of filtering.
Thus, only frequencies lower than the selected frequency is allowed
to pass through and higher frequencies are cut off. The fifth activity
is amplification. Amplifier unit steps up the input signal, in the order
of mV, to a desired level. The sixth activity is attenuation or
increasing the gain. Attenuation unit or gain has a knob with different
gain settings and is used to amplify the signal as necessary.
Load cell assembly is used for recording lateral forces at axle box
level. Load cell of strut type is manufactured in-house suiting to the
axle box arrangement with range of measurement from 0 to 10t
compressive load only. Load cell is of full bridge resistance type and
calibrated with excitation voltage from 5 to 10V AC and under pre-
calibrated hydraulic jack. Its output is about 90 mV/V/tonnes. A load
cell calibration chart is prepared with load in tonnes on x-axis and
mV output on y-axis. The excitation voltage used during calibration
is mentioned in the chart. Care should be taken to use the same
excitation voltage during trial.
Measuring wheel is used for measuring vertical and lateral forces at
rail wheel level. FEM analysis of wheel conforming to s-shape web
profile is carried out to determine the strain gage locations sensitive
to vertical and lateral force. The strain gage locations used for
measurement of lateral force are having minimal effect of vertical
wheel load and similarly, strain gages for vertical wheel load are
having minimal influence of lateral load. The cross talk between

38
vertical and lateral forces is kept to the barest minimum while
selecting the locations.
Wheatstone bridges are formed for vertical and lateral force
measurement channels. Measuring wheel supplied by Swede Rail has
two vertical and one lateral load sensing bridges per wheel. Sixteen
strain gage locations have been selected for vertical bridge with two
gages per arm and twelve locations for lateral bridge with three gages
per arm. This means that in one revolution of the wheel two vertical
and one lateral value would be obtained. Measuring wheel supplied
by AAR has one position channel in addition to above, which
indicates the rail wheel contact point.
Output of channels is taken from slip-ring device fitted on axle end
cap. AAR measuring wheel-set has slip-ring device on both ends of
the axle. Swede Rail measuring wheel-set has slip-ring device on one
end of the axle. Output signal lead from left wheel to right wheel is
transferred through a hole drilled in the axle. This has been done to
save the cost of slip-ring device.
All measuring, signal-conditioning and recording instruments are
issued by the Electronics Lab duly calibrated as per ISO 9000 norms.
Load cells are calibrated and issued by Fatigue Testing Laboratory.
In addition, output calibration of all transducers like accelerometer,
LVDT, string pot, load cell etc should be done daily before the trial
run. Instruments defective or due calibration should be returned to
Electronics laboratory and good/calibrated instruments are to be
drawn by the unit.
Instrumentation set up is made as explained in sketch below. Six
channels can be connected in a signal conditioner.

Accelerometer LVDT Load cell String pot


Ch 1 Ch 2 Ch 3 Ch 4 Ch5 Ch 6




Ch1 Ch2 Ch3 Ch4 Ch5 Ch6

39

~ 230V Signal conditioner



Flick from
Loco Cab
Ch1 Ch2 Ch3 Ch4 Ch5 Ch6

Chart recorder
~ 230V


A parallel path from signal conditioner is connected to an interface, if
recording is done both on chart recorder and DAS. Otherwise, output
from signal conditioner is directly connected to interface through
two-core shielded wires for each data channel and properly grounded.

Interface is connected to DAC installed in one of the slots of PC.

Measurement of Load, Stress & Strain:


In a balanced Wheatstone bridge connected with resistors R1, R2,
R3 and R4, the electrical output e
o
is zero. By applying Ohms
law, we get, R1/R4 = R2/R3(1).


R1
R2




e
o



R3 R4




E
v
= Excitation Voltage AC or DC



40
R1 is an active arm of the bridge if resistor R1 is replaced with a
strain gage and bonded on the material, which is under strain. In
unbalanced condition of the bridge when active arm resistance is
changed by dR1, by applying Kirchhoffs law, we get,
e
o
= [(R1xR2)/(R1+R2)
2
]x[dR1/R1] * E
v
. (2).

Gage factor (GF) = [dR/R]/[dl/l], where, l is length of gage filament.
Strain (e) = dl/l and thus, dR/R = GF x e... (3).
Substituting dR/R and R1=R2=R in equation (2), we get,
e
o
= (E
v
*GF*e)/4 . (4).

Resistance of most conductor changes with temperature. Also,
thermal coefficient of expansion of the strain gage filament is
different from that of the structure to which it is bonded. Thus, strain
gage is subjected to false strain indications with temperature. The
temperature compensation is accomplished by a second dummy strain
gage on an unstrained piece of the same metal as that to which the
active gage is bonded. This dummy gage is either R2 or R4 so that
ratio (1) is undisturbed, i.e.,
[R1+dR1]/R4 = [R2+dR2]/R3.

In case of four active arms of the bridge, by applying Kirchhoffs
law, we get
e
o
=[(R1xR2)/(R1+R2)
2
]*[dR1/R1-dR2/R2+dR3/R3-dR4/R4]*E
v
.
(5).
Substituting R1=R2=R3=R4=R in equation (5),
e
o
= (E
v
*GF*e*n)/4 . (6)
Where n is the number of active arms. In this case, R2 and R4
accomplish the temperature compensation of R1 and R3.








41
P
R1 R1
P
P

R2 R3

Fig A Fig B

In Fig A above, R1 is tensile & R2 is compressive strain.
Temperature compensation gets cancelled because of same effect on
R1 & R2. However, in Fig B above, R1 & R3 are compressive strain.
Temp compensation is doubled and therefore, dummy gages R2 &
R4 are to be used for temperature compensation. It is worthwhile to
note that temperature effect of a gage bonded on curved surface is
more than flat surface.

Measurement of lateral force is done by load-cell. R1&R3 are
bonded on the load-cell in y-axis for measuring compressive strain
and R2&R4 are bonded in z-axis for temperature compensation (also
have Poissons strain). Load (tonnes) vs output (mV) calibration
chart is prepared in laboratory by subjecting the load-cell to known
loads. This chart is used during trial to calculate lateral force where
output measured is converted to load (lateral force). It is important to
use the same excitation voltage during trial that has been used during
calibration. This is simply because electrical output is directly
proportional to excitation voltage. If a different excitation voltage is
used during trial, then a correction factor of (E
chart
/E
trial
) should be
multiplied to the electrical output to read the chart. The excitation
voltage should also be steady.

P

z

R2 R1
x
y



42
R1 is under tensile strain and R2 is under Poisson strain equivalent to
-(o
x
/E). Poissons ratio () varies from 0.25 to 0.35 for most metals.
e
X
= o
X
/E - o
Y
/E - o
Z
/E
e
Y
= o
Y
/E - o
X
/E - o
Z
/E
e
Z
= o
Z
/E - o
Y
/E - o
X
/E

If enough strain gages are mounted adjacent to or overlapping each
other to obtain the principal strains in an area the resulting
configuration is termed a strain rosette.
3
In Rectangular Rosette, 2

1
= 0
0
,
2
= 45
0
and
3
= 90
0

Maximum normal stress is, 1
o
max
=E/2*[(e1+e3)/(1-)+1/(1+){(e1-e3)
2
+(2e2-(e1+e3)
2
)}
0.5
]
Minimum normal stress is,
o
min
=E/2*[(e1+e3)/(1-)- /(1+){(e1-e3)
2
+(2e2-(e1+e3)
2
)}
0.5
]
Maximum shearing stress is,
t
max
=E/2(1+)*{(e1-e3)
2
+(2e2-(e1+e3)
2
)}
0.5

Angle from gage 1 axis (x-axis) to maximum normal stress is,

P
= 0.5*tan
-1
[{2e2-(e1+e3)}/(e1-e3)] 2

Similarly for Two-gage Rosette,
o
max
= E/(1-
2
) [e1+e2] 1
o
min
= E/(1-
2
) [e2+e1]
t
max
= E/2(1+) [e1-e2] and
P
= 0

If R
Sh
is shunted across R1, then, R
eq
= (R x R
Sh
) / (R + R
Sh
) or
change in resistance, dR = R - R
eq
= R
2
/(R + R
Sh
). Substituting dR in
equation (3),
e
0
= R/[GF(R+R
Sh
)] (7)


43
If R1=R2=R3=R4=R= 350 ohm with GF=2.13 and all are active
arms of the bridge, strain e = 350/[2.13x240350] = 0.00068 when a
240 k-ohm resistance is shunted across arm R1. Under no-load
condition with 5V DC excitation voltage, e
o
= 5x2.13x 0.00068/4 =
0.00182 V or 1.82 mV.

In Squeeze Test of coach shell or vehicle under-frame, stresses at
critical locations are determined. The shell or under-frame is
subjected to extreme compressive (buffing gear), tensile (CBC) and
vertical loading (gross weight) conditions. The critical locations are
identified by FEM analysis. Strain gage, R1 is bonded on the location
where stress is to be measured. Strain gage, R2 is bonded on an
unstrained location on the shell or under-frame for temperature
compensation. Resistor R3 & R4 are provided in the Apex Unit.

If R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R = 350+1 ohm with GF=2.13 and gage
length of 10 mm, strain e = 350 / [2.13 x 360350] = 0.000456 when a
360 k-ohm resistance is shunted across arm R1. Under no-load
condition with 5V DC excitation voltage, e
o
= 5x2.13 x 0.000456/4 =
0.0012 V or 1.2 mV. If E of the material is 2.10x10
-4
kg/mm
2
, then,
stress o = e*E = 4.56x2.1 = 9.58 kg/mm
2
. Thus, 1.2 mV corresponds
9.58 kg/mm
2
or 1 mV is equal to 7.98 kg/mm
2
. Electrical output of
the bridge is measured under different load conditions and is used
directly for calculation of stress.


44

45

46