Creating and Using Photographs As Archivial Evidence

Creating and Using Photographs as Historical Evidence
Author(s): Robert Papstein

Source: History in Africa, Vol. 17 (1990), pp. 247-265
Published by: African Studies Association
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CREATING AND USING PHOTOGRAPHS AS
HISTORICAL EVIDENCE
Robert
Papstein
Introduction
The use of
photographs
as research data is
becoming
of
increasing
interest to
historians of Africa. The School of Oriental and African Studies'
Workshop
on
"Photographs
as sources for African
history"
is
only
the most recent
example
of
this
emerging
concern.1 This
paper
is
designed
to discuss some of the
conceptual
problems
one
might
meet when
attempting
to understand
photographs
as data. It
also discusses
making photographs
as a
systematic part
of field research.
Lastly,
it
provides
a brief
primer
on the
type
of
photographic equipment
best suited for
fieldwork.
Historians of Africa are used to
thinking
of themselves as
dwelling
at the
very
cutting edge
of
methodological
and theoretical
innovation,
but in the use of visual
data we
lag
behind our
colleagues
in
ethnology, anthropology,
and
sociology.2
Fieldwork
historians,
virtually
all of whom take
photographs,
have
rarely accepted
photography
as an
integral part
of their field research data.3 Nor has
readily
available visual data been
widely
used
by
historians:
compare
the extensive
historical use of conventional
anthropological
data with the almost total
neglect
of
visual
anthropology.
Although
the
eye
is our most
important information-gathering sense,
we find
it
surprisingly
difficult to
agree
about the
meaning
of
images. Ironically,
one of
the attractions of the
photograph,
its
apparent accessibility (and implied
objectivity),
dissolves into
subjectivity
when
closely
'read.' Since we cannot
readily agree
about
photography's meaning
and content we tend to discard or
marginalize
its use as data.
Obviously
I am
overstating
the case somewhat. We
have of course learned to 'read'
photographs;
this is the reason we can
recognize
a
tree as a tree. But
compared
to the
way
we have learned to read
text,
we read
images
in
haphazard
and
non-systematic ways.
Outside art
history
and cinema
courses,
image reading
is
rarely taught systematically.4
We are all aware of the
power
of
images-how images help
structure behavior.
Advertising photography
is based on this
principle. Liquors,
tobacco
products,
and
cosmetics are sold almost
entirely
on
'image'
without
any
serious
attempt
to assert
inherent differences between
obviously
similar
products.
Without
images
the
staggering suffering
of the African famine of
1984/85 would never have touched us
in the same
way.
The famine
only
'existed'
(outside
the
Sahel)
once it had been
photographed (rather
than
described)
in the media. The South African
government
understands this
power very
well and ensures that
photojournalists
and television
camera teams are
subjected
to even more
rigorous censorship
than word
journalists.
Still,
there are vast
areas,
historical and
contemporary,
where we do not know
-or at least cannot
agree-about
the
meaning
of
images.
The SOAS
Workshop,
which began by assuming that "colonial" photography was a useful category for
History
in
Africa
17 (1990), pp.
247-65.
248 ROBERT PAPSTEIN
describing
certain
types
of
photographs,
found it
increasingly
difficult to
apply
the
concept.
For research
purposes
a more
supple
and nuanced
approach
to the
interpretation
of
photographs
in Africa
(and
elsewhere for that
matter)
needs to be
developed by taking
into account the
prevailing
technical limitations of
making
photographs,
how
photography
was used in a
wider,
non-colonial sense in the late
nineteenth and
early
twentieth
centuries,
and the
evolving conceptual
and
commercial milieus which influenced
composition
and
style.
Our ambivalence about the
meaning
of
images
is mirrored in the
ongoing
debate about whether violent television
images
contribute to violent behavior. It is
usually
claimed that the scientific studies
suggest
there is no correlation. Somehow
it strains
credulity (if
not common
sense)
to
argue
that one
type
of
image,
especially
the
powerful imagery
of
violence,
has no effect when
advertising
imagery
is
universally accepted
as
behavior-molding. Images
not
only modify
behavior and skew
understanding, they
also are the
single greatest
reinforcer of
stereotypes
about Africa. There is not much to be done about the commercial
pressures
within the media which limit news
coverage
to a
very
narrow
spectrum
of African
society
and which tend to
support,
often
unconsciously,
racial and
cultural
stereotypes
and a
longstanding emphasis
on exotica.
Presumably
unfettered
by
these
constraints,
scholars are in a
unique position
to use
images
and words to describe the
rapid
and
profound social,
political,
and
economic transformations
taking place
in Africa. Historical
photographs, by
which
we tend to mean colonial
photographs,
are
increasingly recognized
as useful to
understanding
these
processes,
but because the
changes
in
every part
of Africa are
taking place
at such a
rapid rate,
even the
photographs
of
contemporary
fieldworkers
(if
made
systematically)
will soon become valuable sources of
historical information. In
my
research on the
precolonial history
of the
Upper
Zambezi,
photographs
have
helped
date the introduction of new
political symbols
and the traditions which
explain
them.5
Photographs help
indicate
changing
commercial and economic
relationships by showing
when
European
manufactures-pots, pans,
containers, cloth,
clothes-began
to
replace
local
products. Photographs
of
retailing
taken as
recently
as 1972 in northwestern
Zambia,
when
compared
with
photographs
taken in
1988,
are
part
of the evidence
showing
the
impoverishment
of rural Zambia over the interim. Not
only
do the
photographs
illustrate
general
economic
decline, they
indicate one of the
ways
mission influence has affected
retailing.
The
shops
owned
by Christians,
recognizable by
the biblical
quotations painted
on the
facades,
were
by
far the best-
stocked and
prosperous
in
1972,
not because
Christianity necessarily
made better
businessmen, but,
as I later
discovered,
because Christian businessmen could
rely
on
loans,
supplies,
and
transport
made available
through
their mission whereas
other traders could not. As the infrastructure of the state declined
throughout
the
1980s,
retailers without access to the informal networks of
capital, regular
transportation,
and
supplies
of the missions found it difficult to
manage.
Without doubt one of the most
important
of these
changes,
which
photography
can describe
particularly well, is the
development
of
popular
culture.6
Historical
photographs,
as well as the
photographs
taken
by fieldworkers, could
also increase
understanding
of class
development, changing gender relationships,
the
process
of bureaucratization, agricultural change,
the
penetration
of
capitalism,
PHOTOGRAPHS AS HISTORICAL EVIDENCE 249
and the
myriad
of other transformations
taking place
in Africa. Whether
photographs
will allow us broader
insights
into African societies unobtainable
through
other data is a debate which is
only beginning.
For a start we need to be
able to view
existing
historical
photographs, many
of which lie
neglected
and
forgotten.7
But we should also consider the
equally important question
of
producing photographs-of creating
a visual archive
alongside
fieldwork
tapes
and
notes.
II
Planning
Fieldwork
Photography
Organizing
and
conceptualizing
fieldwork
photography requires
the same
forethought
and
planning
needed for
developing
the
original
research
plan.
Professional
photojournalists
work
systematically, breaking
down events into
parts
and
making up shooting
schedules in advance. One of the first
questions
a
photojournalist
asks is: "Can the essence of the
story
be converted into
images?"
As
any weekly newsmagazine demonstrates,
it is far easier to make
riveting
photographs
of violence and
tragedy
than to
photograph
more subtle
changes
in
social attitudes or
political
ideas.
Photojournalists usually
work
deductively,
beginning
with an
opening "establishing" image
and
becoming
ever more detailed.
The camera is
omnivorous;
our
eye unconsciously
selective. The
process
of
making photographs helps
to structure
perception. Many
fieldworkers will find in
the
planning
and
systematic making
of
photographs
a new
way
of
understanding
events and of
creating
an
unprecedented intensity
of observation.
Photographs always
contain a
subjective message
in addition to the
seemingly objective record,
and all
photographic
data reflect not
only
the
photographers'
interests but also their biases and
assumptions. Every
fieldworker
has to come to terms with this.
Compare,
for
example,
Paul Strand and Basil
Davidson's book about Ghana and Leni
Riefenstal's
hugely
successful books about
the
Nuba.8 Strand,
one of the
great photographers
of the twentieth
century,
photographed
a
society
which
incidentally happened
to be in Africa.
Nevertheless,
the book is
clearly
a
product
of its time
(the 1960s),
and of Davidson's concern to
enhance our
understanding,
on basic human
levels,
of African
societies,
which had
often
appeared
so
strange
and "other" to
westerners. Whatever their
intent,
Riefenstal's
hugely popular pseudo-anthropological
coffeetable books
emphasize
the exoticism and
"otherness"
of the Nubians. Nuba is exotic
by
western standards
and Riefenstal's
photographs capitalize
on this.
Conceptually they
are rather old
fashioned
"ethnographic" photographs, regardless
of their
stunning
use of color.
We
might
find Strand's black and white
photographs
formal and
overly stylized by
today's photographic esthetics,
but
they
are
conceptually
far more
sophisticated
than Riefenstal's because
they
are
photographs
of human
beings
rather than
people
as cultural artifacts.
Fieldworkers need to think
consciously through
what
they
are
trying
to
say
with
photographs. Photographs
can document in the
simplest sense; they
can
reveal
something unknown
(which is
surprisingly difficult to
articulate) or
they
can
be rather
simple supplements
to other data.
250 ROBERT PAPSTEIN
III
Making
Pictures
Researchers who will ask about
anything, including
the most detailed and
intimate
aspects
of
peoples' lives,
are often reluctant to
photograph
even the most
banal
public
situation. It is
rarely possible
to make
good documentary photographs
by 'stealing'
them: effective
photographs require
the
cooperation
of the
subjects.
Social skills are far more
important
than
photographic equipment.
Here it is vital
to be
prepared
to 'waste' film
by making photographs
until
people eventually
ignore
the camera. A
fieldworker,
who
spends
months with the same
people,
is in
an excellent
position
to
photograph
from the "inside out." The
often-quoted adage
from
photojournalist
Robert
Capa,
whose
photographs
of the
Spanish
Civil War
are still
among
the most
powerful
war
photographs
ever
taken-"If your
photographs
aren't
good enough; you're
not close
enough"-also applies
to
fieldwork
photography. Establishing
a social
relationship
is the basis for
good
documentary photography.
IV
Types
of
photographs
Fieldwork
photographs
can be divided into four
types
of
photographs
which I
will term
Authentic, Historical,
Representative,
and
Interpretative.
The
"ethnographically
authentic"
attempts
to document "features" of a
society,
often
material culture. In the
past
these included
photographs
of
"physical types,"
or
examples
of how to do
something.
While such documents can be valuable
(usually
not for the reason
they
were
taken)
there are also cautions for
making
such
photographs today.
The desire of
people
to show the "authentic" form of
something easily
leads to distortions. One of the essential
problems
of
photography
of this kind is that "authentic" can too
easily
be assumed to mean
"ancient."
Also, photographs
of cultural features which are often the most
visually
compelling-ritual,
for
example-can
be distortive if not
placed
in a wider visual
social context.
A fieldworker needs to
develop
a visual sense of the banal. If one looks
closely
at what
photojoumalists
call the
photographic essay (in Europe reportage)-telling
a
story
in a series of
photographs-it
is
striking
how
many photographs
are of
very
common situations.
Perhaps
the best
example
of this to American readers is
the
National
Geographic Magazine (Which
is
mostly
about
people
and
only
occasionally
about
geography). European
readers can find a similar
approach
in
German and French Geo.
Photojournalists doing
editorial work seek to make
photographs
which reveal essential elements of a situation or a
society;
fieldworkers will be
tempted
to
try
to make "authentic" ones.
The second
type
of
photograph
is
consciously
historical. When
anthropology
and
history
were
guided by
static models of
'primitive' societies, photography
was
assumed to be a look into the
past
as well as the
present.
As scholars have
developed
more
dynamic
models of African
societies,
the use of
photographs
has
became less
comprehensively explanatory.
Fieldworkers,
aware that most elements
of African
(and other)
societies have both an ancient and a modem
history
will be
sceptical
about
making photographs
of "ancient" artifacts as
representing
historical
reality.9 Many genuinely
ancient
political symbols,
for
example,
have been
recently
borrowed
by
one
society
from another.10 Here and there it is
perhaps
possible
to
photograph
"the
past,"
but
mostly
we are
photographing
the
present
for
ourselves and future scholars.
The third
type
of
photograph
is
"representative."
These
photographs
are
consciously
of the
present
and do not
purport
to
represent
the
past.
Often these
photographs attempt
to
portray society "objectively"
at the time of their
making,
although
we realize that
they
are not
"objective" any
more than a written
document is
objective.
In
fact,
W.
Eugene
Smith wrote
many years ago
that the
first word which needs to be struck from our discussion of
photography
is
"objectivity.""1
Bearing
in mind that
photographs,
and
especially photographic
essays,
are
always
the
photographer's interpretation
of a
situation,
the
documentary
photograph
can still be an
important
source of information. As with other
sources,
we need to establish the
provenance
of historical
photographs,
as well as
knowing
something
about the motivations which
produced
them.
Obviously
we would not
want to
accept any longer
the notion that a
particular photograph
of a
person
is
"typical"
of one "tribe" or
another,
but we
certainly
can
glimpse
elements of
African societies
through
the same
photographs.
The fourth
type
of
photograph
is
consciously interpretative.
These often
evocative
photographs
are intended to have an editorial
meaning
and
they
are most
commonly
found in the
media,
though
fieldworkers will
inevitably
also make such
images.
In
April
1988
I
was in
Tigre covering
the
Tigre People's
Liberation
Front's
(TPLF) capture
of some towns. In Axum I went to visit the shambles of a
hospital overflowing
with sick and war wounded
and,
perhaps
most
tragically,
children who had lost hands and arms
playing
with undetonated shells. One
boy
of
about seven walked
up
to me
silently
and held
up
the
stump
of his
right
arm. This
confrontation with his mutilation
brought
the
tragic
side of the
Tigrean struggle
together
for me and I made a series of
photographs
of the
boy.
The first showed
him as he had
presented
himself to
me,
looking directly
at the camera
holding up
his
bandaged stump.
The next included the front of a
hospital
wall full of
government slogans
in
Amharic.
For the next I included more of the wall which
had
larger
than life-size stencils of
Marx, Lenin,
and
Engels.
Then I included
yet
more of the wall to include as well a stencil of
Mengistu
Haile
Mariam,
the head
of the
Ethiopian government,
and
finally
a frame which included
only
the
boy
and
the
Mengistu
stencil.
Through
the
juxtaposition
of the
boy
with other
symbols
of
the
Ethiopian
central
government,
each of the frames has a somewhat different
message.
Each is true in its own
way,
but each also contains its own distortions.
252 ROBERT PAPSTEIN
V
The Choice of
Equipment
and Materials
Great
photographs
can be made with
very simple equipment.
Henri Cartier-
Bresson,
one of the
great photojournalists
of this
century,
worked almost
exclusively
with one camera and a standard lens. Edward Weston and Paul Strand
used
fifty-year-old
wooden cameras.
Equipment
is
secondary
to vision and
technique.
As obvious as it
seems,
it is worth
emphasizing
that fieldworkers need
to
practice
with their cameras
prior
to
entering
the field.
Every
serious
photographer
owes his
subject
a measure of technical
competence
which
permits
efficient work.12 This means
being
able to
compose, adjust
the
camera,
and focus
quickly.
The new
generation
of electronic autofocus cameras do all of these
things
automatically.
With a minimum of
practice
it is
possible
to master the camera.
Putting
a roll of film in the camera
quickly
and
taking
it out
again twenty-five
consecutive times teaches a skill which serves for a
photographic
lifetime.
The choice and use of
equipment
is
personal,
often
eclectic,
and
depends
on the
project.
There has never been more
photographic equipment
on the market than
now. I am interested in
images: my knowledge
of
equipment
is restricted. What I
have tried to do below is discuss some
categories
of
equipment
with fieldwork in
mind.
Photographic technology
is
changing
so
rapidly through
the
application
of
microprocessors,
sonar, lasers,
and
computer-designed
and manufactured
optics,
that
it is not sensible to recommend the "best."13
Cameras
For this discussion we can
say
there are two
types
of 35mm cameras. One is
the
rangefinder "point
and shoot" camera which is
usually inexpensive
and
fully
automatic.14 With this
type
of camera one looks
through
a viewer to
adjust
distance
(increasingly
done
by autofocus)
and frame the
picture;
a
separate
lens
takes the
picture.
These cameras work
very
well and are
becoming
better each
year,
but
they
are limited in the kinds of
pictures they
can take.
They
are
designed
for
users who wish to make
prints (rather
than
slides)
and who want maximum
convenience. For casual
photography they
are
excellent;
many
fieldworkers would
need
nothing
more. On the other hand
they
tend to have "slow" lenses-that
is,
they
are not usable
(without flash)
in low
light conditions,
do not have
interchangeable
lenses,
are limited in the
types
of films
they
can
use,
and have
automatic features that cannot be overridden
by
the user. A further
potential
disadvantage
is the
discrepancy
between what
you
see
through
the viewfinder and
what the
taking
lens
puts
on the
film,
especially
when used at
very
close
distances.15
Depending
on the
design
of the camera and the
camera-subject
distance,
this
discrepancy
can be considerable. For normal
photography
this is
usually
not
noticed and manufacturers assume that
you
won't realize the
edges
of the frame
(as
seen in the
viewfinder) have been cut off or added to. For
photographing
documents, which
every
fieldworker should be
equipped
to do, a few
simple
tests in
advance will establish how much of the frame
(if any)
is cut off and the user can
frame the document
accordingly.
The second
type
of camera is the
very popular single
lens reflex
(SLR).
With
this
type
of camera one views the
subject directly through
the lens and what is seen
in the viewfinder is what
appears
on the film.16
Many
SLRs are automatic and
many
automatic SLRs also
permit
manual use of the camera-the best of both
worlds.
They
also allow
interchangeable
lenses and the use of
very
fast
special-
purpose
films,
and
accept
a wide
range
of
specialized
accessories. Most now offer
Through
The Lens
(TTL)
flash
metering,
which makes
using
the flash as
easy
as
the
"point
and
shoot"
cameras. SLR cameras also offer "faster" lenses-lenses
which transmit more
light
and allow
photographs
in situations where slower lenses
require
artificial
light. Although
there are measurable differences between lenses of
different
manufacturers,
to most viewers there is no noticeable difference to the
naked
eye
between the
quality
of
photographs
taken with the lenses of the
major
manufacturers.
Measuring Light
Every light
meter-built into the camera or hand held-uses the same standard
calibration for
measuring light.17
All have the same "defect" for
photographing
in
Africa-they
are calibrated in a
way
which
correctly exposes
caucasian skin tones
but often renders black faces too dark and sometimes as
unrecognizable smudges.
It
is essential to know how
your
camera measures
light.
There are
essentially
four
types
of
metering systems
for cameras:
averaging, center-weighted, spot,
and
integrated.
An
averaging system (older
SLR
cameras;
some
"point
and shoot"
cameras)
looks at the whole viewfinder and
gives
an
average light-reading
of the
entire scene.
Obviously
a black face surrounded
by
a
lighter
area will be
drastically
underexposed.
A
center-weighted exposure system (most better-quality
SLR
cameras) places
about 60% of the
exposure
value in the center of the frame
(where
the
designers
assume the faces will
be)
and thus will
give
better
exposures
than an
averaging system.
A
spot-metering system
will
put
80 to 90% of the value of the
exposure
in a
spot perhaps
1
to 5% of the frame and thus offers a
great
deal of
control over
exposures
but it is slower to use than a
center-weighted system
and
requires
more
judgment
on the
part
of the
photographer.
Quite sophisticated "integrated" exposure systems
are now
appearing
on
middle- to
upper-range
SLR
cameras,
which to some
degree compensate
for this
problem by taking
a
variety
of
light readings
at the same time and
integrating
them
into a
single
lens
setting.
Most cameras will
require adjustments
to
expose
black
faces
properly.
More
exposure
is
required-especially
when the
surrounding
area is
very bright-than
the meter of the camera is calibrated to
give.
A
simple way
to
compensate
for this is to increase
exposure
about
1/3 to
1/2
of an f
stop.18
Unfortunately, many "point
and shoot" cameras do not allow
you
to make these
adjustments.
The
only way
to know how
your
camera works and which
adjustments
can be made is to read the instructions and
especially experiment.
Other
ways
to solve the
problem
of contrast in the
picture
is to move
people
out of the direct sun and into the shade where the contrast is less or to use a
technique
called fill-flash, a combination of natural
light
and electronic flash. When
254 ROBERT PAPSTEIN
this is done
correctly,
it is
hardly
noticeable and allows
proper exposure
of the
lightest
and darkest
parts
of the
picture.
It is a standard
professional technique
which can be learned
by consulting
an
introductory photographic
book.
Many
of
the new electronic cameras include automatic fill-flash in their
options,
a
considerable
advantage
for fieldworkers. To have the widest
range
of fill-flash
possibilities,
the SLR should have the
highest
flash
synchronization speed
possible.19
With most
cameras,
eyeglass
wearers cannot see the entire frame because the
eye
is
physically
too far
away
from the viewfinder.20
Eyeglass
wearers who do not
want to wear
glasses
while
making pictures
can
purchase diopters (eyepiece
correctors)
which screw into the viewfinder of the
camera,
but this is a
compromise
solution and its effectiveness
depends
on individual
eye problems.
A more
elegant
solution is to have the
focusing eye prescription
made
up,
which then can be
screwed into the viewfinder.
Batteries
Electronic cameras are
by
definition
battery-dependent
cameras: when the
battery
fails the camera no
longer operates. Many photojournalists
who
regularly
work in remote areas
carry
at least one non-electronic camera. In recent
years
there
has been a revolution in
battery design
which has resulted in
longer life,
less
leakage
and better
storage
life. These
changes
are
continuing;
at the moment
lithium camera batteries are
widely
used
by professionals. They
are
long lasting
and have a
very long
shelf
life, allowing
them to be
stored,
even at
relatively high
temperatures,
for
up
to five
years
before use. Some cameras use older
mercury-
silver batteries. While effective
(and expensive), they
are
very dangerous
if
swallowed or if broken
open.
In the
field,
where
every
discard is someone else's
treasure,
all batteries should be
disposed
of in a
way they
cannot become a hazard.
Cameras: Motor Drives and Winders
More and more cameras are
offering
built-in automatic film advance and
rewind. Left
eyed photographers,
who have to contend with
moving
the camera
away
from the
viewing eye
for each
exposure,
find automatic film advance a decided
boon. The
major disadvantage
of motor drives is the noise.
Cameras: data backs
In recent
years
scientists have made extensive use of the "data
back,"
which
replaces
the normal back of the camera. This contains a
microprocessor-driven
liquid crystal display
which
imprints
the time and date on the corner of the
picture.
Nikon's
top-of-the-line
F4 camera allows data
(including sequential
frame
numbers)
to be
printed
on the film
between
the frames.
Camera: cases and
bags
Ironically,
one of the most difficult
things
to find is a
good
camera
bag.
Fieldworkers need a
bag
for
tape recorder, cassettes, camera, perhaps
extra lens,
film, flash, notebook, batteries,
and
sundry personal
items. A camera
bag
is often a
good
solution for all this. Some of the
best,
no-nonsense
bags
are made
by
Jim
Domke,
a former
press photographer.
Domke
bags
are
strong, durable, versatile,
protect
the
equipment,
come in various
sizes-and,
most
important,
can be
"worked"
using only
one hand
(they
don't have
zippers). Carrying
a few camera-size
zip-loc plastic bags
and one
large plastic garbage bag
to
protect everything
in
extreme dust or rain makes them the most versatile
bags
available.
Electronic Flash
Electronic flash units made
by
the camera manufacturer
usually
offer the
greatest compatibility
with the camera.
However,
a number of other
manufacturers,
such as Vivitar and
Sunpak,
make flashes
offering compatibility, versatility,
and
very good
value. Most
important
is that the flash will work with the automatic
TTL
metering
in the camera
(in
all its
modes)
and that its
angle of coverage
matches the
angle of your
widest
angle
lens. Most flashes will cover the
angle
of
view of a 35mm lens
and,
with an
accessory
diffuser
(usually included),
a 24mm
lens.
Of
secondary
consideration,
but nevertheless
very important,
is the number of
batteries a flash
requires,
how
many
flashes
per
set of
batteries,
and the time it
takes to
recycle.
Almost all flashes use AA
type batteries,
which will also fit
tape
recorders,
flashlights,
and radios.
Only
fresh alkaline
type
batteries
designed
for
heavy duty
use should be considered. It is
increasingly unlikely
that such batteries
(especially
fresh
ones)
will be available in the field or even in some countries.
Built in
rechargeable
batteries
are,
generally speaking,
not a
good
idea because
they
are
problematic,
but
rechargeable
nickel cadmium batteries can be an excellent
investment;
the newest
types
are
very
reliable and trouble free.21
Flash
pictures
are often harsh and
unpleasant
and the use of the flash
usually
destroys
the
atmosphere
of the event. Sometimes it is
unavoidable,
though,
and
there are a few
simple ways
to
improve
the
quality
of
pictures
taken
by
flash. A
piece
of white shower curtain
taped
over the flash head
(or
the use of a 24mm
diffuser)
will
help
soften the
light.22 "Bouncing"
the
light
off a
ceiling
or wall is
also
especially useful,
creating
a
softer,
more
natural,
light.
Most electronic flashes
swivel to allow
this,
while the TTL
system
of the camera will
automatically adjust
the
exposure.
Lenses
A lens has two characteristics
important
for this
discussion;
its
angle
of
view-how much it
sees,
and its
speed-the ability
to transmit
light.
A fast lens
will be able to take
pictures
when a slow lens cannot or must resort to flash. A
standard lens with a maximum f
stop
of 3.5 or 2.8
(most "point
and shoot"
cameras)
would be considered slow while one of 1.8 or 1.4 would be considered
fast. A lens able to take in more than a "normal"
view,
and which also allows
photographs
at low
light levels, is a
great advantage. Unfortunately, many
fieldworkers
buy just
the
opposite-a telephoto
zoom lens, often in the
popular
70-210, range
which is
inherently
slow. A far better choice for a zoom lens is a
256 ROBERT PAPSTEIN
wide-angle
to moderate
telephoto
in the 28-85mm
range.
The inherent
"slowness"
of zoom lenses can be
partially compensated by using
faster films
(see below,)
with
consequent
loss of
quality.
Single
lens reflex cameras are
usually
sold with 50mm normal lenses. Most
photojournalists
use a 35mm or 28mm as standard. An ultra violet filter on each
lens
protects
the front
glass
element
against
scratches. A lens
hood,
no
longer
necessary against
reflections,
now
protects against
rain,
bumping,
and other
physical
hazards.
Film
If
photographs
are
regarded
as a
part
of the research
archive,
the choice of film
is critical. There are three basic
types
of film:
slides,
color
prints,
and black and
white.
Virtually
all
magazine photography
is done on slide film. The standard
professional
slide film is Kodachrome ISO
25,
ISO
64,
or the new ISO 200. Most
photojournalists
use ISO 64. For
quality,
color
fidelity
and
stability
there is
nothing
better than
Kodachrome;
everything
else is a
compromise.
Kodak
estimates
that, given proper storage,
Kodachrome will not
begin
to fade or
deteriorate,
for at least 100
years.23
All other slide films are called E6 films
(from
the
process
used to
develop
them).
This includes Kodak Ektachrome
films,
Fujichrome (an
excellent E6
film),
Agfachrome,
Sakura, 3M,
and others. E6 films are the standard whenever
speed
is
more
important
than
quality
and
permanence.
E6 films can be
developed
at home or
in an hour
by
a
laboratory using relatively simple equipment.
A second
advantage
is their
speed.
Some E6 films are available in ISO
400, 800,
1600 and can be
force-developed (with
loss of
quality)
to ISO 3200.
Virtually
all
photojournalists
carry
one of the fast E6 films for
very
low
light
conditions or when the situation
requires very
fast shutter
speeds.
E6 films do not have the color saturation of Kodachrome and
they
have more
"grain"-when enlarged
the structure of the film is more
apparent.
The
dyes
used in
E6 are not as stable as in Kodachrome. Kodak estimates the
longevity
of their E6
films at
fifty years
before deterioration could
begin.
Other films can
begin
to
deteriorate within a few
years
after
development (see Appendix 1).
Color
print
films are
designed mostly
for
snapshots.
The
film,
and
especially
the
prints,
are considered to be
non-permanent
and
subject
to
fairly rapid
deterioration and
fading, compared
to Kodachrome
(see Appendix 1).
A further
problem
with
prints
is that
virtually
all
prints
are made on automatic
machines,
which often
underexpose
black faces even when the
negative
has been
correctly
exposed.24
An
exception
to the
impermanence
of color
prints
are
prints
made
using
the
comparatively expensive
Cibachrome
process.
Not
only
is it stable but it is
very
beautiful. The
prints
are made
directly
from
slides,
not
negatives.
Ilford,
the
manufacturer of
Cibachrome,
estimates that
prints
should last at least 100
years
before
beginning
to fade. Other
companies, including Kodak, now offer similar
direct
printing
from slides.
The
only permanent image
is black and white, assuming
that the film and
prints
have been
archivally processed.
The
photojournalist's
standard black and
white film is Kodak Tri-X
(ISO 400).25
Kodak has
just
introduced a new
super
high-speed
film,
TMax Professional 3200. This
special-purpose
film is
designed
to
be
exposed
at ISO 3200 or 6400 and can be
exposed
at
up
to ISO 50,000.26
The hotter film
becomes,
the faster it oxidizes and loses its
ability
to render
colors
correctly,
while its
sensitivity
to
light changes, causing exposure problems.
Ideally,
films should be stored in a
refrigerator,
which retards the oxidation
process.
All films can have their
expiration
dates extended
by refrigeration
or can be stored
indefinitely by freezing.
Cooled or frozen film must be allowed to come to room
temperature
before use.
All
traveling photographers
face the
problem
of
airport x-ray
machines. There
is considerable difference of
opinion
about
whether,
and to what
extent,
these
damage
film. The current consensus is that
x-ray
machines should be avoided if
possible
because their effects are cumulative.
Recognizing
this
problem
Kodak has
begun
to
print
on the front of some of its
professional
films "Do not
expose
to
radiation or
x-rays." Using
this
notice,
a
large
measure of
courtesy,
and
early
arrival at the
security
desk
may
allow the fieldworker to
pass through
without
having
the film
x-rayed.
Lead
bags
do not
help
much
any
more since the machines
can see
through
the
bags although they
do this without
using
extra
power
and are
therefore no more
dangerous
than a normal look.
VI
Film/Picture Record
Keeping
Everybody
has their own
system (or
lack of
it)
for
storing photographs.
Photojournalists
have to
keep good
records of their
photographs
because film is
usually shipped
back to a
magazine
or
agency undeveloped.
A
caption
sheet
indicating
the
date,
place, subject,
and
special significance
of each frame is included
with each roll.
Transporting large
amounts of film and
keeping
track of its
contents takes
planning
and
forethought.
One of the
greatest problems
which
archivists have
today
is that
photographers
of the
past
did not
adequately organize
or
caption
their
pictures.
Fieldworkers
may easily
use
fifty
rolls of film over a
long period
of fieldwork and so need a
system
for
identifying
individual
subjects
and
people.
I use the
following system.
Preparing
Film for Use in the Field
All the film canisters are taken out of the boxes
(this
facilitates
transport
and
passage
of
customs).
Five rolls of the same
type
of film are then
taped together
alternating
the direction of the film canisters. For each
type
of film I use a different
colored
tape
to
wrap
these sticks. A stick of five rolls bound with
orange tape
means
Kodachrome;
blue is
Fujichrome 400;
green,
Tri-X.
On each film cassette I write with an indelible felt
tip pen
the date of the
film's
expiry (found on the
box) and the number of the roll. While rolls are
numbered
consecutively, they
need not be used
consecutively.
On each roll I
put
a
self-adhesive label the size of the film cassette. On the label, at the
top,
I have
written the
type
of film, ISO
speed,
and the roll number. The label is
wrapped
258 ROBERT PAPSTEIN
around the
cassette,
which is then
placed
back in the canister. Once film rolls are
exposed,
the leader is wound back into the cassette in order to
prevent running
a
roll
through
the camera twice.
Preparing
the Cameras for Field Use:
Assuming
I am
using
three
films,
each camera has three
pieces
of different
colored
tape
stuck to the left hand side of the
back,
as above. The
orange tape
is
stuck to the
pentaprism
in the
camera(s)
loaded with Kodachrome so I see in an
instant which film is loaded. Each time a new role of film is
put
in the camera I
automatically
check that the
tape
is accurate and ISO dial is set
correctly.
On the
right
side back of each camera is a
piece
of duct
tape.
As each film is
removed from the canister I remove the label which I earlier
placed
on the cassette
and stick it to the
piece
of
tape. (The tape
is there
only
to
give
the sticker a
bondable
surface)
On this sticker I write brief
captions.
If
necessary,
I write more
detailed
captions
in a notebook carried in the camera
bag.
When the roll is finished
the sticker is removed and
placed
around the cassette
(if
there is a
separate caption
sheet that is also
wrapped
around the cassette when the film is
shipped).
As the
cassette is
placed
in one of the
empty
canisters in the
stick,
I cross the
top
of the
cap
to indicate the roll has been used. This
way
I can see
immediately
how
many
rolls have been used.
When the film is sent to the
laboratory
for
development,
I remove the sticker
with the
captions
from the cassette and
put
each roll in a
developing envelope,
noting
the number of the
developing envelope
on the sticker. When the film is
returned I can match the roll with the
captions
and then
caption
each slide on the
mount.
Accessories
There are
literally
thousands of
photographic
accessories for
sale,
most of
them
unnecessary.
A small set of
jeweler's
screwdrivers
(one handle,
different
blades)
will take care of loose screws. A small
"lipstick"
brush-the kind that
retracts and has a cover-is
necessary
to
keep
lenses clean. This
type keeps
itself
clean whereas others do not. A
plastic
bottle of lens
cleaning
fluid and a
couple
of
packs
of lens
cleaning
tissue is about all one needs.27
VII
Conclusion
While we are
only beginning
to
investigate
the use of visual materials for
historical
research,
there is no doubt that
photographic
archives will offer future
historians a valuable new source of data.
However, making
fieldwork
photographs
is also valuable to researchers who
might
need to
interpret
old
pictures.
If
researchers
participate
in the
process
of
visually interpreting
a
society
to outsiders,
they
will almost
certainly
be able to
gain
a
greater understanding
into the
intentions and limitations of earlier
photographers.
The most effective
way
to understand how
photographs
can be used is to
study
existing
work. I have
appended
a
bibliography
of
significant photographic
studies.
Some of them are
specific attempts
to use
photography
in fieldwork
situations,
others are
outstanding examples
of the
"photographic essay,"
and still others are
specifically
concerned with Africa. A last section includes some
introductory
titles
for those interested in
technique.
Not
everyone doing
fieldwork will be interested in
making photographs
a
part
of their research. But those who have the interest and
take the trouble to
integrate photography
into the archive of their fieldwork data
will leave a
legacy
of
yet
undetermined
significance
for the future.
Appendix
1
Stability
of
Photographic
Materials
Relative dark
stability
of 35mm color films
(Class
1 is
best,
5 is
worst)
Class 1
Current Kodachrome
(all speeds)
Class 2
Current Ektachrome E-6 films28
Current
Fujichrome
E-6 films
Agfachrome
200
(E-6)
Class 3
Fujichrome
R100
(E-4)
Class 4
Agfachrome
64 and
10029
GAF color slide films
Class 5
Old Ektachromes
E-1, E-2,
E-3 sheet film and E-4
duplicating
film.
Relative
Fading
in Slide
Projection (Class 1
is
best,
4
worst)
Class 1
Fujichrome
50 and 100 Professional
Class 2
Ektachrome E-6
films,
including
E-6
duplicating
film
Fujichrome
100 and 400
Agfachrome
200
(E-6)
Class 3
Kodachrome 25, 64 and 40, type
A. Kodachrome 200, not available
during
the
testing,
can also be assumed to fall into this
category.
260 ROBERT PAPSTEIN
Agfachrome
64 and 100
Class 4
All GAF color slide films
To maintain maximum color
fidelity
for slides which are to be
reproduced
a
total
projection
time of not more than
twenty
minutes for Kodachromes and one
hour for Ektachromes is recommended. If slides are to be used in
prolonged
projections
or
repeated projections, duplicate
slides should be used.
Estimated Time Before
Perceptible
Color
Change
in Dark
Storage (in Years)
Current Kodachromes-100+
Earlier
Kodachromes-up
to 50
E-6
Ektachromes-up
to 50
High Speed
Ektachrome E-4-about 20
Ektachrome E-3 sheet film-about 6
Vericolor
II, type
S and Kodacolor VR-about 25
Other Vericolors-3 to 6
Color Prints
Inexpensive "Drugstore" prints:
1
to 5
Cibachrome, polyester
base-100+
(expensive
but
affordable)
Agfachrome Speed-100+
Dye
transfer
prints-100-300 (these
are
very expensive)
Black and White Prints
Archivally processed
black and white
prints printed
on a
paper
base
(rather
than a
plastic
"RC"
base)
will last
indefinitely.
There is no
way
to know how
long normal, commercially processed,
black and
white
prints
will last since it is
impossible
to know how
they
were
processed-
how well the
image
was fixed
and,
especially,
how
thoroughly
the
prints
were
washed clean of residual chemicals.
Appendix
2
Sources of Materials for
Storing
and
Preserving Photographs
Light Impressions
439 Monroe Avenue
Rochester, New York 14607-5717
U.S.A.
Produces a
catalog
The Maine
Photographic
Resource
2 Central Street
Rockport,
Maine 04856
U.S.A.
Notes
1.
Organized by
Andrew Roberts and David
Killingray,
12-13
May
1988. See
also Andrew Roberts, ed.,
The Use
of Photographs
as Sources
for African History
(London, 1989).
2. See for
example,
John Collier Jr. and Malcolm Collier, Visual
Anthropology: Photography
as Research
Method,
(Albuquerque, 1986);
Bruce
Jackson,
Fieldwork
(Urbana, 1987);
the new
journal
Visual
Anthropology (especially
vol.
1,
no.
1,
November
1987); Gregory
Bateson,
Balinese Character: A
Photographic Analysis (New York, 1962). Many anthropologists explored
film
making
with limited success in the 1950s and 1960s.
See,
for
example,
Claude
Meillassoux's films
"Bamako,
I Ni
Tye" (1965)
and "Goumbou du Sahel"
(1965)
and
Luc de
Heusch, "Ruanda,
tableaux d'une feodalite
pastorale" (1955).
A more recent
statement of the uses of film can be found in the new series "Visual
Anthropology,"
Jack R.
Rollwagen
ed.,
Anthropological Filmmaking: Anthropological Perspectives
on the Production
of
Film and Video
for
General Public Audiences
(New York, 1988).
3.
I
am
sorry
to have to
say
that this is a case of do as I
say,
not do as I
did.
During my
fieldwork in the
Upper
Zambezi
during
the
early
1970s I did not
fully
integrate
visual data into
my
research-to
my present regret.
See also Lonna M.
Malmsheimer,
"Photograhpic Analysis
as
Ethnohistory: Interpretive Strategies,"
Visual
Anthropology
1
(1987),
4. Edmund
Carpenter
has
briefly
described the
problems
of
teaching image-
reading (and
its
devastating effects)
in
Papua
New
Guinea,
as the
newly-independent
government prepared
to use
photographs
to communicate with the
large
number of
linguistically
different,
non-literate
people
who had never seen a
photograph.
When
shown a
polaroid photograph
taken
only
seconds
before,
people initially
failed to
recognize
themselves or the
everyday things
which
appeared
with them. See Edmund
Carpenter,
Oh,
What a Blow That Phantom Gave Me!
(St. Albans, 1976), 112-13,
118-21 ex
passim.
5. See Robert
Papstein,
"From Ethnic
Identity
to Tribalism: The
Upper
Zambezi of
Region
of Zambia 1830-1981" in
Leroy
Vail, ed.,
The Creation
of
Tribalism in Southern
Africa (Berkeley, 1989),
372-94.
6. For three
widely
different
examples
see Martinus
Daneel,
Southern Shona
Independent
Churches
(2
vols.: The
Hague, 1971-74); Margaret Courtney-Clarke,
Ndebele
(New York, 1987);
Nadine Gordimer and David
Goldblatt, Lifetimes
Under
Apartheid (New York, 1987).
7. Archivists at the SOAS
workshop vididly
described how underfunded and
under
equipped they
are to deal with
photographs
which often take a
great
deal of
time to
identify
and
catalog.
262 ROBERT PAPSTEIN
8. Paul Strand and Basil
Davidson,
Ghana: An
African
Portrait
(Millerton,
N.Y., 1976);
Leni Riefenstahl,
The Nuba
(New York, 1974); idem.,
The
People of
Kau
(New York, 1976).
9.
See,
for
example,
Eric Hobsbawm and Terence
Ranger,
eds.,
The Invention
of
Tradition
(London, 1981)
and
Vail,
The Creation
of
Tribalism.
10.
Papstein, "Ethnicity."
11. W.
Eugene
Smith,
Minamata: The
Story of
the
Poisoning of
a
Village
and
the
People
Who Bore the Burden
of Courage (New York, 1975),
7.
12. Fieldworkers should consult
African
Arts 18
(1985),
for an extensive
discussion of
photographic techniques
and
quality
standards
required by
this
beautifully-produced journal.
13. Some 70% of
professional photojournalists
use Nikon SLR
cameras,
mostly
because Nikon makes
virtually every
lens and
accessory imaginable
and it
provides very good professional support
services. The current models of Nikon used
extensively by professional photographers
are the
top
of the line
(new
and
very
expensive)
F4,
the workhorse F3 and the "bottom of the line" FM-2. The F4 and F3s
are
fully
electronic cameras. The FM-2 is a
rugged,
manual camera which Nikon
makes in
response
to
professional
demands for a camera which can be used in
extreme conditions and which is not
battery-dependent.
14. An
exception
to this is the
very expensive,
excellent M-series Leica
cameras. Some
photojournalists
consider them the ultimate
camera;
others feel
they
have been
superseded by
the Nikon
system. Setting
aside their
staggering expense,
for
quiet operation
in
very
low
light
situations the M Leicas with the Summilux and
Noctilux lenses are
unsurpassed.
15.
Many
of these cameras will not focus closer than three feet
(1 meter),
a
potentially
serious
disadvantage.
See the discussion of
photographing
documents
below.
16.
Strictly speaking,
this is
actually
not true.
Compared
to the
rangefinder-
type
cameras,
the
discrepancy
is
very
small,
but varies
by
camera manufacturer and
even within models of the same manufacturer. The Nikon F3 model-the standard
professional
camera-is,
I
believe,
the
only
camera where 100% of what is seen
through
the viewfinder
appears
on the film. Other cameras
usually
cut off a small
proportion (2%
to
10%),
which means that the
photographer
must leave a
slight
border around the frame if the
edges
are crucial to the
picture.
17. Professional
photographers
tend to
prefer
an
independent
handheld
"incident"
light
meter,
which has what
appears
to be a half of a
ping-pong
ball over
the
light receptor.
Camera meters measure the
light reflected by
the
subject;
incident
meters measure the
light falling
on the
subject.
Pointed at
snow,
a reflected meter
reading
will render the snow
grey;
an incident
reading
will render snow white.
Anyone
who is serious about
obtaining optimal
results should
investigate
the use of
incident
light
measurement. All
light
meters
only give
indications of the
proper
exposure-experience
determines the correct
exposure
for the situation. When the
photograph
is
particularly important
and the
exposure questionable, bracketing
(making exposures
over and under the meter
reading)
is the best answer.
18. The
sensitivity
of film used to be rated
by
ASA
(American
Standards
As,ciation)
or DIN
(Deutsche
Industrie
Normen),
but
recently
has
changed
to a new
name ISO
(International
Standards
Organization). Only
the name is
new;
the numbers
remain the same-ISO 100 is the same as ASA
100,
etc. ISO 400 film takes half the
exposure
of ISO 200
film;
in turn ISO 200 film takes half the
exposure
of ISO 100
film. For Kodachrome and other slide films I
prefer
to determine the correct
exposure
setting
for each
picture
and then
open
the lens a little
(1/3
to
1/2 of an f
stop)
to
give
the faces more
exposure.
For Tri-X black and white film I
usually expose
the
entire roll at 250 or 320 instead of the standard ISO 400. Slide and black and white
film that has been
exposed
at the
wrong
ISO can be corrected
by
a custom
laboratory.
19. This is the
highest
shutter
speed
which can be used with the flash. If the
shutter does not
synchronize
with the
flash,
one side of the frame will be black.
Older cameras tend to have flash
synchronization
at
1/60
of a
second;
the newer
cameras allow
synchronization
at
1/250,
a decided
advantage.
20. The Nikon F3 and F4 with the
High-Eyepoint
viewfinder
permit
full frame
vision with
eyeglasses.
21. But
rechargeable
nicad
(nickel-cadmium)
batteries have a number of
objectionable
characteristics. While
they
offer faster
recycling, they
do not last as
long
as
non-rechargeable
batteries. More
problematic
is their
tendency
to
"forget"
how to
accept
a
recharge.
Nikon Professional Services
suggests
that users of
rechargeable
nicads
recharge
them at
irregular
intervals for
irregular periods
of time.
22.
I
use Nikon flash units with the 24mm diffuser
permanently
attached. It is
removed
only
when the flash to
subject
distance
requires
it. A further refinement is
to use the flash off the camera
through
the use of an off-camera extension cord. This
allows the flash to be
pointed
at the
subject
from a side
angle
instead of direct in-
the-face
flash,
which is
usually unflattering
and harsh.
23. This assumes
proper storage
of slides. At the moment the best affordable
slide
storage system
is
plastic
slide
pages.
There are
many
different
types
on the
market,
some of them
very dangerous
to
slides-they
exude the destructive
plastifiers
which makes the
plastic
flexible.
Fortunately
the
cheapest
are also the best.
Light
Impressions
in New York sells
virtually everything
needed to store and
preserve
photographs archivally.
Their address is in
Appendix
2. If
you already
have slides in
pages
and want to know if
they
are
safe,
smell the
page.
If
you
smell chemicals
they
are
probably dangerous.
24. The
only way
to
get outstanding prints
is to have them custom-made
by
hand. This is not as
expensive
as it
might
at first
appear.
Custom laboratories
maintain
quality
control that mass
photofinishers
cannot and are worth the small
extra
expense
for film
developing.
25. Tri-X can be
exposed
at a
variety
of
settings.
In Africa I
expose
it at 250
instead of its
recommended
400. It can also be
exposed
at 800 or 1600 when lack of
light requires
this. Each deviation from 400
requires
a
corresponding adjustment
in
development time,
temperature,
and
possibly developer.
Custom laboratories do this
daily.
Information about
"forcing"
or
"push" developing
Tri-X film is available
from Kodak or an
introductory photography
book.
26. This film
gives spectacularly good
results at ISO 3200 and 6400. For
very
low
light
conditions it is a vast
improvement
over force
(pushed) developed
Tri-X. It
will allow available
light photographs
to be made in situations where flash had to
be used
previously.
A
"point
and shoot" camera will not be able to use this
film,
however.
264 ROBERT PAPSTEIN
27. The best lens
cleaning
fluid is made
by
Kodak,
simply
a weak
detergent
in
distilled water. Solvent
type
cleaners can
damage
lens
coating(s)
and
seep
into the
lens
mount,
dissolving
lubricants. Lenses should be cleaned as seldom as
possible.
To clean a lens first brush it
lightly, put
a
drop
or two of fluid on the
special
lens
cleaning
tissue
(not eyeglasses
cloths which contain
silicon),
not on the lens
itself,
and clean
away smudges, wiping
with a clean
dry
tissue.
Many photojournalists
prefer
a chamois for lens
cleaning.
28. E-6 refers to the
type
of
processing necessary
to
develop
the film.
Virtually
all slide films
today
use E-6
processing except
for Kodachrome. E-4 is the
predecessor
to E-6 and is still
occasionally
used.
29.
Agfa
and Ansco films are
particularly
sensitive to
high
relative
humidity
and their lives can be
greatly
extended
by storing
them at low
(30
to
45%)
relative
humidity.
Bibliography
Avedon, Richard,
In the American West. New
York, 1986.
Carpenter,
Edmund, Oh,
What a Blow That Phantom Gave Me! St
Albans,
1976.
Daniel, Peter,
Merry
A.
Foresta,
Maren
Stange
&
Sally
Stein,
Official Images:
New
Deal
Photography. Washington,
Smithsonian Institution
Press, 1987.
Davidson, Bruce, Subway.
New
York,
1985.
America 1935-1946: The
Photographs
of the Farm
Security
Administration and the
office of War Information from the Prints and
Photographs
Division of the
Library
of
Congress.(1,576 microfiche). Chadwyck-Healey,
1987.
Graham,
Paul Al: The Great North Road.
London,
n.d.
Golden, Nan,
The Ballad
of
Sexual
Dependency.
New
York, 1986.
Riboud, Marc, Photographs
at Home and Abroad. New
York,
1988.
Richards,
Eugene,
Below the Line:
Living
Poor in America. New
York,
1987.
Reid,
Robert L.
ed.,
Back Home
Again:
Indiana in the Farm
Security
Administration
Photographs,
1935-1943.
Bloomington,
1987.
Salgado,
Sebastiao,
Other Americas. New
York,
1986.
Strand,
Paul and Basil
Davidson,
Ghana: An
African
Portrait.
Millerton,
1976.
Understanding Photographs: Methodology
African
Arts, 18/4
(August, 1985).
Bayer,
Jonathan,
Reading Photographs: Understanding
the Aesthetics
of
Photography.
New
York,
1977.
Berger,
John,
About
Looking.
New
York, 1980.
Collier,
John Jr. and Malcolm
Collier, Visual
Anthropology: Photography
as
Research
Method,
1986.
Geary,
Christraud,
"Photographs
as materials for African
history:
some
methodological
considerations,
History
in
Africa,
13
(1986)
89-116.
Leongard,
John,
Pictures under Discussion. New
York, 1987.
Sontag,
Susan,
On
Photography.
New
York, 1977.
Stange,
Maren,
Social
Documentary Photography
in
America,
1890-1950.
Cambridge,
1989.
Szarkowski, John,
Looking
at
Photographs:
One Hundred Pictures in the Collection
of
the Museum
of
Modern Art. New
York,
1973.
Woodford, Susan,
Looking
at Pictures.
Cambridge,
1983
Technique
Orabona,
B.
Nadine,
The
Photographer's Computer
Handbook. New
York,
1984.
Picker, Fred,
The Zone VI
Workshop.
Newfane,
1972.
Vestal, David,
Photography.
New
York,
1978.

Creating and Using Photographs As Archivial Evidence

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Creating and Using Photographs as Historical Evidence

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