Thermal Transfer Value Coefficients

Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 18411861
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy and Buildings
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ enbui l d
Predetermined overall thermal transfer value coefcients for Composite,
Hot-Dry and Warm-Humid climates
Seema Devgan, A.K. Jain, B. Bhattacharjee
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz khas, New Delhi 110016, India
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 10 February 2009
Received in revised form 20 May 2010
Accepted 20 May 2010
Keywords:
OTTV
OTTV coefcients
Air-conditioned ofce buildings
Hot-Dry climate
Warm-Humid climate & Composite climate
a b s t r a c t
This paper attempts to formulate Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) coefcients for Composite, Hot-
Dry and Warm-Humid climates, the three main tropical climates in India. Four existing air-conditioned
ofce buildings two mid-rise and two high-rise were modeled as case studies using eQuest v.3.6, which
is a DoE2.2, based building energy simulation tool. Based on the study of building envelope, loads, oper-
ation and HVAC system characteristics of these case study buildings, a hypothetical high-rise, 16 storey
ofce building, octagonal in plan was created for parametric studies. 98 types of opaque exterior wall
constructions and 93 types of glass constructions were varied sequentially in parametric runs to obtain
results for hourly wall conduction, glass conduction and glass radiation heat ow in eight orientations
for each of the climate type. These hourly results were processed to obtain annual heat gain intensities
for each parametric case for all three modes of heat transfer. Regression analysis was used to obtain the
OTTV coefcients TD
eq
, DT and SF for the three climates. AnewOTTV equation is obtained and presented.
The set of coefcients obtained were veried by calculating the OTTV for the four case study buildings,
for various parametric runs. The computed OTTV for the four case study buildings exhibits good linear
correlation with the annual space cooling plus heating energy use in three climates.
2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
1.1. Global scenario on the use of overall thermal transfer value
(OTTV) in building energy codes
In many countries with predominantly cooling based climates,
OTTVor overall thermal transfer value is usedas part of the building
envelope energy code regulation. The basic assumption is that the
higher the OTTV value, the greater will be the net heat gain through
the building envelope and hence more energy will be required for
cooling. Some of the countries which have evolved OTTV based
building energy codes for their climate and building types include
Singapore (rst adopted in 1979) [1a,1b], Hong Kong [2], Thailand
[3], Sri Lanka [4] and Pakistan [5]. In these countries, high solar
Abbreviations: ASHRAE, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
conditioning Engineers; BEC(s), Building Energy Code(s); BEE, Bureau of Energy
Efciency, Ministry of Power in Government of India; CDD, Cooling Degree Days;
CDH, Cooling Degree Hours; CR, Cooling Requirement; ECBC, Energy Conservation
Building Code; EPF, Envelope Performance Factor; ESM, External Shading Multiplier;
HDD, Heating Degree Days; HSA, Horizontal Shadow Angle; HVAC, Heating Venti-
lation and Air-Conditioning; ISHRAE, Indian Society of Heating, Refrigeration and
Air-Conditioning Engineers; IWEC, International Weather for Energy Calculations;
OTTV, Overall Thermal Transfer Value; VSA, Vertical Shadow Angle.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 11 2659 1193; fax: +91 11 2658 1117.
E-mail address: bishwa@civil.iitd.ac.in (B. Bhattacharjee).
radiation during the summer months is the main source of solar
gains and also the reason for rising daytime air temperatures. Pre-
dominantly, the winter season is either brief or mild and in some
cases totally absent. The OTTV based building energy codes of these
countries differ from each other based on their climatic and geo-
graphical location and also in the manner in which the coefcients
TD
eq
, DT and SF are derived.
The exact methodology of obtaining the OTTV coefcients for
buildingcodes of different countries is not widelyreportedinlitera-
ture. Adetailedcomparisonof these OTTVcodes is beyondthe scope
of this paper. However, based on available literature [1a,1b,2,3,4,5],
Table 1 gives a brief comparison of OTTV requirements and coef-
cients for the ve countries andthose derivedfor India inthis study.
The OTTV based standards of Singapore, Hong Kong and Thailand
(also Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines not listed in Table 1)
have many similar features (such as OTTV limits, form of equation
andparameters) as development of the younger standards has been
often inuenced by the preceding ones and all of them have used
theAmericantechnology or buildingenergysimulationtools toset
up the basic OTTV equations [6]. It is interesting to note that some
very recent BEC(s) e.g. of Jamaica (2003) [7] and Egypt (2003) [8]
have also adopted OTTV based approach for envelope performance
criteria. In these cases, more rigorous methods have been used for
obtaining OTTV coefcients as the tools available for parametric
studies and simulation results have also become more advanced in
these years.
0378-7788/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.05.021
1842 S. Devgan et al. / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 18411861
Nomenclature
A net area of building envelope (m
2
)
solar altitude (angle above horizon)
wall solar absorptance
A
e
exposed area of the fenestration (m
2
)
A
f
area of a fenestration (m
2
)
A
area of the glass in the ith orientation

A
r
area of the opaque part of a roof (m
2
)
A
s
area of the skylight part of a roof (m
2
)
A
w
area of the opaque part of a wall (m
2
)
A
wi
areaof theopaquepart of awall intheithorientation
(m
2
)
CR cooling requirement
DT temperature difference
G fraction of window area exposed to the sun=A
e
/A
f
H number of air-conditioned hours
I
D
direct radiation
I
d
diffused radiation
I
gci
window conduction heat gain intensity (W/m
2
)
I
soli
window radiation heat gain intensity (W/m
2
)
I
T
total radiation
I
wci
wall conduction heat gain intensity (W/m
2
)
L
SU
linear solar transmittance coefcient
L
GU
Linear glass transmittance coefcient
1
projection angle of horizontal shading device with
respect to the horizontal plane (assume positive for
practical reason)
2
projection angle of vertical n with respect to wall
orientation (positive is to the right of wall orienta-
tion, negative if to the left of wall orientation).
Q net heat ow through the building envelope (Wh)
Q
gci
hourly glass conduction gain or loss from the ith
orientation
Q
soli
hourly glass radiation gain from the ith orientation
Q
wci
hourlywall conductiongainor loss fromtheithloca-
tion.
SC shading coefcient of a fenestration or a skylight
SF solar factor (W/m
2
)
SHGC solar heat gain coefcient
S
GU
second degree glass transmittance coefcient
S
SU
second degree solar transmittance coefcient
TD
eq
temperature difference equivalent
TR tons of refrigeration
U
f
thermal transmittance or U-value of window glass
U
w
thermal transmittance or U-value of the opaque part
of a wall
W total heat ow
WWR window-to-wall area ratio
z azimuth angle
T difference of temperature
1
vertical shadow angle
2
horizontal shadow angle
wall solar azimuth
1.1.1. Miscellaneous research and evolution of the OTTV approach
For over thirty years, the concept and denition of OTTV has
been evolving with the key objective to make OTTV an indicator
of the impact of the envelope on the cooling energy used in air-
conditioned buildings. In using OTTV as an indicator of the thermal
performance of building envelopes, it is most important to derive
the coefcients TD
eq
, DT and SF of the OTTV equation. These coef-
cients address the interaction of the building envelope properties
with climate conditions and building operation schedule [9]. The
form of the OTTV equation will vary if different choice of variables
and their ranges are taken in the analysis. The regression analysis
used for determining coefcients makes the output of OTTV equa-
tion specic to the selection of (a) climate type; (b) building type
and its operation and occupancy schedule (commercial or institu-
tional or 8 or 24h usage); (c) nature of simulation output (hourly
heat gains or cooling load or chiller load) and (d) analysis period
(such as summer or whole year).
A recent study by Yik and Wan [6] has cited the history of the
OTTV index and the assumptions made by various researchers for
computing OTTV coefcients. Yik and Wan [6] summarise the key
assumptions made by various local researchers in their studies,
includingthebasis uponwhichOTTVwas quantiedandthecharac-
teristics of the model buildings they used. Lamet al. [10,11] studied
the use of two approaches to develop OTTV equations for Hong
Kong. In the rst, OTTV was evaluated based on heat gains and the
results were used to determine TD
eq
for opaque walls and roofs. In
the second, the OTTV actually represented the annual total cool-
ing load due to the three heat gain components. The simulation
program DoE-2 [12] was used to predict the heat gains and the
resultant cooling loads. The cooling periods studied include a 10-
hour dayanda 24-hour day, eachfor a 5.5-dayweekover a 9-month
period (March to November). They recommended that OTTV calcu-
lation should be based on heat gains while TD
eq
, DT and SF should
be evaluatedbasedonxedair-conditioning schedules for avoiding
the need for different sets of TD
eq
, DT and SF data [11].
ChowandChan[13,14] also usedDoE-2to predict heat gains but
took a different approach to establish OTTV equations. They argued
that due to the weather changes among the four seasons in Hong
Kong, it would be inappropriate to base the calculation of OTTV on
the total heat gain throughout the year. Instead of from outdoor
into indoor, heat transmission through the envelope may reverse
in direction during certain air-conditioned hours in the year. They
proposed to determine the total envelope heat gain by summing
algebraically the hourly heat gains fromall envelope elements over
just those hours where the total envelope heat gain in the hour
remained positive. OTTV was then determined by averaging the
total envelope heat gainover suchhours, andthe OTTVs determined
for a range of building models were used in a regression analysis to
yield TD
eq
, SF, and DT as coefcients in the OTTV equations.
Chow and Yu [15] also developed OTTV equations based on the
heat gain, chilled water load and annual energy consumption, and
considered the method proposed by Chow and Chan [14] the most
appropriate. Their study was based on a rectangular shape atrium
hall andcovereda range of set point indoor temperatures, including
25, 23 and 21
C. They opined that the use of OTTV alone would not

ensure energy efcient and cost effective building designs; the air
leakage, the selection of heating, ventilating and air-conditioning
(HVAC) systems and equipment, building energy management and
other energy saving options, such as daylighting and solar heating,
should also be considered.
Hui [16] developed a general methodology for developing OTTV
equation that incorporates building energy simulation and mul-
tiple regression techniques, but suggested to evaluate the solar
factor separately by means of ASHRAEs or other methods. Sev-
eral modications to the original denition of OTTV (which was
based on peak heat gains) have been proposed, such as basing it on
annual heat gains, annual cooling loads or annual air-conditioning
energy use, all with the objective to obtain a parameter that can
reect the impact of envelope characteristics on the energy use for
air-conditioning.
Turiel et al. [17], Chow and Lee [18], Chow and Chan [14], Chan
and Chow [9], Lam [19], Yu and Chow [20], Chirarattananon and
Taveekun [21] have revised the OTTV equation so that good cor-
relation with the annual energy consumption of the buildings can
be obtained. Some of these studies have resulted in the country
S. Devgan et al. / Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 18411861 1843
Table 1
Comparison of predetermined OTTV coefcients of different countries.
Climate Singapore Hong Kong Thailand Sri Lanka Pakistan India
Source [1a,1b] [2] [3] [4] [5] (This study)
Solar absorptance
included in wall
conduction
component
No Yes No Yes No Yes
Glass conduction
component
included
Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes
TDeq for walls (
C) (12) Single value

for all types of
walls and
orientations
(Range 1.77.5)
Table of values for
ve different
densities and
specied for 16
orientations
(13.46) Different
value depending
on building type
(19.3) Single value
for all types of
walls and
orientations
Single value for all
orientations given
as a function of the
weight of the wall
(30.552.5) Table
of values for three
climates and
specied for 16
orientations and a
small negative
coefcient as a f
(U)
2
(4.5 to
5.75)
independent of
orientation
DT for windows
(
C)
(3.4) N/A (4.47) (3.6) Difference of
interior and
exterior design
conditions
specied for 12
cities
(10.5, 14.5 and
15.5) Different
values for each of
the three climate
zones and a small
negative coefcient
as a f
(U
f
)
2
(0.691.04)
independent of
orientation
SF for windows
(W/m
2
)
(211) Single value.
Correction factor
(CF) specied for
eight orientations
for 11 pitch angle
of walls
(Range 104202)
Table of values for
16 orientations
(172.9) (186) (Range 104561)
Table of values for
eight orientations
for each of the 5
climate zones
(92263) Table of
values for 16
orientations for
each of the three
climate zones
or climate specic OTTV formulation for different building types.
However, some limitations can be listed which are characteristic
of these early OTTV formulations and mainly result because of the
simulation tools and capability available at that time. (1) Very few
(1140) number of parametric cases were considered in regres-
sion for OTTV analysis [9,14,1721]. (2) The computer simulated
results of three components of envelope heat gain are considered
in OTTV analysis. However, the heat gain for the entire envelope
is considered without accounting for the heat gain from individ-
ual orientations of the building. (3) There is uncertainty about the
selection of the time period for summing the envelope gains
only summer months or all hours of the year with positive heat
gains [9]. (4) OTTV only accounts for the energy performance of
the envelope. Some studies have performed multiple regression
analysis for cooling requirement in air-conditioned buildings and
considered OTTV as a variable along with other variables such as
lighting, ventilation, occupants, etc. [21]. In order to obtain the
best energy performance of each variable it is better to perform
linear regression analysis. For one or all of the above reasons, some
studies have concluded that OTTV alone is not an adequate indi-
cator of cooling energy use in air-conditioned buildings and felt
the need to know how OTTV is distributed among its three compo-
nents in order to determine the impact of OTTV on cooling energy
use [17].
1.1.2. Evaluation of the OTTV approach by Yik and Wan
While evaluating the appropriateness of using OTTV to regu-
late envelope energy performance of air-conditioned buildings Yik
and Wan [6] opine that for buildings in Hong Kong or places with
similar climate, heat transmission through walls and windows can
take place in opposite directions at different times, and this makes
it difcult to derive a consistent envelope energy performance
index. In parts of buildings where there are high internal loads or
solar gains, envelope conduction loss can help reduce cooling load
on the air-conditioning system, and thus lower air-conditioning
energy use. For intermittently air-conditioned buildings, envelope
heat loss may also help reduce the pull-down load during the
start-up period, particularly after a prolonged shut-down period
(e.g. a weekend). Therefore, a well insulated envelope with low
OTTV may not necessarily mean reduced energy use. To circum-
vent this problem, proposals have been made to focus only on
several hotter months in the year or to ignore periods with net heat
losses.
This aspect of OTTV formulation differs when one considers the
severe tropical climate of India as compared to the sub-tropical
Hong Kong. The selection of the analysis period, for summing the
hourly gains, depends on the unique characteristic of the climate
type. Inthis paper, suitable analysis period is selected after several
trials so as to obtain the OTTV coefcients that result in the best
correlation between the computed OTTV with annual space cooling
and heating energy use.
Yik and Wan [6] point that all the methods of OTTV computation
have more fundamental drawbacks due to the assumptions made
implicitly, which include:
1. The heat gains fromeach wall, roof, windowor skylight could be
determined independently from pre-calculated values of equiv-
alent temperature difference (TD
eq
) and solar factor (SF).
2. The same value of TD
eq
would apply to walls or roofs of the
same construction and facing the same direction, and likewise
the same value of SF would apply to windows or skylights at
the same orientation, irrespective of the room dimensions and
congurations.
3. The OTTV of the entire envelope could be determined from the
OTTVs of different walls, windows, roofs and skylights in the
envelope, as their area-weighted average.
Yik and Wan [6] see the above assumptions as problem
because, in their view just like building cooling load estimation,
there is a need to take detailed account of the zone geometry
andcharacteristics of envelopecomponents, partitions andinternal
heat sources in OTTV calculation. Hence, Yik and Wan nd assump-
tions 13 above invalid. It appears that their view point is severely
biased by ASHRAEs abandonment of OTTV in the late 1980s.
The results of the heat gain intensities of the study of model
building by Yik and Wan [6] show that using the heat gain inten-
sities for the base case to estimate the OTTVs for the other cases
would lead to very signicant errors, with difference between the
base case and specic case OTTVs ranging from41%to +16%. How-
ever, themethodologyusedinobtainingtheOTTVvalues usedinthe
above comparison is not clear. Thus, the error may be case specic.
It is also apparent that OTTV may provide as an easy instrument for
controlling envelope heat gain or loss, provided the coefcients are
veried systematically.
The conclusions of Yik and Wan [6] are both positive and nega-
tive in favor of the OTTV approach. Yik and Wan are in agreement
that OTTV is simple to use and thus the cost of implementing the
regulatory control can be kept low, which may be a valid reason for
basing the control on OTTV. However, they still favor the detailed
simulation approach, where minimum performance required of
individual types of envelope components can be specied on the
basis of more basic characteristics, e.g. the characteristics of a par-
ticular wall construction and glazing and a window-to-wall area
ratio limit, instead of using the simplistic OTTV method, which they
feel is prone to errors. Yik andWanopine that the countries that are
still using OTTV as a means for controlling building energy perfor-
mance should give a second thought to whether or not to continue
with its use as a regulatory instrument. Thus, the study by Yik and
Wan[6] points out the needfor further researchregarding the OTTV
index.
1.2. OTTV approach in the context of Building Energy Code for
India
The greatest advantage of the OTTV index is that it can measure
performance of a building as a single numerical index, without the
use of a simulation program. The predetermined coefcients make
the computation of OTTV index for any building in any of the cli-
mates very easy as any architect or building designer can use it
with a simple computer spreadsheet program. OTTV is also a per-
formance based index as it allows the building designer to make
trade-offs between different envelope parameters such as U
w
, ,
U
f
, WWR, SC, etc. OTTV based building energy code can be consid-
eredas analternative tothe recently launchedEnergy Conservation
Building Code (ECBC) [22], 2007, which mainly recommends pre-
scriptive criteria for building envelope components such as roofs,
walls, and windows for control and regulation of energy consump-
tioninbuildings. Incase of sucha building energy code, compliance
with the performance approach can only be demonstrated with the
use of a simulation program.
The insulation based prescriptive criteria in ECBC can be looked
at critically. The study by Lam et al. [23] and Radhi [24] are
some pointers to the limitations of the role of thermal insulation
in conserving energy consumption for cooling in air-conditioned
buildings; in the context of warm tropical and sub-tropical cli-
mates. A recent study by Masoso and Grobler [25] has challenged
the well-established knowledge that the lower the U-value of a
wall, the lower the annual energy consumption of the heating
and cooling systems. The OTTV approach described in this study
differs signicantly from the ECBC [22] which uses the compo-
nent approach in its building envelope prescriptive criteria. OTTV
approach is an envelope performance based criteria which corre-
lates net heat owthrough the building envelope per unit area and
unit air-conditioning hours. ECBC also includes an envelope perfor-
mance based criteria referred as the Envelope Trade-Off Option.
Compliance with the Envelope Trade-Off Option in ECBC is demon-
strated if the Envelope Performance Factor (EPF) of the proposed
design is less than the standard design, where the standard design
exactly complies with the envelope prescriptive criteria in ECBC.
EPF coefcients have been listed for ve climate zones of India
Composite, Hot-Dry, Warm-Humid, Moderate and Cold and dif-
ferent values of U-factor and Solar Heat Gain Coefcient (SHGC)
have beensuggestedfor mass walls, curtainwalls, roofs, northwin-
dows, non-north windows and skylights. Since the methodology
for obtaining these EPF coefcients could not be found, the authors
were compelled to not comment on the basis and validation of the
Envelope Trade-Off Option in ECBC [22].
ECBC [22] provides an option of Whole Building Performance
Method in case a building is unable to comply with the prescrip-
tive criteria. However, in this case the compliance of the proposed
building design can only be demonstrated with the use of energy
simulation program. Based on the simulation guidelines provided
inECBC, the energy consumptionof the proposed building designis
simulated and compared with the energy consumption of a Stan-
dardDesign andcompliance is shownif the energy consumptionof
the proposedbuildingdesignis lower thanthe energyconsumption
of the standard design building. This approach is not comparable
with the OTTV approach for two reasons. Firstly, the Whole Build-
ing Performance Method involves the performance of the building
envelope, lighting, HVAC system, service hot water and miscel-
laneous loads, thus allowing trade-off between the individual
performances of different components of the building. However,
OTTV is the performance of the building envelope alone and hence
suitedfor maximumenhancement of the energyefciencyof build-
ing envelope. Secondly, compliance with the OTTV approach can be
demonstrated with a use of a simple computer spreadsheet pro-
gram, unlike the Whole Building Performance Method, where it is
necessary to use an energy simulation tool.
OTTVapproachadoptedby many of the neighboring countries of
India has not been attempted for Indian climates. Hence, this paper
formulates OTTV coefcients for Composite, Hot-Dry and Warm-
Humid climate, represented by the tropical climates in three Indian
cities. Energy simulation is performed for a hypothetical octagonal
planhigh-rise ofce building, using eQuest v.3.6, whichis a DOE2.2,
basedsimulationengine. 98types of opaque exterior wall construc-
tions and 93 types of glass constructions are varied sequentially
to obtain results of wall conduction, glass conduction and glass
radiation heat ow in 8 orientations from simulation runs for each
climate type. Regressionanalysis is usedto obtainOTTVcoefcients
for the three climates and the same have been veried with the
simulation results of the case study of four existing buildings.
2. OTTV formulation
2.1. Denition and OTTV equation
OTTV is dened as a measure of heat transfer through the exter-
nal envelopeof abuildingandcanbeexpressedas Q/Aper unit time.
Three components of heat gain are considered through the build-
ing envelope. These are (1) conduction through opaque walls, (2)
conduction through window glass and (3) solar radiation through
window glass. As walls at different orientation receive different
amounts of solar radiation, the general procedure is to calculate
rst the OTTV of i
th
individual walls with the same orientation
Fig. 1. Buildings solar geometry.
and construction [Eq. (1)], and then the OTTV of the whole exterior
wall is given by the weighted average of these values [Eq. (2)]:
OTTV
i
=
[(A
w
U
w
TD
eq
) +(A
f
U
f
DT) +(A
f
SC SF)]
A
i
(1)
And, OTTV
wall
=
(OTTV
i
A
i
)
A
i
(2)
Alternatively, the above equation can be written in a compact
form using the terms of WWR [Eq. (3)]:
OTTV
i
= [(1 WWR) U
w
TD
eq
] +[WWR U
f
DT]
+[WWR SC
f
SF] (3)
Chou and Lee [18] dened OTTV as the annual heat gain of the
air-conditioned spaces in a building fromthe envelope during both
air-conditioned and non-air-conditioned periods, averaged over
the total air-conditionedhours throughout the year andnormalised
by the envelope area enclosing suchspaces [Eq. (4)]. This was based
onthe considerationthat the heat gainwouldultimately contribute
to the cooling load on air-conditioning systems.
OTTV
i
=
Q
(H A)
= [I
wci
(1 WWR)] +(I
gci
WWR)
+(I
soli
WWR) (4)
2.2. Deriving external shading multiplier (ESM)
Shading of windows is very important for reducing solar heat
gain to the building. This shading can be provided by projections
over the windows (horizontal overhangs) or at the side of the win-
dows (vertical ns), or a combination of both. Shading of windows
by adjacent wall surfaces can also be considered as vertical n pro-
jection. Eq. (3) is valid when the walls and windows are unshaded.
However, whenthe walls or windows are partially shadedby exter-
nal shading, it is assumed for the purpose of OTTV computation that
the exposed portion receives the total radiation, I
T
, and the shaded
portion receives only the diffuse radiation, I
d
. To take account of
the partial shading, external shading multiplier (ESM) is used.
ESMis denedas theratioof thetotal solar gainreceivedthrough
a window shaded by an external shading device to that received
from the same window if it was completely unshaded. The total
solar heat gain through shaded window is obtained as the sum of
the total radiation received on exposed surface and the diffused
Fig. 2. Horizontal shading device showing VSA and projection angle.
radiation received on shaded surface, multiplied by their respec-
tive areas. The total radiation, I
T
, through an unshaded 3mm clear
glass multiplied by total fenestration area represents the total gain
through unshaded fenestration.
The relevant solar data was obtained from IWEC (International
Weather for Energy Calculations) weather data for the three cities
[26]. The fraction of window area exposed to the sun (G fac-
tor =A
e
/A
f
) for each sunshine hour for each of the eight orientations
is determined. The step by step methodology used in this study to
obtain the ESM tables is similar to the method described in Singa-
pore code [1a]. It is described briey as follows:
(1) The eQuest v.3.6 simulations using IWEC weather data for the
three cities (New Delhi, Ahmadabad and Chennai) give output
of hourly results for each hour of the year. For all three cli-
mates, values for altitude (, angle above the horizon shown
in Fig. 1) and azimuth angle (z, compass orientation of a vertical
plane through the sun, measured clockwise from north shown
in Fig. 1) were available for each sunshine hour (altitude angle
greater than zero). Thus, wall solar azimuth ( shown in Fig. 1)
for each of the eight orientations was computed for each hour.
(2) The next step is the determination of fraction of window area
exposed to the sun given by G factor. The (G) at every sunshine
hour for a given orientation was determined using the value of
VSA or HSA computed for that hour.
(3) For continuous horizontal projection xed at window head
level (Fig. 2), G is derived:
G =
A
e
A
f
= 1
P
A
(cos
1
tan
1
+sin
1
)
(5)
(4) For continuous vertical ns in an array (Fig. 3), G is derived:
G =
A
e
A
f
= 1
P
A
f
(cos
2
tan
2
+sin
2
)
(6)
(5) Once hourly values of G are known, (GI
D
) +I
d
was computed
for all sunshine hours for all the summer months. Only the sum-
mer months are considered in the shading period for the ESM
computationbecauseit is assumedthat theshadingduringwin-
ters is small as the altitude of the sun is low and hence can
be ignored. The extreme and median parametric cases from
this study were selected. Summer months were selected as
those months of the year where the simulationresults showthe
heating requirement if any, to be less than one percent of the
cooling requirement. Thus, on the basis of simulation results of
this study, summer months considered are March to October in
Fig. 3. Vertical shading ns showing HSA and projection angle.
Composite climate, February to November in Hot-Dry climate
and January to December in Warm-Humid climate.
(6) Eq. (7) was used to obtain the nal value of ESM.
ESM =
SH
h=1
[(G I
D
) +I
d
]
h
SH
h=1
[I
T
]
h
(7)
The subscript h refers to hourly values and SH refers to the
total sunshine hours of the summer months. For different types
of horizontal and vertical shading devices (
1
and
2
=10
, 20
,
30
, 40
and50
andP/A
f
=0.25, 0.5, 1.0and1.25) the ESMvalues
for Composite, Hot-Dry and Warm-Humid climate have been
computed in this study using the method described in this sec-
tion. Tables A1A4 in Appendix A present the ESM values for
Composite climate; (1) horizontal shading device, (2) both side
vertical ns, (3) right side vertical n and (4) left side vertical
n. Similar tables for Hot-Dry and Warm-Humid climate are
available in [27].
Fig. 4. 3-D view of building A in eQuest v.3.6.
Fig. 5. 3-D view of building B in eQuest v.3.6.
Table 2
Summary of data for the four case study buildings and the model building.
Buildings A B C D Model
Number of storey 6 6 15 15 15
Total oor area (m
2
) 30,658 30,250 20,199 33,740 38,715
Envelope area (m
2
) 10,587 9459 8112 15,633 18,573
WWR 0.28 0.45 0.47 0.41 0.4
Many of the OTTV based BECs of countries such as Hong Kong,
Thailand, Sri Lanka, PakistanandSingapore have made use of exter-
nal shading multiplier (ESM) for window radiation component of
heat gain alone, ESM being the multiplier for horizontal or verti-
cal or the combination shading device. In this study, the simulation
models of thecasestudybuildings haveshownthat shadingof walls
by adjacent surfaces also results in the lowering of the conduction
heat gain component. This is because the sol-air temperature effect
represented in TD
eq
is reduced due to partial shading from direct
solar radiation for certain hours of the year. Hence the ESM multi-
plier (for vertical ns) should apply to the opaque wall conduction
component in the OTTV equation.
2.3. Building energy simulation and case study buildings
The programselectedfor use here is eQuest v.3.6, whichis based
on DoE-2 [12] simulation engine. DoE-2 is the most widely adopted
simulation program especially in the development of building
energy standards. DoE-2 has been validated by several studies such
as Sullivan and Winkelmann [28]. eQuest v3.6 offers a wide range
Fig. 6. 3-D view of building C in eQuest v.3.6.
Fig. 7. 3-D view of building D in eQuest v.3.6.
of simulation features for a detailed whole building energy perfor-
mance analysis. The programis also well suited for parametric runs
and multiple variable selections in the hourly report blocks.
Most air-conditioned ofce buildings in Delhi, National Capital
Region (NCR) and other metropolitan cities of India are mid-rise
(46 storey) or high-rise (above 10 storey). Large curtain wall glaz-
ing and stone cladding on opaque masonry walls are common for
ofce and commercial buildings in many cities in India. Four repre-
sentative existing case studyofce buildings (Building A, B, CandD)
were selected fromDelhi NCR region. Basic data collected for these
buildings included architectural drawings, occupancy and opera-
tions schedule, HVAC system and plant details and electrical and
equipment loads. Figs. 47 provide the three-dimensional views
of the four buildings as modeled in eQuest v.3.6. Table 2 gives the
summary of data for the four case study buildings and the model
building, Table 3 gives the input data for operation, internal loads
and HVAC system, Table 4a gives the typical opaque construction
characteristics of the case study buildings and Table 4b gives the
typical glass construction characteristics of the case study build-
ings.
Like manyother buildingenergysimulationtools, eQuest v.3.6is
also based on the model representation of the actual building to be
simulated. The input aims to represent the building as anabstrac-
tion of the reality and this process determines the accuracy of the
results. Onthe other hand, the output consists of reporting results
of the simulations, comparing themwith real-energy-use data and
checking accuracy. The main parameter for the acceptance the case
study building models in this study was the comparison of monthly
energy consumption of the real and the simulated buildings. Since
the actual monthly energy consumption data for three out of four
case study buildings (-Buildings B, C and D) was available for at
least one analysis year, it was possible to validate their model as
close to existing operations.
Pedrini et al. [29] describe a methodology for building model
calibration where, with different levels of information details and
accuracy the modeled energy end-use results can be very to close
real gures. Such model calibration is even more important in
retrot studies, as compared to the use in parametric studies
required in this present study. The methodology of Pedrini et al.
[29] is dividedintothreestages, (1) simulationfrombuildingdesign
plans and documentation; (2) walk-through and audit and (3) end-
use energy measurements.
Some of these methods of Pedrini et al. [29] were used in this
study so that the simulated energy end-use of the four case study
buildings could be adjusted to real gures allowing better analy-
sis in parametric studies. Using all the survey information, the rst
models of the case study buildings were created in eQuest. Some
of the inputs were assumed, due to lack of documentation. In this
situation, the eQuest library with appropriate defaults was found
to be extremely useful. Simulation results of the rst model usu-
ally deviated from the actual (metered) monthly consumption up
to a range 1535%. The model renement involved giving more
accurate details of the building envelope components and rene-
ment of schedules such as occupancy, operations fans, lighting,
etc. Fig. 8 compares the simulated monthly energy consumption
results of the one of the four buildings (Building D) with the
actual metered energy consumption data of the analysis year. Fig. 9
presents the percentage deviation between actual (metered) and
Simulated Monthly Energy Consumption of Buildings B, C and D.
In all cases the difference is not larger than 15% for any month.
2.4. The model building
Based on the characteristics of the existing buildings a hypo-
thetical model ofce building was created for simulation study.
The model building is comparable to the existing buildings in its
Fig. 8. Comparisonof actual andsimulatedmonthlyenergyconsumptionof building
D.
window-to-wall area ratio (WWR) and HVAC system type. The
baseline envelope characteristics of the model building are not of
any consequence as they are varied inparametric runs for OTTVfor-
mulation. Theenvelopeandoor areaof themodel alsodonot affect
theresults requiredfromparametric studies. Theimportant charac-
teristic of the model building is its octagonal plan (see Fig. 10). This
was chosen to represent the eight orientations (N, S, E, W, NE, SE,
SW and NW). All the surfaces of the model building were assumed
to be completely unshaded throughout the year. The model build-
ing can be considered to be the representative of majority of the
air-conditioned ofce building in India.
Parametric runs were carried out for 98 types of opaque wall
constructions and 93 types of glass constructions to estimate the
Q. First some new materials were added in the eQuest v3.6 library,
by specifying their thermal conductivity, density, specic heat and
thickness. Then 98 opaque wall constructions were dened using
layers input giving the thickness of each material and its position
in the wall section fromoutside to inside. For the rst 98 runs glass
properties were kept the same, opaque wall construction was var-
ied in each consecutive run, thus varying U
w
and each time. The
range of values of U
w
was 0.233.9 (W/m
2
C) and range for was
0.250.85. In the next 93 runs, opaque wall construction was kept
constant and newglass type was selected each time (fromthe pre-
dened glass library of eQuest/DOE-2), thus varying the U
f
and SC.
The range of values of U
f
was 0.996.31 (W/m
2
C) and range for SC
was 0.191.
Fig. 9. Percentage deviation between actual and simulated monthly energy con-
sumption of buildings B, C and D.
Table 3
Input data for operation, internal loads and HVAC system for the case study buildings and model building.
Common characteristics of the case study buildings and model building
Operating hours 08:0020:00h (Monday to Saturday) Sunday Off. Total 10 holidays in a year (other than Sundays).
Lighting power density 20W/m
2
Equipment power density 2W/m
2
Occupant density 18m
2
/person.
Air side system Single zone air handler with hot water reheat
Thermostat set points 23
C for cooling, 21
C for heating
Buildings A B C D Model
Cooling load (tons of
refrigeration) (TR)
900 800 600 1000 Auto-sized
Chillers 4 Nos. 300 TR each
Screw
4 Nos. 150 TR each
Screw and 2 Nos. 100
TR each Screw
2 Nos. 225 TR each
Screw and 1 No. 150 TR
Screw
2 Nos. 425 TR each
VAM and 1 No. 400 TR
Centrifugal (later
changed)
Fig. 10. 2-D plan view and 3D view of Model building in eQuest v.3.6.
The target coefcients to be obtained from regression analysis
are TD
eq
, DT and SF. In these parametric runs internal loads are
kept unchanged so that the resulting heat gain intensities (in each
orientation and each component) varied with the external factors
only.
The HVAC design for the model building was typically for both
cooling and heating and specied to be auto-sized to allowfor the
system to resize itself with the changes in the building space cool-
ing and heating load due to different envelope constructions. The
same building model was simulated using weather data of three
Indiancities NewDelhi (lat. 28.58, long. 77.20), Ahmadabad (lat.
23.07, long. 72.63) and Chennai (lat. 13, long. 80.18). The IWEC
weather data [26] for the three cities was used in eQuest v.3.6 com-
patible format. The solar radiation data in the IWEC weather les
for these cities was found to have good match with both the mea-
sured data of Mani [30] and calculated data of Bansal and Minke
[31]. Tables B1B3 in Appendix B present the comparison of solar
radiation data of IWEC [26], ISHRAE [26], Mani [30] and Bansal and
Minke [31].
3. Regression analysis and results
3.1. Creating hourly reports in eQuestv.3.6
Among the several types of results reported by eQuest/DOE-
2, the relevant results of the parametric runs are contained in
the Hourly Simulation results. In this study, 16 hourly simulation
Table 4a
Typical opaque construction characteristics of the case study buildings.
Component U-value (W/m
2
C) Description
External opaque wall 2.27 2.5cm (granite/Dholpur stone) cladding+2.5cm cement mortar +23cm thick brick wall +2cm cement plaster
Internal opaque wall 3.3 2cm gypsum board+11cm thick brick wall +2cm cement plaster
Roof 1.47 10cm brick tile +10cm mud phuska +15cm reinforced concrete slab+2.5cm cement plaster
Floor 1.13 1cm vitried tile +5cm cement concrete +10cm reinforced concrete slab+2.5cm cement plaster
Table 4b
Typical glass construction characteristics of the case study buildings.
Fenestration Different types of heat reective or double glazings with air gap
building A B C D
Name of glass Antilio Silver Classic Green Green Reectasol (6mm
reective green
outside +12mm
gap+5mm clear glass
inside)
Classic Blue and Silver
Blue
U
f
of glass (W/m
2
C) 2.8 5.7 2.83 5.7
SC of glass 0.67 0.45 0.26 0.45
VLT of glass 0.6 0.31 0.16 0.23
reports were created for each of the four case study buildings and
the hypothetical model building. These 16 hourly reports one
for each of the eight wall orientations and one for each of the
eight windoworientations, were created by a simple two step pro-
cess. In the rst step, an Hourly Report Block was created where
the hourly variables to be obtained as output in the report were
selected frompick up lists. In step two, an Hourly Report was cre-
ated which referred to an Hourly Report Block and an established
report schedule (for whichcalendar dates is the Hourly Report to be
output) and the reporting frequency (i.e., hourly, daily, monthly).
The output of these 16 hourly reports was generated for each of
the 97+93 parametric cases for all ve building projects (four case
study buildings and the hypothetical model building) in eQuest
v.3.6.
The criteria for selecting any window(or wall) have been that it
is adjacent toanair-conditionedspaceandinsucha solar geometric
position in the building that it remains largely unshaded through-
out the year. Two hourly results from the series were selected for
each window orientation Conduction heat gain through win-
dow (Btu/hr)
1
and Heat gain by solar radiation (after shading)
(Btu/hr).
In order to check the shading of the wall or the window or for
different hours of the year, Fraction of window area shaded from
direct solar radiation or Fraction of wall shaded from direct solar
radiation may be selected from the hourly results series. The rel-
evant result selected from the series for each wall orientation was
Unweighted heat transfer from wall to space (Btu/hr).
Onthe completionof all the parametric runs (97types of opaque
wall constructions and 93 types of glass constructions) in eQuest
v. 3.6, all the results were exported as 190 hourly results.csv les
containing hourly results of 16 hourly reports each. Each report
contained wall conduction (Q
wci
), glass conduction (Q
gci
) and glass
radiation (Q
soli
) results for eight orientations of the walls and
windows for all the 8760h of the year. Total number of hourly
results.csv les generated in this study, at the end of parametric
runs for ve building projects for three tropical climates in eQuest
v.3.6 was 19053=2850.
Of the three types of hourly heat ows, Q
soli
or window radi-
ation heat gain for each hour in the ith orientation is dependent
on the suns position in the sky at a particular hour, location (lat-
itude of a place), the window azimuth and the shading coefcient
(SC
f
) of the window glass. Needless to say, but Q
soli
is positive for
all the sunshine hours and zero after sunset and before sunrise. The
window conduction heat gain/loss for each hour in the ith orien-
tation (Q
gci
) is independent of the window orientation and largely
depends on the temperature difference between outside and inside
the building and the U-value (U
f
) or insulating properties of the
window glass. The most peculiar is the heat gain/loss pattern of
opaque wall conduction or Q
wci
for each hour in the ith orientation.
This wall conduction component is very sensitive to various fac-
tors such as thermal mass storage effect of the wall construction,
its U-value (U
w
) andsolar absorptance (), orientationof the wall or
the solair temperature impact and lastly the diurnal temperature
prole in different months of the year.
3.2. Selection of analysis period for summation of hourly
gains/losses
It is commonunderstandingthat duringsummers whenthe out-
side temperatures are high for all hours of the day and most hours
of the night, net heat owthrough the building envelope would be
positive and during winters, when outside temperatures are lower
1
eQuest v.3.6 uses all FPS units. Conversions were made to SI units for processing
the obtained results.
than the air-conditioned indoors, net heat ow through the build-
ing envelope would be negative. Wall conduction heat gain/loss or
Q
wci
for each hour in the ith orientation is dependent on the high-
est number of factors and peculiar pattern of positive (heat gain)
and negative (heat loss) direction of heat ow can be observed at
different hours and at different times of the year.
Of the three climates considered in this study, the Compos-
ite climate (annual heating degree days (HDD)
base 18
C
=321 and
annual cooling degree hours (CDH)
base 23
C
=37,420) [26] is repre-
sentative of the largest area in the Indian subcontinent. Though
predominantly cooling based Composite climate is unique because
of its short and extreme winter between the months of December
and January. Hot-Dry climate (annual HDD
base 18
C
=13 and annual
CDH
base 23
C
=46,656) [26] also has a winter between December
and January but it is mild in comparison to the Composite cli-
mate. Warm-Humid climate (annual HDD
base 18
C
=0 and annual
CDH
base 23
C
=46,651) [26] has only summer season all 12 months
of the year.
From the various hourly results.csv les obtained in this study,
some more observations canbe made. InComposite climate, during
summers (May, June, July and August) Q
wci
remains positive for
all 24h in all orientations. In certain months of the year diurnal
variations in temperature are very high and the direction of wall
conduction heat ow reverses to negative indicating heat losses
sometime in the late evening or night time and again reverses to
positive indicating heat gains sometime early in the day before
noon. The hour(s) at which the direction of heat ow reverses,
the magnitude of the conduction heat transfer and the number of
hours for which the heat ow remains negative is dependent on
factors such as wall construction, outside temperature prole and
wall orientation.
Summation of hourly results of Q
wci
during winter period
(December and January) in Composite and Hot-Dry climate have
shownthat, thereis net heat gain fromcertainorientations of walls
and at the same time there is net heat loss from other wall orien-
tations within the same building. Since the direction of heat ow
may be opposite in two different spaces of the building (depend-
ing on the orientation of the walls adjoining that space and the
size of windows) sometimes, there is simultaneous or intermittent
heating and cooling requirement in different spaces of the build-
ings. Even during the hours of net heat loss, sometimes there is a
cooling requirement due to internal gains in certain spaces of the
buildings.
Net windowconduction is always negative (meaning heat ow
from inside of the building to outside) in winter period in both
Composite and Hot-Dry climate, although there may be few hours
of positive gain (meaning heat ow from outside of the building to
inside) during the afternoon due to winter sun.
The building envelope is required to minimise winter losses to
reduce space heating energy use and regulate the solar heat gains
to reduce space cooling energy use. Hence the approach for esti-
mating annual heat gains in Composite and Hot-Dry climate has
been to sumthe net summer gains fromFebruary to November and
reduce the net winter loss for December and January for each of the
eight building orientations individually. The criteria for selecting
the months of December and January alone as the winter months
because the numbers of HDD
base 18
C
were signicantly higher in
these months as compared to the rest of the year.
Many researchers have considered different types of analysis
period for the OTTV formulation in their respective countries. In
this studyalso, several types of analysis period wereconsideredfor
the three tropical climates (suchas only summer months/sumof all
hours in the year/sumof all hours with only positive gains/absolute
sum of all hours) and based on a trial and error methodology, the
analysis period that best correlated the OTTV coefcients with
annual space cooling and heating energy was selected. While doing
verication studies for predetermined OTTV coefcients it was
found that if only summer months are considered in the analysis
period the OTTV obtained from the coefcients would have pos-
itive correlation with the space cooling energy of those months
alone and not the annual space cooling and heating energy use.
However, if net summer gain minus winter loss is considered as
the analysis period, then the OTTV obtained from predetermined
coefcients had positive correlation with the annual space heating
and cooling energy use.
Thus, for Composite and Hot-Dry climate net summer gain
minus winter losses was considered as the analysis period and for
the Warmhumid climate, the sumof all hours in the year was con-
sidered as the analysis period. Once the analysis period is decided,
the summation for net summer gains minus winter losses has been
done in this study using a simple Visual Basic program (Macro) in
Microsoft Excel.
3.3. Computing hourly heat gain intensities for each orientation
From the values of

analysis period
Q
wci
,

analysis period
Q
gci
and
analysis period
Q
soli
for all eight orientations of the hypotheti-

cal model building, the wall conduction heat gain intensity for the
ithorientation(I
wci
), the windowconductionheat gainintensity for
the ith orientation (I
gci
) and the window radiation heat gain inten-
sity for the ith orientation(I
soli
) were computed for each parametric
case using Eqs. (8)(10).
I
wci
=
analysis period
Q
wci
H A
wi
(8)
where Q
wei
=hourly wall conduction gain or loss from the ith ori-
entation; A
wi
=area of the wall in the ith orientation; H=number of
air-conditioned hours.
I
gci
=
analysis period
Q
gci
H A
(9)
where Q
gci
=hourly glass conduction gain or loss from the ith ori-
entation; A
=area of the glass in the ith orientation.

I
soli
=
analysis period
Q
soli
H A
(10)
where Q
gci
=hourly glass solar gain from the ith orientation.
For computing the total number of air-conditioned hours (H),
the 12-h operation schedule of the ofce buildings is considered
from Monday to Saturday and the hours of Sundays and other hol-
idays are reduced fromthe total hours of the analysis period. Thus,
the total number of air-conditioned hours (H) is 3636 in all three
climates.
I
wci
, I
gci
and I
soli
are dependent on the characteristics of the wall
and window constructions as seen from the OTTV equation and
hence a large data set of 97 values of I
wci
and 93 values of I
gci
and
I
soli
were used in regression analysis (using Eqs. (11)(13)) in an
attempt to obtain the constant or predicted values of TD
eq
, DT and
SF when the values of U
w
, U
f
and SC are varied each time in the
parametric runs.
I
wci
= U
w
TD
eq
(11)
I
gci
= U
f
DT (12)
and
I
soli
= SC
f
SF (13)
Fig. 11. Correlation of I
wci
(N, S, E, W walls) and Uw - Composite climate.
4. Results from regression analysis
4.1. Relationships obtained from regression curves
The variation of I
wci
with U
w
obtained from a large number
of values of U
w
and corresponding I
wci
for all eight wall orienta-
tions in Composite climate is represented in Figs. 11 and 12. These
regression curves exhibit a deviation fromthe commonly assumed
linear trend between I
wci
and U
w
. The linear relationship is
commonly representedinthe OTTVequation. The coefcient of cor-
relation (R) for linear variation for all eight wall orientations in the
three climates ranges from 0.91 to 0.95. Thus, through assumption
of linear trend only 95% of the variation is explained. The philos-
ophy behind assumption of linear trend is based on the fact that
steady heat ux (gain or loss) is the product of U-value of the wall
and the temperature difference between outside and inside. Wall
solar absorptance () accounts for incident radiation impinging on
opaque wall. However, when accounting for conduction heat gain
and loss through the wall for all hours of the year; in many cases
the direction of heat ow reverses during the 24h diurnal cycle
and from summers to winters. The linear relationship would suf-
ce only in cases where there is no reversal of direction of heat ow
during the year.
To improve the correlation between predicted values of I
wci
for
the given values of U
w
and explain the net annual wall con-
wci
(NE, SE, SW, NW walls) and Uw - Composite climate.
duction heat ow pattern in an air-conditioned ofce building; a
second degree polynomial relation has been attempted to correlate
the data of simulated values of I
wci
with varying U
w
. It has been
found in this study that second degree polynomial exhibits better
correlation between the data of I
wci
and U
w
. The same second
degree polynomial relation has been attempted in the Hot-Dry and
WarmHumid climate also. For the three climates, the coefcient of
correlation (R) for predicted values of I
wci
for given values of U
w
in case of second degree polynomial relationship ranges from 0.93

to 0.96.
Hence, the single coefcient of TD
eq
in Eq. (11), now translates
as two coefcients one of the linear term and the other of the
second degree term. These coefcients are dened as L
SU
and S
SU
,
respectively. The second degree coefcient (S
SU
) has a negative
value and it is unaffected by orientation of the wall surface and
it has a different value for each climate. Fromthis it can be inferred
that wall conduction heat gain intensity does not increase linearly
with U
w
. In fact there is a diminishing effect related to the sec-
ondpower of U
w
. This canbeattributedtotheheat losses during
the night and that is why S
SU
is independent of orientation. The rate
of change of heat loss with U
w
is also proportional to U
w
;
thus the magnitude of this loss is proportional to (U
w
)
2
.
Climatic zones where diurnal variation and annual variation of
temperature is small the reversal of heat ow direction would be
least; the linear relation would be mostly observed. For climatic
zones characterizedbyhighdiurnal andannual variationreversal of
heat ow direction would cause deviation from linear trend. Phys-
ically speaking there is always some amount of night and winter
loss in all tropical climates. But this effect is small for small diurnal
and annual variation of temperature. Even in those climates where
large diurnal and annual temperature variations are observed this
effect would be small when wall transmittance (U
w
) is small. For
larger U-values, the heat loss would be large at night and during
winter and when one looks at net annual energy implication for
higher U-values the diminishing effect is encountered.
Figs. 13 and 14 represent the variation of I
gci
with U
f
and
Figs. 15 and 16 represent the variation of I
soli
with SC
f
for all eight
wall orientations in Composite climate. These curves have been
obtained from large number of parametric results as mentioned
earlier. In Figs. 13 and 14 again, there is a deviation from the linear
trend. In fact, the coefcient of correlation (R) for I
gci
vs. U
f
for the
linear relationship ranges from 0.8 to 0.84. Thus, through assump-
tion of linear trend only 84% of the variation is explained. Hence, a
second degree polynomial relation has been attempted to correlate
the window conduction heat gain intensity (I
gci
) and the transmit-
tance of glass (U
f
). The same second degree polynomial relation
gci
(N, S, E, W windows) and U
f
Composite climate.
gci
(NE, SE, SW, NW walls) and U
f
Composite climate.
has been attempted in the Hot-Dry and Warm Humid climate also.
For the three climates, the coefcient of correlation (R) for pre-
dicted values of I
gci
and given values of U
f
in case of second degree
polynomial relationship ranges from 0.97 to 0.98.
The coefcient of DT in Eq. (12) now translates as two coef-
cients, one each of the linear and the second degree term, dened
as L
GU
and S
GU
, respectively. It is observed that the coefcients in
Table 5
Orientation dependent OTTV coefcients L
SU
and SF for the three climates.
Orientation L
SU
SF
Composite Hot-Dry Warm-Humid Composite Hot-Dry Warm-Humid
N 30.5 36.8 42.4 92 98 137
S 40.5 44.9 49.6 180 164 206
E 37.4 42.5 47.9 164 159 200
W 41.9 47.6 52.3 216 219 263
NE 33.0 38.9 44.5 115 118 159
SE 39.9 44.3 49.2 182 167 206
SW 43.3 48.2 52.5 221 213 253
NW 36.0 42.2 47.3 146 155 197
NNE 31.7 37.9 43.5 104 108 148
ENE 35.2 40.7 46.2 139 139 180
ESE 38.6 43.4 48.5 173 163 203
SSE 40.2 44.6 49.4 181 165 206
SSW 41.9 46.5 51.0 201 188 230
WSW 42.6 47.9 52.4 219 216 258
WNW 39.0 44.9 49.8 181 187 230
NNW 33.2 39.5 44.9 120 127 167
soli
(N, S, E, W windows) and SC Composite climate.
the polynomial equation do not change with orientation. Conduc-
tion through window glass is unaffected by the orientation of the
window as it is dependent primarily on temperature difference
between outside and inside rather than solar radiation. The non-
linearity in this equation is also due to heat losses during night
for similar reasons as those of the walls, as explained earlier for
conduction through opaque wall.
Figs. 15 and 16 show that window radiation heat gain inten-
sity (I
soli
) is linearly related to the shading coefcient of glass (SC
f
)
for Composite climate and the coefcients of solar factor (SF) are
largely dependent on the orientation of the window. The same lin-
ear relation is seen in the Hot-Dry and Warm Humid climate also.
For thethreeclimates, thecoefcient of correlation(R) for predicted
values of I
soli
and given values of SC
f
in case of linear relationship
ranges from 0.97 to 0.98.
4.2. New OTTV formulation
A new OTTV formulation for the three climates thus obtained
from regression analysis in this study can be written as:
OTTV
i
= [S
SU
(U
w
)
2
+L
SU
(U
w
)] [1 WWR]
+[S
GU
(U
f
)
2
+L
GU
U
f
] [WWR]
+(SF SC WWR)
(14)
soli
(NE, SE, SW, NW walls) and SC Composite climate.
Table 6
Orientationindependent OTTVcoefcients S
SU
, L
GU
andS
GU
for the three climates.
Coefcient Climate
Composite Hot-Dry Warm-Humid
S
SU
4.45 5.45 5.75
L
GU
10.5 14.5 15.5
S
GU
0.69 0.95 1.04
L
GU
/S
GU
15.2 15.2 14.9
The coefcients L
SU
, S
SU
, L
GU
, S
GU
and SF have been collectively
termed in this study as predetermined OTTV coefcients for ofce
buildings in the three tropical climates. Values of these coef-
cients for sixteen orientations in the three climates are listed in
Tables 5 and 6. While the orientation dependent coefcients of
L
SU
and SF for N, S, E, W, NE, SE, SW and NW orientations have
been obtained from regression analysis, the same coefcients for
NNE, ENE, ESE, SSE, WSW, WNW and NNW have been obtained by
interpolation. All orientation independent values in Table 5 of S
SU
,
L
GU
and S
GU
are averages of the close range of values depicted in
Figs. 1114. These predetermined OTTV coefcients may be used
by any architect or building designer to compute the OTTV of any
air-conditioned ofce building in any of the three climates.
This OTTV formulation [Eq. (14)] is valid for a building when
all exterior wall and window surfaces are unshaded. However, in
actual cases, some or all of the building envelope surfaces in dif-
ferent orientations may be fully or partially shaded by horizontal
shading devices, vertical ns or adjacent surfaces. Although, the
method of obtaining ESM has been described for window radia-
tion gain, the same ESMapplies for wall conduction. Hence the ESM
needs to be applied to all three components of OTTV. For different
combinations of P/L and pitch angles of walls (), ESM tables were
obtained for all three climates. Tables A1A4 inAppendix Aprovide
the ESM tables for Composite climate. For use in OTTV calculation,
appropriate value of ESM
1
for wall shading and ESM
2
for window
shading may be read depending on type of external shading.
OTTV
i
= [S
SU
(U
w
)
2
+L
SU
(U
w
)] [1 WWR] ESM
1
+[S
GU
(U
f
)
2
+L
GU
U
f
] [WWR]
+(SF SC WWR) ESM
2
(15)
5. Discussion of predetermined OTTV coefcients
The orientation dependent coefcient L
SU
varies between
30.552.5for different orientations andclimates (Table 5). The low-
est value of 30.5 is for Composite climate in North orientation.
The highest value of 52.5 is for Warm-Humid climate in South-
west orientation. In all three climates, Composite, Hot-Dry and
Warm-Humid, thecoefcient of L
SU
is highest for West, South-West
and West-South-West orientation. This is because the West direc-
tion receives the peak solar radiation at the time of the day when
ambient temperatures are also high. Hence the high temperature
differential and the effect of sol-air-temperature combine to result
in the highest L
SU
towards the West. The North receives the lowest
incident solar radiation and hence the coefcient of L
SU
is lowest
for North in all three climates.
The negative value of S
SU
denotes the night and winter losses
by wall conduction. Although certain wall orientations have net
heat losses during winters other orientations may have net heat
gains even during the winter months because of solair tempera-
ture effect during the day. However, S
SU
depends on the U-value of
the wall (U
w
) and diurnal characteristics of the climate and hence
is unaffected by orientation. The value of S
SU
varies between 4.45
and 5.75 for the three climates (Table 6).
Fig. 17. Correlationof OTTVfrompredeterminedcoefcients andannual space cool-
ing and heating energy use Composite climate.
The coefcients of L
GU
and S
GU
representing DT (difference of
temperature) for glass conduction are both independent of orien-
tation. The second degree polynomial relationship improves the
correlation between I
gci
and U
f
signicantly (by almost 15%) as
compared to the commonly represented linear correlation. The
coefcient S
GU
has a negative value, representing the night and
winter losses and because the U
f
is signicantly higher then U
w
the direction of heat ow reverses more often in case of glass con-
duction as compared to the wall conduction. The coefcient L
GU
is
lowest (10.5) in Composite climate but the ratio of L
GU
to S
GU
is
of similar magnitude in all three tropical climates, indicating sim-
ilar glass conduction losses averaged over the year in Composite,
Hot-Dry and Warm-Humid climates.
The magnitude of SF for different orientations of windows is
indicative of the solar gain one would expect from a particular
window orientation on an annual basis. In all three climates, SF
is highest for West and South-west and lowest in North and North-
east orientations.
FromTables 5 and 6 it is evident that the magnitude of the OTTV
coefcients is highest for the Warm-Humid climate. This is because
there is nowinter periodinWarm-Humidclimate andthe heat ow
through the building envelope remains largely positive throughout
the year. Hence, the balancing effect due of heating period like in
Composite climate is absent in Warm-Humid climate. Composite
climate has a more extreme winter as compared to the Hot-Dry
climate and hence the magnitude of the OTTV coefcients is low-
est for the Composite climate. Hot-Dry climate has the maximum
diurnal variation of temperature throughout the year. Hence, the
ratio L
SU
/S
SU
for wall conduction heat transfer in Hot-Dry climate
is the lowest.
6. Verication of the OTTV coefcients
The obtained OTTV coefcients (Tables 5 and 6) have been ver-
ied with their use for the four case study ofce buildings. The
buildings were modeled without the effect of surface shading (by
adjacent surfaces) so that OTTVcoefcients canbe usedwithout the
ESMs. Parametric runs were carried out for the case study buildings
and OTTV was computed using predetermined coefcients for each
case. This computed OTTV value was found to have linear relation-
ship with the simulated annual space cooling plus heating energy
use per unit building oor area for all four buildings in the three
climates. The plot of this for the different values of OTTV, for all
four buildings in the three climates is given in Figs. 1719. The
coefcient of correlation, R for OTTV obtained from predetermined
coefcients and annual space cooling plus heating energy use per
ing and heating energy use Hot-Dry climate.
unit building oor area ranges between 0.91 and 0.92. The OTTV is
per unit envelope area and the annual cooling energy is per unit
oor area of the building. If the data of only one building is plotted,
R is very high. No such correlation between OTTV values and sim-
ulated annual space cooling plus heating energy use was found if
the OTTV coefcients consisted of the linear term alone.
The constant values in these plots represent the energy use
contributed by the non-envelope related parameters such as light-
ing, occupants, equipment and process loads. It is observed that
internal loads have an indirect impact on annual space cooling
and heating energy use. In composite climate, internal loads con-
tribute in reducing the heating requirement during winters. There
is no such effect in the Warm-Humid climate throughout the year.
Hence for the same intensity of internal loads, the internal loads
component in the annual space cooling and heating energy use is
highest for the Warm-Humid climate and lowest for Composite
climate.
FromFigs. 1719 it is also apparent that OTTV index can be used
to regulate annual space cooling and heating energy use and appro-
priate limit may be xedinthe building energy codes depending on
theOTTVcharacteristics of theclimatetype. Thepercentageof enve-
ing and heating energy use Warm-Humid climate.
Fig. 20. Correlation of OTTV obtained frompredetermined coefcients and ESMand
OTTV from simulated heat gains.
lope contribution in the annual space cooling and heating energy
use and target value of annual energy consumption can affect the
choice of the OTTV limit.
The ESM are also veried by modeling the case buildings with
the effect of surface shading and the OTTV obtained frompredeter-
mined coefcients and ESMcorrelates well with the OTTV obtained
from simulated heat gains, for all four case study buildings in all
three climates. Fig. 20 shows an illustration of this for a sample
data set of Composite climate.
7. Conclusion
A set of OTTV coefcients have been proposed for 3 types of
tropical climates and veried. These coefcients can be used for
calculating the OTTV value for 12-h operation, high-rise or mid-
rise air-conditioned ofce buildings, situated in places with similar
tropical climates. Using a similar method as described in this paper,
OTTV coefcients can be derived for other building types with dif-
ferent operation schedules. Regulating the OTTV of the building
envelope can result in energy efcient design of the building enve-
lope as this study has shown that OTTV correlates well with annual
space cooling and heating energy use.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the staff and manage-
ment of M/s. Unitech Ltd. for imparting the necessary information
related to the four case study buildings. As a special mention the
authors would also like to thank Mr. Marlin Addison of DoE-2,
United States, for valuable inputs in the simulation methods and
analysis.
Appendix A.
Tables A1A4.
Appendix B.
Tables B1B3.
Table A1
ESM for horizontal shading device in Composite climate.
1
orientation 0
10
20
30
40
50
P/A
f
=1 N 0.953 0.951 0.951 0.951 0.951 0.951
S 0.616 0.614 0.614 0.613 0.613 0.613
E 0.681 0.660 0.648 0.641 0.637 0.637
W 0.663 0.624 0.597 0.579 0.568 0.562
NE 0.837 0.829 0.824 0.823 0.823 0.822
SE 0.631 0.618 0.611 0.607 0.606 0.606
SW 0.624 0.601 0.587 0.578 0.574 0.572
NW 0.736 0.716 0.698 0.686 0.681 0.678
P/A
f
=0.5 N 0.959 0.958 0.957 0.956 0.956 0.956
S 0.677 0.663 0.653 0.647 0.646 0.649
E 0.773 0.751 0.734 0.723 0.717 0.717
W 0.770 0.742 0.719 0.701 0.690 0.686
NE 0.876 0.867 0.860 0.855 0.853 0.854
SE 0.720 0.699 0.684 0.674 0.670 0.672
SW 0.725 0.700 0.681 0.668 0.661 0.661
NW 0.809 0.790 0.776 0.765 0.758 0.755
P/A
f
=0.25 N 0.968 0.967 0.966 0.966 0.966 0.968
S 0.778 0.767 0.760 0.759 0.763 0.773
E 0.865 0.851 0.842 0.837 0.837 0.840
W 0.866 0.850 0.837 0.829 0.825 0.826
NE 0.923 0.917 0.913 0.911 0.912 0.914
SE 0.834 0.820 0.811 0.807 0.808 0.815
SW 0.836 0.821 0.810 0.804 0.804 0.809
NW 0.881 0.869 0.861 0.856 0.855 0.858
P/A
f
=1.25 N 0.951 0.951 0.951 0.951 0.951 0.951
S 0.614 0.614 0.613 0.613 0.613 0.613
E 0.661 0.646 0.639 0.637 0.636 0.636
W 0.631 0.598 0.575 0.564 0.559 0.559
NE 0.828 0.824 0.823 0.822 0.822 0.822
SE 0.618 0.610 0.607 0.606 0.606 0.606
SW 0.604 0.586 0.577 0.572 0.571 0.570
NW 0.721 0.696 0.685 0.679 0.676 0.676
Table A2
ESM for vertical shading device with both side ns in Composite climate.
2
orientation 0
10
20
30
40
50
P/A
f
=1 N 0.951 0.969 0.975 0.981 0.986 0.991
S 0.762 0.853 0.856 0.864 0.873 0.884
E 0.869 0.813 0.859 0.899 0.933 0.959
W 0.942 0.636 0.673 0.723 0.777 0.824
NE 0.836 0.996 0.999 1.000 1.000 1.000
SE 0.898 0.704 0.709 0.730 0.766 0.814
SW 0.763 0.835 0.864 0.894 0.914 0.932
NW 0.828 0.805 0.766 0.738 0.728 0.745
P/A
f
=0.5 N 0.951 0.965 0.968 0.971 0.974 0.976
S 0.848 0.773 0.779 0.786 0.793 0.798
E 0.921 0.740 0.767 0.790 0.809 0.823
W 0.976 0.596 0.613 0.632 0.661 0.690
NE 0.893 0.941 0.950 0.956 0.959 0.958
SE 0.968 0.647 0.660 0.676 0.696 0.720
SW 0.876 0.721 0.743 0.763 0.779 0.790
NW 0.953 0.713 0.706 0.698 0.697 0.708
P/A
f
=0.25 N 0.952 0.963 0.965 0.966 0.968 0.969
S 0.916 0.704 0.709 0.712 0.714 0.716
E 0.957 0.693 0.706 0.718 0.727 0.733
W 0.995 0.571 0.582 0.595 0.610 0.624
NE 0.944 0.885 0.890 0.893 0.894 0.893
SE 0.983 0.628 0.635 0.643 0.652 0.664
SW 0.941 0.643 0.655 0.666 0.674 0.680
NW 0.989 0.685 0.684 0.682 0.683 0.690
P/A
f
=1.25 N 0.951 0.970 0.978 0.986 0.993 0.998
S 0.734 0.878 0.880 0.884 0.893 0.903
E 0.851 0.838 0.891 0.935 0.968 0.990
W 0.923 0.661 0.703 0.762 0.829 0.886
NE 0.826 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
SE 0.844 0.738 0.737 0.752 0.791 0.847
SW 0.739 0.873 0.894 0.920 0.940 0.955
NW 0.766 0.852 0.801 0.759 0.743 0.763
Table A3
ESM for vertical shading device with right side n in Composite climate.
2
orientation 0
10
20
30
40
50
P/A
f
=1 N 0.951 0.969 0.975 0.981 0.986 0.991
S 0.648 0.815 0.857 0.895 0.928 0.954
E 0.798 0.820 0.866 0.906 0.939 0.964
W 0.677 0.653 0.727 0.795 0.856 0.909
NE 0.836 0.996 0.999 1.000 1.000 1.000
SE 0.664 0.722 0.782 0.838 0.886 0.927
SW 0.691 0.826 0.873 0.912 0.942 0.965
NW 0.676 0.732 0.787 0.838 0.884 0.924
P/A
f
=0.5 N 0.951 0.965 0.968 0.971 0.974 0.976
S 0.689 0.756 0.781 0.803 0.821 0.834
E 0.850 0.744 0.770 0.793 0.812 0.826
W 0.686 0.606 0.643 0.677 0.708 0.734
NE 0.893 0.941 0.950 0.956 0.959 0.958
SE 0.684 0.670 0.702 0.730 0.756 0.777
SW 0.778 0.718 0.749 0.775 0.794 0.807
NW 0.676 0.704 0.731 0.757 0.780 0.800
P/A
f
=0.25 N 0.952 0.963 0.965 0.966 0.968 0.969
S 0.732 0.700 0.713 0.724 0.731 0.736
E 0.885 0.695 0.708 0.719 0.728 0.734
W 0.691 0.582 0.601 0.618 0.633 0.646
NE 0.944 0.885 0.890 0.893 0.894 0.893
SE 0.698 0.640 0.656 0.670 0.682 0.692
SW 0.834 0.644 0.660 0.673 0.682 0.689
NW 0.676 0.690 0.704 0.716 0.728 0.738
P/A
f
=1.25 N 0.951 0.970 0.978 0.986 0.993 0.998
S 0.638 0.833 0.883 0.926 0.961 0.992
E 0.779 0.847 0.900 0.943 0.976 0.996
W 0.672 0.677 0.769 0.854 0.929 0.986
NE 0.826 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
SE 0.656 0.743 0.817 0.883 0.940 0.988
SW 0.666 0.856 0.906 0.945 0.975 0.995
NW 0.676 0.746 0.814 0.878 0.936 0.986
S
.
D
e
v
g
a
n
e
t
a
l
.
/
E
n
e
r
g
y
a
n
d
B
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s
4
2
(
2
0
1
0
)
1
8
4
1
1
8
6
1
1
8
5
7
Table A4
ESM for vertical shading device with left side n in Composite climate.
2
orientation 0
10
20
30
40
50
P/A
f
=1 N 0.951 0.960 0.968 0.976 0.983 0.989
S 0.727 0.718 0.745 0.775 0.808 0.840
E 0.708 0.692 0.753 0.811 0.864 0.910
W 0.824 0.618 0.655 0.707 0.763 0.812
NE 0.822 0.853 0.883 0.911 0.937 0.958
SE 0.840 0.656 0.667 0.695 0.739 0.795
SW 0.643 0.654 0.708 0.767 0.819 0.866
NW 0.828 0.805 0.766 0.738 0.728 0.745
P/A
f
=0.5 N 0.951 0.956 0.960 0.964 0.967 0.970
S 0.773 0.663 0.677 0.693 0.710 0.726
E 0.708 0.664 0.695 0.724 0.750 0.773
W 0.848 0.587 0.604 0.624 0.654 0.684
NE 0.822 0.838 0.853 0.867 0.879 0.890
SE 0.891 0.617 0.632 0.650 0.673 0.700
SW 0.668 0.610 0.638 0.666 0.693 0.717
NW 0.953 0.713 0.706 0.698 0.697 0.708
P/A
f
=0.25 N 0.951 0.954 0.956 0.958 0.959 0.961
S 0.798 0.633 0.642 0.650 0.658 0.668
E 0.708 0.650 0.666 0.680 0.693 0.705
W 0.863 0.567 0.578 0.591 0.606 0.622
NE 0.822 0.830 0.837 0.845 0.851 0.856
SE 0.891 0.611 0.619 0.628 0.639 0.653
SW 0.677 0.588 0.602 0.617 0.631 0.644
NW 0.989 0.685 0.684 0.682 0.683 0.690
P/A
f
=1.25 N 0.951 0.962 0.972 0.982 0.990 0.998
S 0.709 0.743 0.776 0.812 0.855 0.895
E 0.708 0.706 0.783 0.855 0.921 0.978
W 0.809 0.639 0.682 0.742 0.813 0.881
NE 0.822 0.861 0.898 0.933 0.965 0.992
SE 0.794 0.686 0.694 0.721 0.773 0.842
SW 0.643 0.680 0.742 0.814 0.880 0.941
NW 0.766 0.852 0.801 0.759 0.743 0.763
1
8
5
8
S
.
D
e
v
g
a
n
e
t
a
l
.
/
E
n
e
r
g
y
a
n
d
B
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s
4
2
(
2
0
1
0
)
1
8
4
1
1
8
6
1
Table B1
Comparison of Solar radiation Data of IWEC, ISHRAE, MANI and BANSAL for New Delhi.
Month Day Hour
a
Direct normal solar radiation Total horizontal solar radiation Solar altitude Solar azimuth
IWEC (Btu/hr ft
2
) IWEC (kWh/m
2
) MANI (kWh/m
2
) IWEC (Btu/hr ft
2
) IWEC (kWh/m
2
) MANI (kWh/m
2
) ISHRAE (kWh/m
2
) BANSAL (kWh/m
2
) IWEC MANI IWEC
1 1 7 0 0.064 0 0 0.004 0.106 0.108 1.17 1.2 117.17
1 1 8 0 0 0.316 7 0.022 0.096 0.236 0.256 8.04 8.3 121.79
1 1 9 97 0.306 0.509 54 0.170 0.271 0.348 0.424 18.67 19.2 130.86
1 1 10 210 0.662 0.611 114 0.359 0.433 0.399 0.558 27.75 28.7 142.18
1 1 11 259 0.816 0.674 163 0.514 0.556 0.445 0.641 34.52 36 156.25
1 1 12 281 0.886 0.69 194 0.612 0.618 0.450 0.669 38.06 40 172.83
1 1 13 285 0.898 0.689 204 0.643 0.615 0.408 0.641 37.69 40 190.33
1 1 14 285 0.898 0.664 191 0.602 0.552 0.354 0.558 33.50 36 206.53
1 1 15 259 0.816 0.609 156 0.492 0.43 0.243 0.424 26.24 28.7 220.08
1 1 16 210 0.662 0.512 104 0.328 0.268 0.116 0.256 16.83 19.2 230.95
1 1 17 93 0.293 0.333 43 0.136 0.099 0.000 0.108 5.99 8.3 239.67
1 1 18 0 0.000 0.078 4 0.013 0.005 0.000 0.1 0.10 1.2 243.49
6 3 6 0 0.000 2 0.006 0.036 0.144 0.207 6.46 68.17
6 3 7 16 0.050 0.136 29 0.091 0.164 0.275 0.411 18.93 17 74.42
6 3 8 88 0.277 0.249 92 0.290 0.339 0.420 0.61 31.78 29.7 80.26
6 3 9 170 0.536 0.329 166 0.523 0.51 0.605 0.779 44.85 42.8 86.23
6 3 10 214 0.675 0.381 232 0.731 0.657 0.793 0.911 58.02 55.9 93.39
6 3 11 250 0.788 0.403 282 0.889 0.757 0.897 0.99 71.02 69 105.04
6 3 12 276 0.870 0.415 312 0.984 0.809 0.897 1.02 82.29 81.2 144.43
6 3 13 278 0.876 0.419 320 1.009 0.813 0.828 0.99 78.84 81.2 237.60
6 3 14 274 0.864 0.4 304 0.958 0.75 0.665 0.911 66.45 69 260.11
6 3 15 246 0.776 0.361 266 0.839 0.639 0.508 0.779 53.34 55.9 269.40
6 3 16 205 0.646 0.3 210 0.662 0.483 0.333 0.61 40.19 42.8 275.96
6 3 17 148 0.467 0.232 140 0.441 0.318 0.161 0.411 27.18 29.7 281.80
6 3 18 62 0.195 0.151 67 0.211 0.159 0.028 0.207 14.45 17 287.73
6 3 19 0 0.000 14 0.044 0.036 0.000 4.08 293.14
a
The value in this column refers to the hour time, i.e. 7 refers to 7 a.m. and the previous two columns give the date and the number of the month in a year respectively (starting January=1).
S
.
D
e
v
g
a
n
e
t
a
l
.
/
E
n
e
r
g
y
a
n
d
B
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s
4
2
(
2
0
1
0
)
1
8
4
1
1
8
6
1
1
8
5
9
Table B2
Comparison of solar radiation data of IWEC, ISHRAE, MANI and BANSAL for Ahamadabad.
Month Day Hour Direct normal solar radiation Total horizontal solar radiation Solar altitude Solar azimuth
IWEC (Btu/hr ft
2
) IWEC (kWh/m
2
) MANI (kWh/m
2
) IWEC (Btu/hr ft
2
) IWEC (kWh/m
2
) MANI (kWh/m
2
) ISHRAE (kWh/m
2
) BANSAL (kWh/m
2
) IWEC MANI IWEC
1 1 7 0 0 0.050 0 0.011 0.149 0.11 0.57 2.4 115.43
1 1 8 0 0 0.435 4 0.013 0.147 0.346 0.261 7.27 10.7 118.88
1 1 9 69 0.218 0.68 48 0.151 0.36 0.526 0.431 18.90 22.3 126.52
1 1 10 165 0.520 0.78 113 0.356 0.544 0.656 0.565 29.25 32.5 136.54
1 1 11 245 0.772 0.828 169 0.533 0.674 0.717 0.648 37.57 40.5 149.76
1 1 12 261 0.823 0.844 207 0.653 0.741 0.717 0.676 42.75 45.1 166.54
1 1 13 269 0.848 0.833 224 0.706 0.735 0.650 0.648 43.72 45.1 185.48
1 1 14 268 0.845 0.797 218 0.687 0.661 0.523 0.565 40.23 40.5 203.48
1 1 15 257 0.810 0.745 188 0.593 0.529 0.343 0.431 33.11 32.5 218.25
1 1 16 224 0.706 0.638 138 0.435 0.345 0.150 0.261 23.51 22.3 229.54
1 1 17 148 0.467 0.42 74 0.233 0.138 0 0.11 12.35 10.7 238.10
1 1 18 16 0.050 0.061 14 0.044 0.011 0 0.1 3.22 2.4 243.28
6 4 6 0 0 0 0 0 0.024 0.155 0.204 3.43 67.13
6 4 7 0 0 0.148 11 0.035 0.145 0.319 0.409 13.38 15.4 71.11
6 4 8 62 0.195 0.236 62 0.195 0.314 0.499 0.609 26.60 28.6 75.58
6 4 9 41 0.129 0.301 112 0.353 0.484 0.691 0.779 40.08 42.1 79.52
6 4 10 130 0.410 0.375 187 0.590 0.641 0.803 0.911 53.72 55.6 83.20
6 4 11 185 0.583 0.414 252 0.794 0.749 0.814 0.991 67.47 69.3 87.00
6 4 12 216 0.681 0.442 296 0.933 0.804 0.716 1.021 81.26 83.1 92.83
6 4 13 242 0.763 0.467 316 0.996 0.822 0.657 0.991 84.83 83.1 263.17
6 4 14 264 0.832 0.467 310 0.977 0.765 0.530 0.911 71.04 69.3 271.88
6 4 15 256 0.807 0.439 279 0.880 0.652 0.411 0.779 57.27 55.6 275.86
6 4 16 226 0.712 0.39 227 0.716 0.498 0.251 0.609 43.60 42.1 279.52
6 4 17 179 0.564 0.286 158 0.498 0.316 0.122 0.409 30.08 28.6 283.36
6 4 18 96 0.303 0.148 84 0.265 0.141 0 0.204 16.78 15.4 287.66
6 4 19 17 0.054 0 21 0.066 0.022 0 5.08 292.16
1
8
6
0
S
.
D
e
v
g
a
n
e
t
a
l
.
/
E
n
e
r
g
y
a
n
d
B
u
i
l
d
i
n
g
s
4
2
(
2
0
1
0
)
1
8
4
1
1
8
6
1
Table B3
Comparison of solar radiation data of IWEC, ISHRAE, MANI and BANSAL for Chennai.
Month Day Hour Direct normal solar radiation Total horizontal solar radiation Solar altitude Solar azimuth
IWEC (Btu/hr ft
2
) IWEC (kWh/m
2
) MANI (kWh/m
2
) IWEC (Btu/hr ft
2
) IWEC (kWh/m
2
) MANI (kWh/m
2
) ISHRAE (kWh/m
2
) BANSAL (kWh/m
2
) IWEC MANI IWEC
1 1 7 0 0 0.08 2 0.006 0.125 0.178 6.08 4.50 115.36
1 1 8 40 0.126 0.382 35 0.110 0.029 0.241 0.390 18.48 15.60 120.03
1 1 9 141 0.444 0.53 105 0.331 0.194 0.342 0.582 30.68 28.30 127.14
1 1 10 194 0.612 0.517 167 0.526 0.397 0.416 0.728 41.51 40.00 137.77
1 1 11 192 0.605 0.535 209 0.659 0.543 0.456 0.820 49.83 49.60 153.61
1 1 12 171 0.539 0.581 224 0.706 0.660 0.458 0.852 53.84 55.30 175.08
1 1 13 188 0.593 0.62 235 0.741 0.732 0.462 0.820 52.15 55.30 197.94
1 1 14 194 0.612 0.629 223 0.703 0.749 0.381 0.728 45.41 49.60 216.30
1 1 15 197 0.621 0.616 187 0.590 0.697 0.290 0.582 35.45 40.00 228.92
1 1 16 147 0.463 0.538 125 0.394 0.579 0.151 0.390 23.73 28.30 237.32
1 1 17 60 0.189 0.459 57 0.180 0.414 0.026 0.178 11.03 15.60 243.00
1 1 18 0 0 0.175 6 0.019 0.207 0.000 0.100 2.24 4.50 245.75
6 9 6 0 0 0 0 0.000 0.107 0.125 4.93 67.60
6 9 7 0 0 0.118 13 0.041 0.007 0.228 0.335 16.73 11.80 69.65
6 9 8 17 0.054 0.259 54 0.170 0.099 0.343 0.554 30.49 25.50 70.87
6 9 9 23 0.073 0.356 101 0.318 0.271 0.480 0.742 44.30 39.30 70.55
6 9 10 52 0.164 0.432 154 0.485 0.458 0.559 0.888 57.97 53.10 67.40
6 9 11 74 0.233 0.464 200 0.630 0.627 0.601 0.978 70.97 66.40 56.22
6 9 12 96 0.303 0.474 234 0.738 0.745 0.545 1.010 79.89 77.70 11.13
6 9 13 44 0.139 0.452 223 0.703 0.799 0.503 0.978 74.25 77.70 310.79
6 9 14 61 0.192 0.402 193 0.608 0.788 0.425 0.888 61.74 66.40 294.48
6 9 15 38 0.120 0.346 151 0.476 0.706 0.344 0.742 48.17 53.10 289.95
6 9 16 70 0.221 0.279 140 0.441 0.577 0.225 0.554 34.38 39.30 289.04
6 9 17 65 0.205 0.203 95 0.299 0.415 0.091 0.335 20.59 25.50 289.88
6 9 18 31 0.098 0.105 35 0.110 0.244 0.000 0.125 6.93 11.80 291.99
6 9 19 0 0 0 2 0.006 0.091 0.000 0.09 293.53
References
[1] http://www.bca.gov.sg/PerformanceBased/others/ETTV.pdf.;
http://www.bca.gov.sg/PerformanceBased/others/RETV.pdf.
[2] http://www.bd.gov.hk/english/documents/code/e ottv.html.
[3] http://www.iea.org/Textbase/work/2006/buildings/surapong background.pdf.
[4] http://www.meew.gov.mv/projects/smiles/reports/Reports and Documents/
07.DSM%20Mission-2%20 (Feb%202005)/Building%20energy-%20BEEC%20Sri%
20Lanka.pdf.
[5] http://www.peemac.sdnpk.org/resource/pdf/buildingecp.pdf.
[6] F.W.H. Yik, K.S.Y. Wan, An evaluation of the appropriateness of using overall
thermal transfer value (OTTV) to regulate envelope energy performance of air-
conditioned buildings, Energy 30 (2005) 4171.
[7] http://www.jbs.org.jm/nbc/JamaicaApplicationDocumentIECCFinal.pdf.
[8] J. Huang, J. Deringer, K. Moncef, M. Jamil, The development of residential and
commercial building energy standards for Egypt. LBNL-55521, in: Proceedings
of Energy Conservation in Buildings Workshop, Kuwait, 2003.
[9] K.T. Chan, W.K. Chow, Energy impact of commercial-building envelope in sub-
tropical climate, Applied Energy 60 (1998) 2139.
[10] J.C. Lam, S.C.M. Hui, S.Y. Yuen, OTTVcalculationfor Hong Kong part 1heat gain,
research report no. BC/92/05, Hong Kong: Department of Building & Construc-
tion, The City University of Hong Kong, 1992.
[11] J.C. Lam, S.C.M. Hui, OTTV calculation for Hong Kong part 2cooling load,
research report no. BC/92/11, Hong Kong: Department of Building & Construc-
tion, The City University of Hong Kong, 1992.
[12] Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, DOE-2 reference manual, version 2.1A, Berke-
ley, CA: Energy and Environmental Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory,
LBL-8706 Rev. 2, LA-7689-M (Rev. 2), 1981.
[13] W.K. Chow, K.T. Chan, Overall thermal transfer values for building envelopes
in Hong Kong, Applied Energy 42 (4) (1992) 289312.
[14] W.K. Chow, K.T. Chan, Parameterization study of the overall thermal transfer
value equations for buildings, Applied Energy 50 (3) (1995) 247268.
[15] W.K. Chow, P.C.H. Yu, Controlling building energy use by overall thermal trans-
fer value (OTTV), Energy 25 (5) (2000) 463478.
[16] S.C.M. Hui, Energy performance of air-conditioned buildings in Hong Kong,
Unpublished PhD Thesis, City University of Hong Kong, 1996.
[17] I. Turiel, R. Curtis, M.D. Levine, Analysis of energy conservation standards for
Singapore Ofce Buildings, Energy 10 (1985) 95107.
[18] S.K. Chow, Y.K. Lee, A simplied overall thermal transfer value equation for
building envelopes, Energy 13 (1988) 657670.
[19] J.C. Lam, Energyanalysis of commercial buildings insubtropical climates, Build-
ing & Environment 35 (2000) 1926.
[20] P.C.H. Yu, W.K. Chow, Energy use in commercial buildings in Hong Kong,
Applied Energy 69 (2001) 243255.
[21] S. Chirarattananon, J. Taveekun, An OTTV-based energy estimation model for
commercial buildings in Thailand, Energy and Buildings 36 (2004) 680689.
[22] Energy Conservation Building Code, Bureau of Energy Efciency, Ministry of
Power, Government of India, http://www.bee-india.nic.in, 2007.
[23] J.C. Lam, K.K.W. Wan, C.L. Tsang, L. Yang, Building energy efciency in different
climates, Energy Conversion and Management 49 (8) (2008) 23542366.
[24] H. Radhi, Can envelope codes reduce electricity and CO
2
emissions in different
types of buildings in the hot climate of Bahrain? Energy 34 (2009) 205215.
[25] O.T. Masoso, L.J. Grobler, A newand innovative look at anti-insulation behavior
in building energy consumption, Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 18891894.
[26] http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/cfm/weather data3.cfm/
region=2 asia wmo region 2/country=IND/cname=India.
[27] S. Devgan, Development of OTTV based approach for three tropical climates as
an alternative to prescriptive approach in building energy codes, PhD thesis,
submitted to Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India, 2009.
[28] R. Sullivan, F. Winkelmann, Validation Studies of the DOE-2 Building Energy
Simulation Program, Final report, Environment Energy Technologies Division,
LBNL-42241, 1998.
[29] A. Pedrini, F.S. Westphal, R. Lamberts, Amethodology for building energy mod-
eling and calibration in warm climates, Building & Environment 37 (2002)
903912.
[30] A. Mani, Handbook of Solar Radiation Data for India, Allied Publishers Private
Limited, 1981.
[31] N.K. Bansal, G. Minke, Climatic Zones & Rural Housing in India, Part 1 of Indo-
German project on Passive Space Conditioning, 1988.

Thermal Transfer Value Coefficients

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Thermal Transfer Value Coefficients

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Energy and Buildings 42 (2010) 18411861

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

area of the glass in the ith orientation

C. They opined that the use of OTTV alone would not

C) (12) Single value

for all eight orientations of the hypotheti-

=area of the glass in the ith orientation.

in case of second degree polynomial relationship ranges from 0.93

Вам также может понравиться