Blue Tooth Based Security Enabled Powered Devices Control System

BlueStooth based security enabled powered devices control system
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction:
The project mainly aims in designing completely automated powered devices
control with the help of Bluetooth technology and a graphical LCD to display the status of the
devices and also provides a user friendly environment to operate the devices effectively. It majorly
aims in providing a reliable system for illiterates and old people who finds difficulty in operating
few high end devices like C! water heaters etc.
utomation is the most fre"uently spelled term in the field of electronics. The
hunger for automation brought many revolutions in the e#isting technologies. These had greater
importance than any other technologies due to its user$friendly nature. These can be used as a
replacement of the e#isting switches in home which produces sparks and also results in fire
accidents in few situations. Considering the advantages of Bluetooth an advanced automation
system was developed to control the devices.
The device consists of a microcontroller! which is interfaced with the input and
output modules! the controller acts as an intermediate medium between both of them. %o the
controller can be termed as a control unit. The input module is nothing but a Bluetooth module!
which takes the input from the user&s mobile phone with Bluetooth features and provides the same
to the microcontroller. The output module is graphical LCD and the devices to be controlled. 'ere
the microcontroller receives the input from the Bluetooth and switches the device with respect to
the input. The controller also takes the responsibility to display the status of the individual devices
on the graphical LCD. The (icrocontroller is programmed using )mbedded C language.
Features:
*. Bluetooth based user$friendly operation.
+. Low power consumption.
,. Controls high and low voltage devices.
-. Long life.
.. 'ighly sensitive.
1.2 Project Overvie:
n embedded system is a combination of software and hardware to perform a
dedicated task. %ome of the main devices used in embedded products are (icroprocessors and
(icrocontrollers.
Department of E.C.E 1 S.K.D
Engineering College, ooty.

(icroprocessors are commonly referred to as general purpose processors as they
simply accept the inputs! process it and give the output. In contrast! a microcontroller not only
accepts the data as inputs but also manipulates it! interfaces the data with various devices! controls
the data and thus finally gives the result.
The /!"uetoot# $ased securit% ena$"ed &oered devices contro" s%ste'0 using
1IC*234, microcontroller is an e#clusive project which is designed such that home appliances can
be controlled by using a touch screen sensor.
5e can use this project to control the home appliances like lights! fans etc..! by
using touch screen sensor i.e. manual switching mechanism is eliminated and we can switch any
home appliance just by a gentle touch on touch screen sensor.
1.( T#esis:
The thesis e#plains the implementation of /!"uetoot# $ased securit% ena$"ed
&oered devices contro" s%ste') using 1IC*234, microcontroller. The organi6ation of
the thesis is e#plained here with7
C#a&ter 1 1resents introduction to the overall thesis and the overview of the project. In the
project overview a brief introduction of Bluetooth! 8elay and Triac and its applications are
discussed.
C#a&ter 2 1resents the topic embedded systems. It e#plains the about what is embedded systems!
need for embedded systems! e#planation of it along with its applications.
C#a&ter ( 1resents the hardware description. It deals with the block diagram of the project and
e#plains the purpose of each block. In the same chapter the e#planation of microcontrollers!
Bluetooth module! power supplies! 8elay and Triac are considered.
C#a&ter * 1resents the software description. It e#plains the implementation of the project using
1IC C Compiler software.
C#a&ter + 1resents the project description along with Bluetooth module! relay and Triac
interfacing to microcontroller.
C#a&ter , 1resents the advantages! disadvantages and applications of the project.
C#a&ter - 1resents the results! conclusion and future scope of the project.
Department of E.C.E ! S.K.D
Advanta.es:
*. This system eliminates electrical shocks when manual switching mechanism is used.
+. The electrical appliances can be switched 9:;933 wirelessly through Bluetooth.
,. )fficient and low cost design.
-. Low power consumption.
.. 3ast response.
2. 'igh voltage devices can also be operated.
Disadvanta.es:
*. 8ange of Bluetooth is limited.
+. Interfacing Bluetooth module to (icrocontroller is sensitive.
A&&"ications:
This system is an efficient solution for operating many electrical appliances through
Bluetooth which can be used in real time.
Department of E.C.E " S.K.D
CHAPTER 2: E/!EDDED 010TE/0
2.1 E'$edded 0%ste's:
n embedded system is a computer system designed to perform one or a few
dedicated functions often with real$time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a
complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast! a general$purpose
computer! such as a personal computer <1C=! is designed to be fle#ible and to meet a wide range of
end$user needs. )mbedded systems control many devices in common use today.
)mbedded systems are controlled by one or more main processing cores that are
typically either microcontrollers or digital signal processors <D%1=. The key characteristic!
however! is being dedicated to handle a particular task! which may re"uire very powerful
processors. 3or e#ample! air traffic control systems may usefully be viewed as embedded! even
though they involve mainframe computers and dedicated regional and national networks between
airports and radar sites. <)ach radar probably includes one or more embedded systems of its own.=
%ince the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks! design engineers can
optimi6e it to reduce the si6e and cost of the product and increase the reliability and performance.
%ome embedded systems are mass$produced! benefiting from economies of scale.
1hysically embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches
and (1, players! to large stationary installations like traffic lights! factory controllers! or the
systems controlling nuclear power plants. Comple#ity varies from low! with a single
microcontroller chip! to very high with multiple units! peripherals and networks mounted inside a
large chassis or enclosure.
In general! >embedded system> is not a strictly definable term! as most systems
have some element of e#tensibility or programmability. 3or e#ample! handheld computers share
some elements with embedded systems such as the operating systems and microprocessors which
power them! but they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected.
(oreover! even systems which don?t e#pose programmability as a primary feature generally need
to support software updates. 9n a continuum from >general purpose> to >embedded>! large
application systems will have subcomponents at most points even if the system as a whole is
Department of E.C.E # S.K.D
>designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions>! and is thus appropriate to call
>embedded>. modern e#ample of embedded system is shown in fig7 +.*.
Fi. 2.1:A 'odern e2a'&"e o3 e'$edded s%ste'
Labeled parts include microprocessor <-=! 8( <2=! flash memory <4=.)mbedded
systems programming is not like normal 1C programming. In many ways! programming for an
embedded system is like programming 1C *. years ago. The hardware for the system is usually
chosen to make the device as cheap as possible. %pending an e#tra dollar a unit in order to make
things easier to program can cost millions. 'iring a programmer for an e#tra month is cheap in
comparison. This means the programmer must make do with slow processors and low memory!
while at the same time battling a need for efficiency not seen in most 1C applications. Below is a
list of issues specific to the embedded field.
2.1.1 Histor%:
In the earliest years of computers in the *@,AB-As! computers were sometimes
dedicated to a single task! but were far too large and e#pensive for most kinds of tasks performed
by embedded computers of today. 9ver time however! the concept of programmable controllers
evolved from traditional electromechanical se"uencers! via solid state devices! to the use of
computer technology.
9ne of the first recogni6ably modern embedded systems was the pollo Cuidance
Computer! developed by Charles %tark Draper at the (IT Instrumentation Laboratory. t the
Department of E.C.E $ S.K.D
project?s inception! the pollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest item in the pollo
project as it employed the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the si6e
and weight. n early mass$produced embedded system was the utonetics D$*4 guidance
computer for
the (inute man missile! released in *@2*. It was built from transistor logic and had a hard disk for
main memory. 5hen the (inuteman II went into production in *@22! the D$*4 was replaced with
a new computer that was the first high$volume use of integrated circuits.
2.1.2 Too"s:
)mbedded development makes up a small fraction of total programming. There?s
also a large number of embedded architectures! unlike the 1C world where * instruction set rules!
and the D:IE world where there?s only , or - major ones. This means that the tools are more
e#pensive. It also means that they?re lowering featured! and less developed. 9n a major embedded
project! at some point you will almost always find a compiler bug of some sort.
Debugging tools are another issue. %ince you can?t always run general programs on
your embedded processor! you can?t always run a debugger on it. This makes fi#ing your program
difficult. %pecial hardware such as FTC ports can overcome this issue in part. 'owever! if you
stop on a breakpoint when your system is controlling real world hardware <such as a motor=!
permanent e"uipment damage can occur. s a result! people doing embedded programming
"uickly become masters at using serial I9 channels and error message style debugging.
2.1.( Resources:
To save costs! embedded systems fre"uently have the cheapest processors that can
do the job. This means your programs need to be written as efficiently as possible. 5hen dealing
with large data sets! issues like memory cache misses that never matter in 1C programming can
hurt you. Luckily! this won?t happen too often$ use reasonably efficient algorithms to start! and
optimi6e only when necessary. 9f course! normal profilers won?t work well! due to the same
reason debuggers don?t work well.
(emory is also an issue. 3or the same cost savings reasons! embedded systems
usually have the least memory they can get away with. That means their algorithms must be
memory efficient <unlike in 1C programs! you will fre"uently sacrifice processor time for memory!
rather than the reverse=. It also means you can?t afford to leak memory. )mbedded applications
Department of E.C.E % S.K.D
generally use deterministic memory techni"ues and avoid the default >new> and >malloc>
functions! so that leaks
can be found and eliminated more easily. 9ther resources programmers e#pect may not even e#ist.
3or e#ample! most embedded processors do not have hardware 31Ds <3loating$1oint 1rocessing
Dnit=. These resources either need to be emulated in software! or avoided altogether.
2.1.* Rea" Ti'e Issues:
)mbedded systems fre"uently control hardware! and must be able to respond to
them in real time. 3ailure to do so could cause inaccuracy in measurements! or even damage
hardware such as motors. This is made even more difficult by the lack of resources available.
lmost all embedded systems need to be able to prioriti6e some tasks over others! and to be able to
put off;skip low priority tasks such as DI in favor of high priority tasks like hardware control.
2.2 Need For E'$edded 0%ste's:
The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless! because every day new
products are introduced to the market that utili6es embedded computers in novel ways. In recent
years! hardware such as microprocessors! microcontrollers! and 31C chips have become much
cheaper. %o when implementing a new form of control! it?s wiser to just buy the generic chip and
write your own custom software for it. 1roducing a custom$made chip to handle a particular task
or set of tasks costs far more time and money. (any embedded computers even come with
e#tensive libraries! so that >writing your own software> becomes a very trivial task indeed. 3rom
an implementation viewpoint! there is a major difference between a computer and an embedded
system. )mbedded systems are often re"uired to provide 8eal$Time response. The main elements
that make embedded systems uni"ue are its reliability and ease in debugging.
2.2.1 De$u..in.:
)mbedded debugging may be performed at different levels! depending on the
facilities available. 3rom simplest to most sophisticate they can be roughly grouped into the
following areas7
Interactive resident debugging! using the simple shell provided by the embedded operating
system <e.g. 3orth and Basic=
)#ternal debugging using logging or serial port output to trace operation using either a
monitor in flash or using a debug server like the 8emedy Debugger which even works for
heterogeneous multi core systems.
Department of E.C.E & S.K.D
n in$circuit debugger <ICD=! a hardware device that connects to the microprocessor via a
FTC or :e#us interface. This allows the operation of the microprocessor to be controlled
e#ternally! but is typically restricted to specific debugging capabilities in the processor.
n in$circuit emulator replaces the microprocessor with a simulated e"uivalent! providing
full control over all aspects of the microprocessor.
complete emulator provides a simulation of all aspects of the hardware! allowing all of it
to be controlled and modified and allowing debugging on a normal 1C.
Dnless restricted to e#ternal debugging! the programmer can typically load and run
software through the tools! view the code running in the processor! and start or stop its
operation. The view of the code may be as assembly code or source$code.
Because an embedded system is often composed of a wide variety of elements! the
debugging strategy may vary. 3or instance! debugging a software <and microprocessor= centric
embedded system is different from debugging an embedded system where most of the processing
is performed by peripherals <D%1! 31C! co$processor=. n increasing number of embedded
systems today use more than one single processor core. common problem with multi$core
development is the proper synchroni6ation of software e#ecution. In such a case! the embedded
system design may wish to check the data traffic on the busses between the processor cores! which
re"uires very low$level debugging! at signal;bus level! with a logic analy6er! for instance.
2.2.2 Re"ia$i"it%:
)mbedded systems often reside in machines that are e#pected to run continuously
for years without errors and in some cases recover by them if an error occurs. Therefore the
software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal computers! and
unreliable mechanical moving parts such as disk drives! switches or buttons are avoided.
%pecific reliability issues may include7
The system cannot safely be shut down for repair! or it is too inaccessible to repair.
)#amples include space systems! undersea cables! navigational beacons! bore$hole
systems! and automobiles.
The system must be kept running for safety reasons. >Limp modes> are less tolerable.
9ften backups are selected by an operator. )#amples include aircraft navigation! reactor
controlsystems! safety$critical chemical factory controls! train signals! engines on single$
engine aircraft.
Department of E.C.E ' S.K.D
The system will lose large amounts of money when shut down7 Telephone switches!
factory controls! bridge and elevator controls! funds transfer and market making!
automated sales and service.
variety of techni"ues are used! sometimes in combination! to recover from errors
Gboth software bugs such as memory leaks! and also soft errors in the hardware7
5atchdog timer that resets the computer unless the software periodically notifies the
watchdog
%ubsystems with redundant spares that can be switched over to
software >limp modes> that provide partial function
Designing with a Trusted Computing Base <TCB= architectureH2I ensures a highly secure J
reliable system environment
n )mbedded 'ypervisor is able to provide secure encapsulation for any subsystem
component! so that a compromised software component cannot interfere with other
subsystems! or privileged$level system software. This encapsulation keeps faults from
propagating from one subsystem to another! improving reliability. This may also allow a
subsystem to be automatically shut down and restarted on fault detection.
Immunity ware 1rogramming
2.( E2&"anation o3 E'$edded 0%ste's:
2.(.1 0o3tare Arc#itecture:
There are several different types of software architecture in common use.
%imple Control Loop7
In this design! the software simply has a loop. The loop calls subroutines! each of which
manages a part of the hardware or software.
Interrupt Controlled %ystem7
%ome embedded systems are predominantly interrupt controlled. This means that
tasks performed by the system are triggered by different kinds of events. n interrupt could be
generated for e#ample by a timer in a predefined fre"uency! or by a serial port controller receiving
a byte. These kinds of systems are used if event handlers need low latency and the event handlers
are short and simple.
Department of E.C.E ( S.K.D
Dsually these kinds of systems run a simple task in a main loop also! but this task is
not very sensitive to une#pected delays. %ometimes the interrupt handler will add longer tasks to a
"ueue structure. Later! after the interrupt handler has finished! these tasks are e#ecuted by the main
loop. This method brings the system close to a multitasking kernel with discrete processes.
Cooperative (ultitasking7
non$preemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple control loop
scheme! e#cept that the loop is hidden in an 1I. The programmer defines a series of tasks! and
each task gets its own environment to /run0 in. 5hen a task is idle! it calls an idle routine! usually
called /pause0! /wait0! /yield0! /nop0 <stands for no operation=! etc. The advantages and
disadvantages are very similar to the control loop! e#cept that adding new software is easier! by
simply writing a new task! or adding to the "ueue$interpreter.
1rimitive (ultitasking7
In this type of system! a low$level piece of code switches between tasks or threads
based on a timer <connected to an interrupt=. This is the level at which the system is generally
considered to have an >operating system> kernel. Depending on how much functionality is
re"uired! it introduces more or less of the comple#ities of managing multiple tasks running
conceptually in parallel.
s any code can potentially damage the data of another task <e#cept in larger
systems using an ((D= programs must be carefully designed and tested! and access to shared
data must be controlled by some synchroni6ation strategy! such as message "ueues! semaphores or
a non$blocking synchroni6ation scheme.
Because of these comple#ities! it is common for organi6ations to buy a real$time
operating system! allowing the application programmers to concentrate on device functionality
rather
than operating system services! at least for large systemsK smaller systems often cannot afford the
overhead associated with a generic real time system! due to limitations regarding memory si6e!
performance! and;or battery life.
Department of E.C.E 1) S.K.D
(icrokernels nd )#okernels7
microkernel is a logical step up from a real$time 9%. The usual arrangement is
that the operating system kernel allocates memory and switches the C1D to different threads of
e#ecution. Dser mode processes implement major functions such as file systems! network
interfaces! etc.
In general! microkernels succeed when the task switching and intertask
communication is fast! and fail when they are slow. )#okernels communicate efficiently by
normal subroutine calls. The hardware and all the software in the system are available to! and
e#tensible by application programmers. Based on performance! functionality! re"uirement the
embedded systems are divided into three categories7
2.(.2 0tand A"one E'$edded 0%ste':
These systems takes the input in the form of electrical signals from transducers or
commands from human beings such as pressing of a button etc..! process them and produces
desired output. This entire process of taking input! processing it and giving output is done in
standalone mode. %uch embedded systems comes under stand alone embedded systems
)g7 microwave oven! air conditioner etc.
2.(.( Rea"4ti'e e'$edded s%ste's:
)mbedded systems which are used to perform a specific task or operation in a
specific time period those systems are called as real$time embedded systems. There are two types
of real$time embedded systems.
'ard 8eal$time embedded systems7
These embedded systems follow an absolute dead line time period i.e..! if the
tasking is not done in a particular time period then there is a cause of damage to the entire
e"uipment.
Department of E.C.E 11 S.K.D
)g7 consider a system in which we have to open a valve within ,A milliseconds. If this
valve is not opened in ,A ms this may cause damage to the entire e"uipment. %o in such cases we
use embedded systems for doing automatic operations.
%oft 8eal Time embedded systems7
These embedded systems follow a relative dead line time period i.e..! if the task is
not done in a particular time that will not cause damage to the e"uipment.
)g7 Consider a TL remote control system! if the remote control takes a few milliseconds
delay it will not cause damage either to the TL or to the remote control. These systems which will
not cause damage when they are not operated at considerable time period those systems comes
under soft real$time embedded systems.
2.(.* Netor5 co''unication e'$edded s%ste's:
wide range network interfacing communication is provided by using embedded
systems.
)g7
Consider a web camera that is connected to the computer with internet can be used to
spread communication like sending pictures! images! videos etc..! to another computer
with internet connection throughout anywhere in the world.
Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock.
5henever a person comes near the door! it captures the image of a person and
sends to the desktop of your computer which is connected to internet. This gives an alerting
message with image on to the desktop of your computer! and then you can open the door lock just
by clicking the mouse. 3ig7 +.+ show the network communications in embedded systems.
Department of E.C.E 1! S.K.D
Fi. 2.2: Netor5 co''unication e'$edded s%ste's
2.(.+ Di33erent t%&es o3 &rocessin. units:
The central processing unit <c.p.u= can be any one of the following microprocessor!
microcontroller! digital signal processing.
mong these (icrocontroller is of low cost processor and one of the main advantage of
microcontrollers is! the components such as memory! serial communication interfaces!
analog to digital converters etc..! all these are built on a single chip. The numbers of
e#ternal components that are connected to it are very less according to the application.
(icroprocessors are more powerful than microcontrollers. They are used in major
applications with a number of tasking re"uirements. But the microprocessor re"uires many
e#ternal components like memory! serial communication! hard disk! input output ports
etc..! so the power consumption is also very high when compared to microcontrollers.
Digital signal processing is used mainly for the applications that particularly involved with
processing of signals
2.* APP6ICATION0 OF E/!EDDED 010TE/0:
2.*.1 Consu'er a&&"ications:
Department of E.C.E 1" S.K.D
t home we use a number of embedded systems which include microwave oven! remote
control! LCD players! DLD players! camera etcM.
Fi.2.(: Auto'atic co33ee 'a5es e7ui&'ent
2.*.2 O33ice auto'ation:
5e use systems like fa# machine! modem! printer etcM

Fi.2.*: Fa2 'ac#ine Fi.2.+: Printin. 'ac#ine
2.*.(. Industria" auto'ation:
Today a lot of industries are using embedded systems for process control. In
industries we design the embedded systems to perform a specific operation like monitoring
temperature! pressure! humidity !voltage! current etc..! and basing on these monitored levels we do
control other devices! we can send information to a centrali6ed monitoring station.
Department of E.C.E 1# S.K.D
Fi.2.,: Ro$ot
In critical industries where human presence is avoided there we can use robots
which are programmed to do a specific operation.
2.*.+ Co'&uter netor5in.:
)mbedded systems are used as bridges routers etc..

Fi.2.-: Co'&uter netor5in.
2.*., Te"e co''unications:
Cell phones! web cameras etc.
Department of E.C.E 1$ S.K.D

Fi.2.8: Ce"" P#one Fi.2.9: :e$ ca'era
CHAPTER (: HARD:ARE DE0CRIPTION
(.1 Introduction7
Department of E.C.E 1% S.K.D
In this chapter the block diagram of the project and design aspect of independent
modules are considered. Block diagram is shown in fig7 ,.*7

FI; (.1: !"oc5 dia.ra' o3 !"uetoot# $ased securit% ena$"ed &oered devices contro"
s%ste'.
The main blocks of this project are7
*. (icro controller <*234,=
+. 8eset button
,. Crystal oscillator
-. 8egulated power supply <81%=
.. Led indictor
2. Bluetooth.
4. 8elay with driver.
N. Triac with driver.
Department of E.C.E 1& S.K.D
(.2 /icro contro""er:
Fi.: (.2 /icrocontro""ers
(.2.1 Introduction to /icrocontro""ers:
Circumstances that we find ourselves in today in the field of microcontrollers had
their beginnings in the development of technology of integrated circuits. This development has
made it possible to store hundreds of thousands of transistors into one chip. That was a
prere"uisite for production of microprocessors! and the first computers were made by adding
e#ternal peripherals such as memory! input$output lines! timers and other. 3urther increasing of the
volume of the package resulted in creation of integrated circuits. These integrated circuits
contained both processor and peripherals. That is how the first chip containing a microcomputer!
or what would later be known as a microcontroller came about.
(icroprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded systems products.
(icrocontroller is a programmable device. microcontroller has a C1D in addition to a fi#ed
amount of 8(! 89(! I;9 ports and a timer embedded all on a single chip. The fi#ed amount of
on$chip 89(! 8( and number of I;9 ports in microcontrollers makes them ideal for many
applications in which cost and space are critical.
The microcontroller used in this project is 1IC*234+. The 1IC families of microcontrollers
are developed by (icrochip Technology Inc. Currently they are some of the most popular
microcontrollers! selling over *+A million devices each year. There are basically four families of
1IC microcontrollers7
1IC*+CEEE *+;*-$bit program word
1IC *2C.E *+$bit program word
Department of E.C.E 1' S.K.D
1IC*2CEEE and 1IC*23EEE *-$bit program word
1IC*4CEEE and 1IC*NCEEE *2$bit program word
The features! pin description of the microcontroller used are discussed in the following sections.
(.2.2 Descri&tion:
Introduction:
The 1IC*234, C(9% 3L%'$based N$bit microcontroller is upward compatible with the
1IC*2C4,B
;4-B;42;44!

1IC*23N4,;N4-;N42;N44
devices. It features +AA ns instruction e#ecution!
self programming! an ICD! + Comparators! N channels of N$bit nalog$to$Digital <;D= converter!
+ capture;compare;15( functions! a synchronous serial port that can be configured as either ,$
wire %1I or +$wire I+C bus! a D%8T! and a 1arallel %lave 1ort.
Hi.#4Per3or'ance RI0C CPU
O 9nly ,. single word instructions to learn
O ll single cycle instructions e#cept for program branches which are two$cycle
O 9perating speed7 DC $ +A ('6 clock input
DC $ +AA ns instruction cycle
O Dp to NP # *- words of 3L%' 1rogram (emory! Dp to ,2N # N bytes of Data (emory
<8(=
O 1in out compatible to the 1IC*2C4,B;4-B;42;44
O 1in out compatible to the 1IC*23N4,;N4-;N42;N44
O Interrupt capability <up to *+ sources=
O )ight level deep hardware stack
O Direct! Indirect and 8elative ddressing modes
Department of E.C.E 1( S.K.D
O 1rocessor read access to program memory
0&ecia" /icrocontro""er Features:
O 1ower$up Timer <158T= and oscillator %tart$up Timer <9%T=
O 5atchdog Timer <5DT= with its own on$chip 8C oscillator for reliable operation
O 1rogrammable code protection
O 1ower saving %L))1 mode
O %electable oscillator options
O In$Circuit %erial 1rogramming <IC%1 = via two 1ins
Peri&#era" Features:
O TimerA7 N$bit timer;counter with N$bit prescaler
O Timer*7 *2$bit timer;counter with prescaler! can be incremented during %L))1 via e#ternal
crystal;clock
O Timer+7 N$bit timer;counter with N$bit period register! prescaler and postscaler
O Two Capture! Compare! 15( modules
$ Capture is *2$bit! ma# resolution is *+.. ns
$ Compare is *2$bit! ma# resolution is +AA ns
$ 15( ma# resolution is *A$bit
O N$bit! up to N$channel nalog$to$Digital converter
O %ynchronous %erial 1ort <%%1= with %1I <(aster mode= and I+C <%lave=
O Dniversal %ynchronous synchronous 8eceiver Transmitter <D%8T;%CI=
O 1arallel %lave 1ort <1%1=! N$bits wide with e#ternal 8D! 58 and C% controls <-A;--$pin 9nly=
Department of E.C.E !) S.K.D
Ana"o. Co'&arator 'odu"e
+ analog comparators
1rogrammable on$chip voltage reference module
1rogrammable input multiple#ing from device inputs and internal L8)3
Comparator outputs are e#ternally accessible
3ollowing are the major blocks of 1IC (icrocontroller.
Pro.ra' 'e'or% <F6A0H= is used for storing a written program. %ince memory made in
3L%' technology can be programmed and cleared more than once! it makes this microcontroller
suitable for device development.
EEPRO/ $ data memory that needs to be saved when there is no supply.
It is usually used for storing important data that must not be lost if power supply suddenly stops.
3or instance! one such data is an assigned temperature in temperature regulators. If during a loss of
power supply this data was lost! we would have to make the adjustment once again upon return of
supply. Thus our device looses on self$reliance.
RA/ B Data memory used by a program during its e#ecution.
In 8( are stored all inter$results or temporary data during run$time.
PORT0 are physical connections between the microcontroller and the outside world. 1IC*234,
has ++ I;9.
FREE4RUN TI/ER is an N$bit register inside a microcontroller that works independently of the
program. 9n every fourth clock of the oscillator it increments its value until it reaches the
ma#imum <+..=! and then it starts counting over again from 6ero. s we know the e#act timing
between each two increments of the timer contents! timer can be used for measuring time which is
very useful with some devices.
CENTRA6 PROCE00IN; UNIT has a role of connective element between other blocks in the
microcontroller. It coordinates the work of other blocks and e#ecutes the user program.
Department of E.C.E !1 S.K.D
Fi.(.2.2: Harvard =s =on Neu'ann !"oc5 Arc#itectures
Cr%sta" osci""ator:
The crystal oscillator speed that can be connected to the 1IC microcontroller range from
DC to +A(h6. Dsing the CC% C compiler normally +A(h6 oscillator will be used and the price is
very cheap. The +A ('6 crystal oscillator should be connected with about ++p3 capacitor. 1lease
refer to my circuit schematic.
There are . input;output ports on 1IC microcontroller namely port ! port B! port C! port D
and port ). )ach port has different function. (ost of them can be used as I;9 port.
A&&"ications:
1IC*234, perfectly fits many uses! from automotive industries and controlling home
appliances to industrial instruments! remote sensors! electrical door locks and safety devices. It is
also ideal for smart cards as well as for battery supplied devices because of its low consumption.
))189( memory makes it easier to apply microcontrollers to devices where permanent
storage of various parameters is needed <codes for transmitters! motor speed! receiver fre"uencies!
etc.=. Low cost! low consumption! easy handling and fle#ibility make 1IC*234, applicable even in
areas where microcontrollers had not previously been considered <e#ample7 timer functions!
interface replacement in larger systems! coprocessor applications! etc.=.
In %ystem 1rogrammability of this chip <along with using only two pins in data transfer=
makes possible the fle#ibility of a product! after assembling and testing have been completed. This
capability can be used to create assembly$line production! to store calibration data available only
after final testing! or it can be used to improve programs on finished products.
Department of E.C.E !! S.K.D
Pin descri&tion:
1IC*234, has a total of +N pins. It is most fre"uently found in a DI1+N type of case but can
also be found in %(D case which is smaller from a DI1. DI1 is an abbreviation for Dual In
1ackage. %(D is an abbreviation for %urface (ount Devices suggesting that holes for pins to go
through when mounting aren?t necessary in soldering this type of a component.

Fi. (.(: Pin Dia.ra' o3 PIC1,F-(
1ins on 1IC*234, microcontroller have the following meaning7
There are +N pins on 1IC*234,. (ost of them can be used as an I9 pin. 9thers are already for
specific functions. These are the pin functions.
*. (CL8 B to reset the 1IC
+. 8A B port pin A
,. 8* B port pin *
-. 8+ B port pin +
.. 8, B port pin ,
Department of E.C.E !" S.K.D
2. 8- B port pin -
4. 8. B port pin .
N. L%% B ground
@. 9%C* B connect to oscillator
*A. 9%C+ B connect to oscillator
**. 8CA B port C pin A LDD B power supply
*+. 8C* B port C pin *
*,. 8C+ B port C pin +
*-. 8C, B port C pin ,
*.. 8C- $ port C pin -
*2. 8C. $ port C pin .
*4. 8C2 $ port C pin 2
*N. 8C4 $ port C pin 4
*@. L%% $ ground
+A. LDD B power supply
+*. 8BA $ port B pin A
++. 8B* $ port B pin *
+,. 8B+ $ port B pin +
+-. 8B, $ port B pin ,
+.. 8B- $ port B pin -
+2. 8B. $ port B pin .
+4. 8B2 $ port B pin 2
+N. 8B4 $ port B pin 4
By utili6ing all of this pin so many application can be done such as7
*. LCD B connect to 1ort B pin.
+. L)D B connect to any pin declared as output.
,. 8elay and (otor $ connect to any pin declared as output.
-. )#ternal ))189( B connect to I+C interface pin B 8C, and 8C- <%CL and %D=
.. LD8! 1otentiometer and sensor B connect to analogue input pin such as 8A.
2. C%( modem dial up modem B connect to 8C2 and 8C4 B the serial communication interface
using 8%+,+ protocol.
3or more detail function for each specific pin please refer to the device datasheet from (icrochip.
Department of E.C.E !# S.K.D

Ports
Term >port> refers to a group of pins on a microcontroller which can be accessed
simultaneously! or on which we can set the desired combination of 6eros and ones! or read from
them an e#isting status. 1hysically! port is a register inside a microcontroller which is connected
by wires to the pins of a microcontroller. 1orts represent physical connection of Central 1rocessing
Dnit with an outside world. (icrocontroller uses them in order to monitor or control other
components or devices. Due to functionality! some pins have twofold roles like 1-;T9CPI for
instance! which is in the same time the fourth bit of port and an e#ternal input for free$run
counter. %election of one of these two pin functions is done in one of the configuration registers.
n illustration of this is the fifth bit TAC% in 91TI9: register. By selecting one of the functions
the other one is disabled.
ll port pins can be designated as input or output! according to the needs of a device
that?s being developed. In order to define a pin as input or output pin! the right combination of
6eros and ones must be written in T8I% register. If the appropriate bit of T8I% register contains
logical >*>! then that pin is an input pin! and if the opposite is true! it?s an output pin. )very port
has its proper T8I% register. Thus! port has T8I%! and port B has T8I%B. 1in direction can be
changed during the course of work which is particularly fitting for one$line communication where
data flow constantly changes direction. 198T and 198TB state registers are located in bank A!
while T8I% and T8I%B pin direction registers are located in bank*.
PORT! and TRI0!:
198TB has adjoined N pins. The appropriate register for data direction is T8I%B.
%etting a bit in T8I%B register defines the corresponding port pin as input! and resetting a bit in
T8I%B register defines the corresponding port pin as output.
Department of E.C.E !$ S.K.D
)ach 198TB pin has a weak internal pull$up resistor <resistor which defines a line
to logic one= which can be activated by resetting the seventh bit 8B1D in 91TI9: register. These
?pull$up? resistors are automatically being turned off when port pin is configured as an output.
5hen a microcontroller is started! pull$ups are disabled.
3our pins 198TB! 8B478B- can cause an interrupt which occurs when their status
changes from logical one into logical 6ero and opposite. 9nly pins configured as input can cause
this interrupt to occur <if any 8B478B- pin is configured as an output! an interrupt won?t be
generated at the change of status.= This interrupt option along with internal pull$up resistors makes
it easier to solve common problems we find in practice like for instance that of matri# keyboard. If
rows on the keyboard are connected to these pins! each push on a key will then cause an interrupt.
microcontroller will determine which key is at hand while processing an interrupt It is not
recommended to refer to port B at the same time that interrupt is being processed
PORTA and TRI0A
198T has . adjoining pins. The corresponding register for data direction is
T8I% at address N.h. Like with port B! setting a bit in T8I% register defines also the
corresponding port pin as input! and clearing a bit in T8I% register defines the corresponding
port pin as output.
Department of E.C.E !% S.K.D
It is important to note that 198T pin 8- can be input only. 9n that pin is also
situated an e#ternal input for timer T(8A. 5hether 8- will be a standard input or an input for a
counter depends on TAC% bit <TMR0 Clock Source Select bit=. This pin enables the timer T(8A to
increment either from internal oscillator or via e#ternal impulses on 8-;TACPI pin.
(.( RE;U6ATED PO:ER 0UPP61:
(.(.1 Introduction:
1ower supply is a supply of electrical power. device or system that
supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power
supply unit or 1%D. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies! less often to
mechanical ones! and rarely to others.
power supply may include a power distribution system as well as primary or
secondary sources of energy such as
Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage! typically
involving converting C line voltage to a well$regulated lower$voltage DC for electronic
Department of E.C.E !& S.K.D
devices. Low voltage! low power DC power supply units are commonly integrated with the
devices they supply! such as computers and household electronics.
Batteries.
Chemical fuel cells and other forms of energy storage systems.
%olar power.
Cenerators or alternators.
(.(.2 !"oc5 Dia.ra':
Fi. (.(.2 Re.u"ated Poer 0u&&"%
The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply <DC 9;1= with led connected
as load is shown in fig7 ,.,.,.
Fi. (.(.( Circuit dia.ra' o3 Re.u"ated Poer 0u&&"% it# 6ed connection
The components mainly used in above figure are
+,AL C (I:%
T8:%398()8
B8IDC) 8)CTI3I)8<DI9D)%=
Department of E.C.E !' S.K.D
C1CIT98
L9LTC) 8)CDLT98<IC 4NA.=
8)%I%T98
L)D<LIC'T )(ITTI:C DI9D)=
The detailed e#planation of each and every component mentioned above is as follows7

Trans3or'ation: The process of transforming energy from one device to another is called transformation.
3or transforming energy we use transformers.
Trans3or'ers:
transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors without changing its fre"uency. varying current in the
first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flu# in the transformer?s core! and thus a
varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a
varying electromotive force <)(3= or >voltage> in the secondary winding. This effect is
called mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary! an electric current will flow in the
secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. This field is made up from lines of force and has the same shape as a bar
magnet.
If the current is increased! the lines of force move outwards from the coil. If the
current is reduced! the lines of force move inwards.
If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then! as the field moves out or in!
the moving lines of force will >cut> the turns of the second coil. s it does this! a voltage is
induced in the second coil. 5ith the .A '6 C mains supply! this will happen .A times a second.
This is called (DTDL I:DDCTI9: and forms the basis of the transformer.
The input coil is called the 18I(8Q 5I:DI:CK the output coil is the
%)C9:D8Q 5I:DI:C. 3ig7 ,.,.- shows step$down transformer.
Department of E.C.E !( S.K.D
Fi. (.(.*: 0te&4Don Trans3or'er
The voltage induced in the secondary is determined by the TD8:% 8TI9.
%ome transformers have an electrostatic screen between primary and secondary.
This is to prevent some types of interference being fed from the e"uipment down into the mains
supply! or in the other direction. Transformers are sometimes used for I(1)D:C)
(TC'I:C.
5e can use the transformers as step up or step down.
0te& U& trans3or'er:
In case of step up transformer! primary windings are every less compared to
secondary winding.
Because of having more turns secondary winding accepts more energy! and it
releases more voltage at the output side.
0te& don trans3or'er:
Incase of step down transformer! 1rimary winding induces more flu# than the
secondary winding! and secondary winding is having less number of turns because of that it
accepts less number of flu#! and releases less amount of voltage.
Department of E.C.E ") S.K.D
!atter% &oer su&&"%:
battery is a type of linear power supply that offers benefits that traditional line$
operated power supplies lack7 mobility! portability and reliability. battery consists of multiple
electrochemical cells connected to provide the voltage desired. 3ig7 ,.,.. shows 'i$5att @L
battery

Fi. (.(.+: Hi4:att 9= !atter%
The most commonly used dry$cell battery is the carbon$6inc dry cell battery. Dry$
cell batteries are made by stacking a carbon plate! a layer of electrolyte paste! and a 6inc plate
alternately until the desired total voltage is achieved. The most common dry$cell batteries have
one of the following voltages7 *..! ,! 2! @! ++..! -.! and @A. During the discharge of a carbon$6inc
battery! the 6inc metal is converted to a 6inc salt in the electrolyte! and magnesium dio#ide is
reduced at the carbon electrode. These actions establish a voltage of appro#imately *.. L.
Recti3ication:
The process of converting an alternating current to a pulsating direct current is
called as rectification. 3or rectification purpose we use rectifiers.
Recti3iers: rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current <C= to direct
current <DC=! a process known as rectification. 8ectifiers have many uses including as components
of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. 8ectifiers may be made of solid$state diodes!
vacuum tube diodes! mercury arc valves! and other components
device that it can perform the opposite function <converting DC to C= is known
as an inverter.
5hen only one diode is used to rectify C <by blocking the negative or positive
portion of the waveform=! the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely
Department of E.C.E "1 S.K.D
one of usage! i.e.! the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert C to DC.
lmost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more efficiently
converting C to DC than is possible with only one diode. Before the development of silicon
semiconductor rectifiers! vacuum tube diodes and copper <I= o#ide or selenium rectifier stacks
were used.
!rid.e 3u"" ave recti3ier7
The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig7 ,.,.4! which converts an ac voltage to
dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in
the figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied
to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other
two ends of the bridge.
3or the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage! diodes D* and D, conduct!
whereas diodes D+ and D- remain in the 933 state. The conducting diodes will be in series with
the load resistance 8
L
and hence the load current flows through 8
L.

3or the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage! diodes D+ and D- conduct
whereas! D* and D, remain 933. The conducting diodes D+ and D- will be in series with the load
resistance 8
L
and hence the current flows through 8
L
in the same direction as in the previous half
cycle. Thus a bi$directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.
Input 9utput
Fi. (.(.+: !rid.e recti3ier: a 3u""4ave recti3ier usin. * diodes
Department of E.C.E "! S.K.D
D!1>-:
:ow $a $days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of DB*A4. In our
project we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier. The picture of DB *A4 is shown in fig7 ,.,.N.
Features:
Cood for automation insertion
%urge overload rating $ ,A amperes peak
Ideal for printed circuit board
8eliable low cost construction utili6ing molded
Class passivated device
1olarity symbols molded on body
(ounting position7 ny
5eight7 *.A gram

Fi. (.(.,: D!1>-
Fi"tration:
Department of E.C.E "" S.K.D
The process of converting a pulsating direct current to a pure direct current using
filters is called as filtration.
Fi"ters:
)lectronic filters are electronic circuits! which perform signal$processing functions!
specifically to remove unwanted fre"uency components from the signal! to enhance wanted ones.
Introduction to Ca&acitors:
The Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive device! and one
which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential <static voltage=
across its plates. In its basic form a capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates that are not
connected but are electrically separated either by air or by an insulating material called
the Dielectric. 5hen a voltage is applied to these plates a current flows charging up the plates with
electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other plate an e"ual and opposite negative
charge. This flow of electrons to the plates is known as the Charging Current and continues to flow
until the voltage across the plates <and hence the capacitor= is e"ual to the applied voltage Lcc. t
this point the capacitor is said to be fully charged and this is illustrated below. The construction of
capacitor and an electrolytic capacitor are shown in figures ,.,.@ and ,.,.*A respectively.
Fi. (.(.-:Construction O3 a Ca&acitor
Department of E.C.E "# S.K.D
Fi. (.(.8:E"ectro"%tic Ca&aticor
Units o3 Ca&acitance:
(icrofarad <R3= *R3 S *;*!AAA!AAA S A.AAAAA* S *A
$2
3
:anofarad <n3= *n3 S *;*!AAA!AAA!AAA S A.AAAAAAAA* S *A
$@
3
1ico farad <p3= *p3 S *;*!AAA!AAA!AAA!AAA S A.AAAAAAAAAAA* S *A
$*+
3
=o"ta.e Re.u"ator:
voltage regulator <also called a Tregulator&= with only three terminals appears to
be a simple device! but it is in fact a very comple# integrated circuit. It converts a varying input
voltage into a constant Tregulated& output voltage. Loltage 8egulators are available in a variety of
outputs like .L! 2L! @L! *+L and *.L. The L(4NEE series of voltage regulators are designed for
positive input. 3or applications re"uiring negative input! the L(4@EE series is used. Dsing a pair
of Tvoltage$divider& resistors can increase the output voltage of a regulator circuit.
It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. Qou cannot use a
*+L regulator to make a .L power supply. Loltage regulators are very robust. These can withstand
over$current draw due to short circuits and also over$heating. In both cases! the regulator will cut
off before any damage occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply reverse voltage to its
input. 8everse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. 3ig7 ,.,.** shows voltage regulator.
Department of E.C.E "$ S.K.D
Fi. (.(.9: =o"ta.e Re.u"ator
Resistors:
resistor is a two$terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its
terminals that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with 9hm?s
law7
V S IR
8esistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubi"uitous in
most electronic e"uipment. 1ractical resistors can be made of various compounds and films! as
well as resistance wire <wire made of a high$resistivity alloy! such as nickel;chrome=.
The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance! the tolerance! ma#imum
working voltage and the power rating. 9ther characteristics include temperature coefficient! noise!
and inductance. Less well$known is critical resistance! the value below which power dissipation
limits the ma#imum permitted current flow! and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical
resistance is determined by the design! materials and dimensions of the resistor.
8esistors can be made to control the flow of current! to work as Loltage dividers! to
dissipate power and it can shape electrical waves when used in combination of other components.
Basic unit is ohms.
T#eor% o3 o&eration:
O#'?s "a:
Department of E.C.E "% S.K.D
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in 9hm?s
law7
L S I8
9hm?s law states that the voltage <L= across a resistor is proportional to the current
<I= through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance <8=.
Poer dissi&ation:
The power dissipated by a resistor <or the e"uivalent resistance of a resistor
network= is calculated using the following7

Fi. (.(.11: Resistor Fi. (.(.12: Co"or !ands In Resistor
(.*. 6ED:
light$emitting diode <L)D= is a semiconductor light source. L)D&s are used as
indicator lamps in many devices! and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in *@2+! early L)D&s emitted low$intensity red light! but modern versions
Department of E.C.E "& S.K.D
are available across the visible! ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths! with very high brightness.
The internal structure and parts of a led are shown in figures ,.-.* and ,.-.+ respectively.

Fi. (.*.1: Inside a 6ED Fi. (.*.2: Parts o3 a 6ED
:or5in.:
The structure of the L)D light is completely different than that of the light bulb.
ma6ingly! the L)D has a simple and strong structure. The light$emitting semiconductor material
is what determines the L)D?s color. The L)D is based on the semiconductor diode.
5hen a diode is forward biased <switched on=! electrons are able to recombine with
holes within the device! releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light <corresponding to the energy of the photon= is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. n L)D is usually small in area <less than
* mm
+
=! and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in
reflection. L)D&s present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption! longer lifetime! improved robustness! smaller si6e! faster switching! and greater
durability and reliability. 'owever! they are relatively e#pensive and re"uire more precise current
and heat management than traditional light sources. Current L)D products for general lighting are
more e#pensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. They also enjoy use in
applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in automotive lighting
<particularly indicators= and in traffic signals. The compact si6e of L)D&s has allowed new te#t
and video displays and sensors to be developed! while their high switching rates are useful in
Department of E.C.E "' S.K.D
advanced communications technology. The electrical symbol and polarities of led are shown in fig7
,.-.,.
Fi. (.*.(: E"ectrica" 0%'$o" @ Po"arities o3 6ED
L)D lights have a variety of advantages over other light sources7
'igh$levels of brightness and intensity
'igh$efficiency
Low$voltage and current re"uirements
Low radiated heat
'igh reliability <resistant to shock and vibration=
:o DL 8ays
Long source life
Can be easily controlled and programmed
pplications of L)D fall into three major categories7
Lisual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the L)D to the
human eye! to convey a message or meaning.
Illumination where L)D light is reflected from object to give visual response of these
objects.
Department of E.C.E "( S.K.D
Cenerate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the human
visual system.
(.+: !"uetoot#
Introduction:
The Bluetooth technology is a wireless communication that operates as radio waves!
using a band set at +.-C'6. This fre"uency is available at no charge. The Bluetooth technology
allows two devices to connect wirelessly with each other! and incorporates the use of >Centrino>
chips. These chips are available easily in most standard electronic devices such as laptops! cellular
phones! computers! headsets! etc.
Bluetooth is another developing a competing specification for a low$cost! short range
radio link between mobile computers! cameras! and other portable in$home devices. The Bluetooth
technology is the result of a co$operation between leaders in the telecommunication and computer
industries. It enables home networking users to connect a wide range of computing and
telecommunications devices easily and simply eliminating the need to purchase proprietary or
additional cabling to connect individual devices.
It delivers opportunities for the special purpose or concerned with one specific purpose
connections! and the possibility of automatic connections between devices.
Because Bluetooth can be used for a variety of purposes! it will also potentially replace
multiple cable connections via a single radio link.
!"uetoot# Tec#no"o.% Overvie:
The technology is an open specification for wireless communication of data and voice. It
is based on a low$cost! short$range radio link built into a @ # @mm microchipK facilitating protected
ad hoc <concerned with one specific purpose= connections for stationary and mobile
communication environments. Bluetooth technology allows for the replacement of the many
proprietary cables that connect one device to another with one universal short$range radio link. 3or
instance! Bluetooth radio technology built into both the cellular telephone and the laptop would
Department of E.C.E #) S.K.D
replace the cumbersome cables used today to connect a laptop to a cellular telephone. 1rinters!
1Ds! desktops! fa# machines! keyboards! joysticks! and virtually any other digital device can be
part of the Bluetooth system.

Fi. (.+.1: !"uetoot# 'odu"e
Bluetooth radio technology provides a universal bridge to e#isting data networks! a
peripheral interface! and a mechanism to form small private ad hoc groupings of connected
devices away from fi#ed network infrastructures. Designed to operate in a noisy radio fre"uency
environment such as a home! the Bluetooth radio uses a fast acknowledgement and fre"uency$
hopping scheme to make the link robust.
Bluetooth radio modules avoid interference from other signals by hopping to a new
fre"uency after transmitting or receiving a packet. Compared with other systems operating in the
same fre"uency band! the Bluetooth radio typically hops faster and uses shorter packets. This
makes the Bluetooth radio more robust than other systems. %imilar to 'ome 83! Bluetooth radios
also operate in the unlicensed I%( band at +.- C'6.
5hile the I%( band is freely available for anyone to use! there are rules for devices
designed to operate in it. Bluetooth has a ma#imum data capacity of only * (bps! which translates
to a throughput of only 4NA Pbps once the protocol overhead is taken into account. 3rom a
security perspective! Bluetooth provides user protection and information privacy mechanisms at
the lower layers of its protocol stack. uthentication is based on a challenge response algorithm.
uthentication is a key component of any Bluetooth home networking system! allowing us to
develop a domain of trust between personal Bluetooth devices! such as allowing only our personal
notebook to communicate through our cellular telephone.
Department of E.C.E #1 S.K.D
Ho !"uetoot# Tec#no"o.% :or5s:
Bluetooth is a high$speed! low$power microwave wireless link technology! designed to
connect phones! laptops! 1Ds and other portable e"uipment together with little or no work by the
user. Dnlike infra$red! Bluetooth does not re"uire line$of$sight positioning of connected units. The
technology uses modifications of e#isting wireless L: techni"ues but is most notable for its
small si6e and low cost. The current prototype circuits are contained on a circuit board A.@cm
s"uare! with a much smaller single chip version in development. The cost of the device is e#pected
to fall very fast! from U+A initially to U. in a year or two. It is envisioned that Bluetooth will be
included within e"uipment rather than being an optional e#tra. 5hen one Bluetooth product comes
within range of another! <this can be set to between *Acm and *AAm= they automatically e#change
address and capability details. They can then establish a * megabit;s link <up to + (bps in the
second generation of the technology= with security and error correction! to use as re"uired. The
protocols will handle both voice and data! with very fle#ible network topography.
This technology achieves its goal by embedding tiny! ine#pensive! short$range transceivers
into the electronic devices that are available today. The radio operates on the globally$available
unlicensed radio band! +.-. C'6 <meaning there will be no hindrance for international travelers
using Bluetooth$enabled e"uipment.=! and supports data speeds of up to 4+* Pbps! as well as three
voice channels. The Bluetooth modules can be either built into electronic devices or used as an
adaptor. 3or instance in a 1C they can be built in as a 1C card or e#ternally attached via the D%B
port.
Fi.(.+.2: Di33erent 3unctiona" $"oc5s in t#e !"uetoot# s%ste'
)ach device has a uni"ue -N$bit address from the I))) NA+ standard. Connections can
be point$to$point or multipoint. The ma#imum range is *A meters but can be e#tended to *AA
meters by increasing the power. Bluetooth devices are protected from radio interference by
changing their fre"uencies arbitrarily up to a ma#imum of *2AA times a second! a techni"ue
Department of E.C.E #! S.K.D
known as fre"uency hopping. They also use three different but complimentary error correction
schemes. Built$in encryption and verification is provided.
(oreover! Bluetooth devices won?t drain precious battery life. The Bluetooth
specification targets power consumption of the device from a >hold> mode consuming ,A micro
amps to the active transmitting range of N,A milliamps <or less than *;*Ath of a watt=. The radio
chip consumers only A.,m in standby mode! which is less than ,V of the power used by a
standard mobile phone. The chips also have e#cellent power$saving features! as they will
automatically shift to a low$power mode as soon as traffic volume lessens or stops. Bluetooth
devices are classified according to three different power classes! as shown in the following table.
Poer C"ass /a2i'u' Out&ut Poer
1 1>> ': <2> d!'A
2 2.+ ': <* d!'A
( 1 ': <> d!'A
But beyond unfettering devices by replacing the cables! Bluetooth radio
technology provides a universal bridge to e#isting data networks! a peripheral interface! and a
mechanism to form small private ad hoc groupings of connected devices away from fi#ed network
infrastructures. Designed to operate in a noisy radio fre"uency environment! the Bluetooth radio
uses a fast acknowledgment and fre"uency hopping scheme to make the link robust. Bluetooth
radio modules avoid interference from other signals by hopping to a new fre"uency after
transmitting or receiving a packet.
Compared with other systems operating in the same fre"uency band! the Bluetooth
radio typically hops faster and uses shorter packets. This makes the Bluetooth radio more robust
than other systems. %hort packages and fast hopping also limit the impact of domestic and
professional microwave ovens. Dse of 3orward )rror Correction <3)C= limits the impact of
random noise on long$distance links. The encoding is optimi6ed for an uncoordinated
environment.
Bluetooth guarantees security at the bit level. uthentication is controlled by the
user by using a *+N bit key. 8adio signals can be coded with N bits or anything up to *+N bits. The
Department of E.C.E #" S.K.D
Bluetooth radio transmissions will conform to the safety standards re"uired by the countries where
the technology will be used with respect to the affects of radio transmissions on the human body.
)missions from Bluetooth enabled devices will be no greater than emissions from industry$
standard cordless phones. The Bluetooth module will not interfere or cause harm to public or
private telecommunications network.
The Bluetooth base band protocol is a combination of circuit and packet switching.
%lots can be reserved for synchronous packets. )ach packet is transmitted in a different hop
fre"uency. packet nominally covers a single slot! but can be e#tended to cover up to five slots.
Bluetooth can support an asynchronous data channel! up to three simultaneous synchronous voice
channels! or a channel! which simultaneously supports asynchronous data and synchronous voice.
It is thus possible to transfer the date asynchronously whilst at the same time talking
synchronously at the same time. )ach voice channel supports 2- kb;s synchronous <voice= link.
The asynchronous channel can support an asymmetric link of ma#imally 4+* kb;s in either
direction while permitting .4.2 kb;s in the return direction! or a -,+.2 kb;s symmetric link. . BHere
e are usin. IEEE 8>2.1+ Protoco")
/odes o3 o&eration:
n interesting aspect of the technology is the instant formation of networks once
the Bluetooth devices come in range to each other. piconet is a collection of devices connected
via Bluetooth technology in an ad hoc fashion. 1iconet can be a simple connection between two
devices or more than two devices. (ultiple independent and non$synchroni6ed piconets can form
a scatternet. ny of the devices in a piconet can also be a member of another by means of time
multiple#ing. I.e. a device can be a part of more than one piconet by suitably sharing the time. The
Bluetooth system supports both point$to$point and point$to$multi$point connections. 5hen a
device is connected to another device it is a point to point connection. If it is connected to more
that one <up to 4= it is a point to multipoint connection. %everal piconets can be established and
linked together ad hoc! where each piconet is identified by a different fre"uency hopping
se"uence. ll users participating on the same piconet are synchroni6ed to this hopping se"uence. If
a device is connected to more than one piconet it communicates in each piconet using a different
hopping se"uence. piconet starts with two connected devices! such as a portable 1C and cellular
phone! and may grow to eight connected devices.
Department of E.C.E ## S.K.D
ll Bluetooth devices are peer units and have identical implementations.
'owever! when establishing a piconet! one unit will act as a master and the other<s= as slave<s= for
the duration of the piconet connection. In a piconet there is a master unit whose clock and hopping
se"uence are used to synchroni6e all other devices in the piconet. ll the other devices in a piconet
that are not the master are slave units. ,$bit (C address is used to distinguish between units
participating in the piconet. Devices synchroni6ed to a piconet can enter power$saving modes
called sniff and hold mode! in which device activity is lowered. lso there can be parked units
which are synchroni6ed but do not have a (C addresses. These parked units have an N bit
addressK therefore there can be a ma#imum of +.2 parked devices.
Fi.:(.+.(: &iconets it# a sin."e s"ave o&eration<aAC a 'u"ti s"ave o&eration <$A and a
scatternet o&eration <cA
Loice channels use either a 2- kbps log 1C( or the Continuous Lariable %lope
Delta (odulation <CL%D= voice coding scheme! and never retransmit voice packets. The voice
"uality on the line interface should be better than or e"ual to the 2- kbps log 1C(. The CL%D
method was chosen for its robustness in handling dropped and damaged voice samples. 8ising
interference levels are e#perienced as increased background noise7 even at bit error rates up -V!
the CL%D coded voice is "uite audible.
!ui"din. !"oc5s o3 a !"uetoot# 0o"ution:
The role of each component in a Bluetooth based home network is briefly outlined
in the following categories.
Department of E.C.E #$ S.K.D
Persona" Area Netor5s:
Bluetooth was originally conceived to replace the myriad of cables that are
synonymous with a 1C$based home network. 'owever! as the Bluetooth evolved it became clear
that it would also enable a totally new networking paradigm! 1ersonal rea :etworks <1:s=.
5ith 1: technology! a home networking user will be able to organi6e a collection of personal
electronic products <1D! cell phone! laptop! desktop! (1, player! etc.= to automatically work
together. 9ver time! 1:s will revolutioni6e the user e#perience of consumer electronics.
Piconets:
The Bluetooth system supports both point$to$point and point$to$multi$point
connections. collection of digital appliances that are connected to a home network via Bluetooth
technology is called a piconet. piconet starts with two connected appliances! such as a digital
set$top bo# and cellular phone! and may grow to eight connected devices. ll users participating
on the same piconet are synchroni6ed to this hopping se"uence. The range of Bluetooth and hence
the si6e of the piconet is only ten meters. There is! however! a plan to e#tend this to *AA meters.
This e#tension in range will however increase the power and interference levels for appliances
connected to the piconet.
0catternets:
%everal piconets can be established and linked together ad hoc <concerned with one
specific purpose=! where each piconet is identified by a different fre"uency hopping se"uence. The
resulting structure is called a scatternet <see 3igure +=.
Department of E.C.E #% S.K.D

Fi.ure (.+.2: A !"uetoot# 0catter net
(., Re"a%:
re"a% is an electrically operated switch. (any relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism! but other operating principles are also used. 8elays find applications where
it is necessary to control a circuit by a low$power signal! or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits! repeating
the signal coming in from one circuit and re$transmitting it to another. 8elays found e#tensive use
in telephone e#changes and early computers to perform logical operations. type of relay that can
handle the high power re"uired to directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor. %olid$state
relays control power circuits with no moving parts! instead using a semiconductor device triggered
by light to perform switching. 8elays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes
multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faultsK in modern
electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called >protection
relays>.
Department of E.C.E #& S.K.D
T%&es o3 re"a%s:
1. 0i'&"e e"ectro'ec#anica" re"a%:
simple electromagnetic relay! such as the one taken from a car in the first picture! is an
adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core! an iron
yoke! which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flu#! a movable iron armature! and a set!
or sets! of contactsK two in the relay pictured. The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically
linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de$
energi6ed there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition! one of the two sets of
contacts in the relay pictured is closed! and the other set is open. 9ther relays may have more or
fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire
connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving
contacts on the armature! and the circuit track on the printed circuit board <1CB= via the yoke!
which is soldered to the 1CB.
Department of E.C.E #' S.K.D
!asic desi.n and o&eration:
5hen an electric current is passed through the coil! the resulting magnetic field
attracts the armature and the conse"uent movement of the movable contact or contacts either
makes or breaks a connection with a fi#ed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay
was De$energi6ed! then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection! and vice
versa if the contacts were open. 5hen the current to the coil is switched off! the armature is
returned by a force! appro#imately half as strong as the magnetic force! to its rela#ed position.
Dsually this force is provided by a spring! but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor
starters. (ost relays are manufactured to operate "uickly. In a low voltage application! this is to
reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application! this is to reduce arcing.
If the coil is energi6ed with DC! a diode is fre"uently installed across the coil! to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation! which would otherwise
generate a voltage spike dangerous to circuit components. %ome automotive relays already include
a diode inside the relay case. lternatively a contact protection network! consisting of a capacitor
and resistor in series! may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energi6ed with C! a small
copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This >shading ring> creates a small out$of$
phase current! which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the C cycle.
By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device! a solid$state
relay is made with a thyristor or other solid$state switching device. To achieve electrical isolation
an opt coupler can be used which is a light$emitting diode <L)D= coupled with a photo transistor.
%mall relay as used in electronics
Department of E.C.E #( S.K.D
(. 6atc#in. re"a%:
Latching relay! dust cover removed! showing pawl and ratchet mechanism. The
ratchet operates a cam! which raises and lowers the moving contact arm! seen edge$on just below
it. The moving and fi#ed contacts are visible at the left side of the image.
"atc#in. re"a% has two rela#ed states <bi stable=. These are also called >impulse>!
>keep>! or >stay> relays. 5hen the current is switched off! the relay remains in its last state. This is
achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism! or by having two opposing coils
with an over$center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position
while the coil is rela#ed! or with a remnant core. In the ratchet and cam e#ample! the first pulse to
the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil e#ample! a pulse to one
coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the
advantage that it consumes power only for an instant! while it is being switched! and it retains its
last setting across a power outage. remnant core latching relay re"uires a current pulse of
opposite polarity to make it change state.
(. Reed re"a%
reed re"a% has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube!
which protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are closed by a magnetic
field generated when current passes through a coil around the glass tube. 8eed relays are capable
of faster switching speeds than larger types of relays! but have low switch current and voltage
ratings.
Department of E.C.E $) S.K.D
*. /ercur%4etted re"a%
'ercur%4etted reed re"a% is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are
wetted with mercury. %uch relays are used to switch low$voltage signals <one volt or less= because
of their low contact resistance! or for high$speed counting and timing applications where the
mercury eliminates contact bounce. (ercury wetted relays are position$sensitive and must be
mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the to#icity and e#pense of li"uid mercury! these
relays are rarely specified for new e"uipment. %ee also mercury switch.
+. Po"ariDed re"a%
&o"ariDed re"a% placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to
increase sensitivity. 1olari6ed relays were used in middle +Ath Century telephone e#changes to
detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws! so a technician
could first adjust them for ma#imum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical
current that would operate the relay.
,. /ac#ine too" re"a%
machine tool relay is a type standardi6ed for industrial control of machine tools!
transfer machines! and other se"uential control. They are characteri6ed by a large number of
contacts <sometimes e#tendable in the field= which are easily converted from normally$open to
normally$closed status! easily replaceable coils! and a form factor that allows compactly installing
many relays in a control panel. lthough such relays once were the backbone of automation in
such industries as automobile assembly! the programmable logic controller <1LC= mostly displaced
the machine tool relay from se"uential control applications.
-. Contactor re"a%
contactor is a very heavy$duty relay used for switching electric motors and
lighting loads. Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from *A amps to several
hundred amps. 'igh$current contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable
arcing causes the contacts to o#idi6eK however! silver o#ide is still a good conductor. %uch devices
Department of E.C.E $1 S.K.D
are often used for motor starters. motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices
attached. The overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi$
metal strip! or where a solder pot melts! releasing a spring to operate au#iliary contacts. These
au#iliary contacts are in series with the coil. If the overload senses e#cess current in the load! the
coil is de$energi6ed. Contactor relays can be e#tremely loud to operate! making them unfit for use
where noise is a chief concern.
8. 0o"id4state re"a%
%olid state relay! which has no moving parts
+. or -A solid state contactors
so"id state re"a% <00R= is a solid state electronic component that provides a
similar function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components!
increasing long$term reliability. 5ith early %%8?s! the tradeoff came from the fact that every
transistor has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a
given %%8 could handle. s transistors improved! higher current %%8?s! able to handle *AA to
*!+AA mperes! have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays! they
may be falsely triggered by transients.
9. 0o"id state contactor re"a%
so"id state contactor is a very heavy$duty solid state relay! including the
necessary heat sink! used for switching electric heaters! small electric motors and lighting loadsK
where fre"uent on;off cycles are re"uired. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no
contact bounce due to vibration. They are activated by C control signals or DC control signals
from 1rogrammable logic controller <1LCs=! 1Cs! Transistor$transistor logic <TTL= sources! or
other microprocessor and microcontroller controls.
Department of E.C.E $! S.K.D
1>. !uc##o"D re"a%
!uc##o"D re"a% is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil$
filled transformers! which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if
gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.
11. Forced4.uided contacts re"a%
3orced4.uided contacts re"a% has relay contacts that are mechanically linked
together! so that when the relay coil is energi6ed or de$energi6ed! all of the linked contacts move
together. If one set of contacts in the relay becomes immobili6ed! no other contact of the same
relay will be able to move. The function of forced$guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to
check the status of the relay. 3orced$guided contacts are also known as >positive$guided contacts>!
>captive contacts>! >locked contacts>! or >safety relays>.
12. Over"oad &rotection re"a%
)lectric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over$loading
the motor! or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor
windings. 9ne type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in
series with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or
melts solder! releasing a spring to operate contacts. 5here the overload relay is e#posed to the
same environment as the motor! a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient
temperature is provided.
Department of E.C.E $" S.K.D
1(. Po"e and t#ro:
Circuit symbols of relays. >C> denotes the common terminal in %1DT and D1DT types.
The diagram on the package of a D1DT C coil relay
%ince relays are switches! the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays.
relay will switch one or more poles! each of whose contacts can be thrown by energi6ing the
coil in one of three ways7
:ormally$open <NO= contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activatedK the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a For' A contact or >make>
contact.
:ormally$closed <NC= contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activatedK the
circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a For' ! contact or >break>
contact.
Change$over <CO=! or double$throw <DT=! contacts control two circuits7 one normally$
open contact and one normally$closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a
For' C contact or >transfer> contact <>break before make>=. If this type of contact utili6es0
make before break> functionality! then it is called a For' D contact.
Department of E.C.E $# S.K.D
The following designations are commonly encountered7
0P0T B %ingle 1ole %ingle Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil! such a relay has four terminals in total. It is
ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology
>%1:9> and >%1:C> is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.
0PDT B %ingle 1ole Double Throw. common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil! such a relay has five terminals in total.
DP0T B Double 1ole %ingle Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. )"uivalent to two
%1%T switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil! such a relay
has si# terminals in total. The poles may be 3orm or 3orm B <or one of each=.
DPDT B Double 1ole Double Throw. These have two rows of change$over terminals.
)"uivalent to two %1DT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. %uch a relay has eight
terminals! including the coil.
The >%> or >D> may be replaced with a number! indicating multiple switches connected to a single
actuator. 3or e#ample -1DT indicates a four pole double throw relay <with *- terminals=.
A&&"ications o3 Re"a%s:
Control a high$voltage circuit with a low$voltage signal! as in some types of modems or
audio amplifiers!
Control a high$current circuit with a low$current signal! as in the starter solenoid of an
automobile!
Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing
circuit breakers <protection relays=!
D1DT C coil relay with >ice cube> packaging
Department of E.C.E $$ S.K.D
Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials! for e#ample when controlling a mains$powered device from a low$voltage
switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are
easily installed in partitions! which may be often moved as needs change. They may also
be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy!
Logic functions. 3or e#ample! the Boolean :D function is reali6ed by connecting
normally open relay contacts in series! the 98 function by connecting normally open
contacts in parallel. The change$over or 3orm C contacts perform the E98 <e#clusive or=
function. %imilar functions for ::D and :98 are accomplished using normally closed
contacts. The Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay logic
networks.
)arly computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors! relays were used as logical
elements in digital computers. %ee 88 <computer=! 'arvard (ark II! Wuse W+! and Wuse
W,.
%afety$critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to
nuclear radiation! they are widely used in safety$critical logic! such as the control panels of
radioactive waste$handling machinery.
Time delay functions. 8elays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of
contacts. very short <a fraction of a second= delay would use a copper disk between the
armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field
for a short time! lengthening release time. 3or a slightly longer <up to a minute= delay! a
dashpot is used. dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The
time period can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. 3or longer time
periods! a mechanical clockwork timer is installed.
Advanta.es o3 re"a%s:
8elays can switch AC and DC! transistors can only switch DC.
8elays can switch #i.# vo"ta.es! transistors cannot.
8elays are a better choice for switching "ar.e currents <X .=.
8elays can switch 'an% contacts at once.
Department of E.C.E $% S.K.D
Disadvanta.es o3 re"a%s:
8elays are $u"5ier than transistors for switching small currents.
8elays cannot sitc# ra&id"% <e#cept reed relays=! transistors can switch many times per
second.
8elays use 'ore &oer due to the current flowing through their coil.
8elays re7uire 'ore current t#an 'an% ICs can &rovide! so a low power transistor may
be needed to switch the current for the relay?s coil.
Re"a% Driver:
The current needed to operate the relay coil is more than can be supplied by most chips
<op. amps etc=! so a transistor is usually needed! as shown in the diagram below.
Dse BC*A@C or similar. resistor of about -k4 will probably be alright. The diode is
needed to short circuit the high voltage /back emf0 induced when current flowing through the
coil is suddenly switched off.
Fi..(., Re"a% Driver
(.-: TRIAC:
TRIAC <BTriode 3or A"ternatin. CurrentA is an electronic component appro#imately
e"uivalent to two silicon$controlled rectifiers <%C8s;thyristors= joined in inverse parallel
<paralleled but with the polarity reversed= and with their gates connected together. The formal
name for a T8IC is $idirectiona" triode t#%ristor. This results in a bidirectional electronic
switch! which can conduct current in either direction when it is triggered <turned on= and thus
Department of E.C.E $& S.K.D
doesn?t have any polarity. It can be triggered by either a positive or a negative voltage being
applied to its gate electrode <with respect to *! otherwise known as (T*=.
9nce triggered! the device continues to conduct until the current through it drops below a
certain threshold value! the holding current! such as at the end of a half$cycle of alternating current
<C= mains power. This makes the T8IC a very convenient switch for C circuits! allowing the
control of very large power flows with milli ampere$scale control currents. In addition! applying a
trigger pulse at a controllable point in an C cycle allows one to control the percentage of current
that flows through the T8IC to the load <phase control=.
T#eor%:
Tri..erin. 'et#ods o3 Triac:
*. Triggering with synchroni6ation on the T8IC voltage
+. Triggering with synchroni6ation by the mains voltage
,. Triggering synchroni6ed by the mains voltage and suitable for industrial applications.
Tri..erin. it# s%nc#roniDation on t#e TRIAC vo"ta.e:
The triggering circuit with synchroni6ation across the T8IC turns on the component at an
angle Y after the current drops to 6ero! such that
Y S Z [ Tr.
Time Tr is defined by the time constant <1 \ 8t= C.
Z S + [ ] [ f with f S mains fre"uency.
Fi.(.-.1: Circuit dia.ra' o3 TRIAC
Department of E.C.E $' S.K.D
Fi.(.-.2: 0%nc#roniDation across t#e TRIAC 4 ave3or's <.enera" caseA
This is the simplest possible circuit but in certain cases it can have an important drawback.
3or e#ample! consider a highly inductive load <L Z ^; 8 X -= where the T8IC is turned on
with a considerable delay Y! perhaps *AA_ after the mains voltage 6ero as in 3igure ,.
If the T8IC is turned on at point ! the conduction <`^ = lasts up to about *.A_. The
T8IC turns off at point B at \ Y ^ S +.A_ after the 6ero voltage point. t that instant a negative
voltage is applied to the triggering circuit which turns on the T8IC at point C after an angle ^ Y of
*AA_! that is! ,.A_ from the starting point.
The second turn$on occurs at a very low voltage and the angle a& is much smaller than a.
The following period begins under similar conditions and the unbalance persists. This type
of asymmetrical operation is not only unacceptable but can be dangerous <high current due to load
magnetic saturation due to the dc content of the waveform=. The unbalance is illustrated for a
particular case! starting from 6ero of the mains voltage. 9ther causes also produce this behavior
b Lariation of the load impedance! for e#ample! with motors! due to tor"ue variation
b (odification of the control turn$on angle this phenomenon is due to the fact that the circuit does
not take its time reference from the mains 6ero voltage. 8ather! the synchroni6ation is taken from
the voltage across the T8IC! which is dependent on the load current! that is! on the load phase
shift.
Department of E.C.E $( S.K.D
Fi.ure (.-.(: 0%nc#roniDation across t#e TRIAC 4 ave3or's <de"a%ed turn onA
To sum up! this first very simple triggering circuit! synchroni6ed by the voltage across
the T8IC! has the following characteristics7
Descri&tion:
The (9C,A*E( and (9C,A+E( series are optically isolated Triac driver devices.
These devices contain a Cas infrared emitting diode and a light activated silicon bilateral switch!
which functions like a Triac. They are designed for interfacing between electronic controls and
power Triac to control resistive and inductive loads for **. LC operations.
FEATURE0:
O )#cellent I3T stabilityGI8 emitting diode has low degradation
O 'igh isolation voltageGminimum .,AA LC 8(%
O Dnderwriters Laboratory <DL= recogni6edG3ile c)@A4AA
O 1eak blocking voltage
B +.AL$(9C,A*E(
B -AAL$(9C,A+E(
O LD) recogni6ed <3ile c@-422=
B 9rdering option L <e.g. (9C,A+,L(=
Advanta.es:
%imple design and low cost
Connection by two wires! without polarity issue
Department of E.C.E %) S.K.D
bsence of a separate power supply
Little power dissipated in 1 and 8t
Disadvanta.e:
1. Because of its principle! this circuit cannot be used for highly inductive loads with a
narrow conduction angle because it can result in unacceptable asymmetrical operation.
This very simple triggering circuit should be reserved for low$cost applications with the
following characteristics7
2. 8esistive or slightly inductive loads
(. :o stringent re"uirements concerning the accuracy of regulation
*. highly inductive loads where the power varies between N. and *AAV of the ma#imum
power
A&&"ications o3 TRIAC:
O Industrial controls O %olenoid;valve controls
O Traffic lights O %tatic C power switch
O Lending machines O Incandescent lamp dimmers
O %olid state relay O (otor control
O Lamp ballasts
CHAPTER *: 0OFT:ARE DE0CRIPTION
This project is implemented using following software&s7
)#press 1CB B for designing circuit
1IC C compiler $ for compilation part
1roteus 4 <)mbedded C= B for simulation part
*.1 E2&ress PC!:
Department of E.C.E %1 S.K.D
Breadboards are great for prototyping e"uipment as it allows great fle#ibility to
modify a design when neededK however the final product of a project! ideally should have a neat
1CB! few cables! and survive a shake test. :ot only is a proper 1CB neater but it is also more
durable as there are no cables which can yank loose.
)#press 1CB is a software tool to design 1CBs specifically for manufacture by the
company )#press 1CB <no other 1CB maker accepts )#press 1CB files=. It is very easy to use! but
it does have several limitations.
It can be likened to more of a toy then a professional CD program.
It has a poor part library <which we can work around=
It cannot import or e#port files in different formats
It cannot be used to make prepare boards for DIQ production
)#press 1CB has been used to design many 1CBs <some layered and with surface$
mount parts. 1rint out 1CB patterns and use the toner transfer method with an )tch 8esistant 1en
to make boards. 'owever! )#press 1CB does not have a nice print layout. 'ere is the procedure to
design in )#press 1CB and clean up the patterns so they print nicely.
*.1.1 Pre&arin. E2&ress PC! 3or First Use:
)#press 1CB comes with a less then e#citing list of parts. %o before any project is
started head over to udio logic and grab the additional parts by morsel! ppl! and tangent! and
e#tract them into your )#press 1CB directory. t this point start the program and get ready to
setup the workspace to suit your style
.
Click Liew $X 9ptions. In this menu! setup the units for /mm0 or /in0 depending
on how you think! and click /see through the top copper layer0 at the bottom. The standard color
scheme of red and green is generally used but it is not as pleasing as red and blue.
*.1.2 T#e Inter3ace:
Department of E.C.E %! S.K.D
5hen a project is first started you will be greeted with a yellow outline. This
yellow outline is the dimension of the 1CB. Typically after positioning of parts and traces! move
them to their final position and then crop the 1CB to the correct si6e. 'owever! in designing a
board with a certain si6e constraint! crop the 1CB to the correct si6e before starting.
3ig7 -.* show the toolbar in which the each button has the following functions7
Fi. *.1.2: Too" $ar necessar% 3or t#e inter3ace
The select tool7 It is fairly obvious what this does. It allows you to move and manipulate
parts. 5hen this tool is selected the top toolbar will show buttons to move traces to the
top ; bottom copper layer! and rotate buttons.
The 6oom to selection tool7 does just that.
The place pad7 button allows you to place small soldier pads which are useful for board
connections or if a part is not in the part library but the part dimensions are available.
5hen this tool is selected the top toolbar will give you a large selection of round holes!
s"uare holes and surface mount pads.
The place component7 tool allows you to select a component from the top toolbar and then
by clicking in the workspace places that component in the orientation chosen using the
buttons ne#t to the component list. The components can always be rotated afterwards with
the select tool if the orientation is wrong.
The place trace7 tool allows you to place a solid trace on the board of varying thicknesses.
The top toolbar allows you to select the top or bottom layer to place the trace on.
The Insert Corner in trace7 button does e#actly what it says. 5hen this tool is selected!
clicking on a trace will insert a corner which can be moved to route around components
and other traces.
The remove a trace button is not very important since the delete key will achieve the same
result.
Department of E.C.E %" S.K.D
*.1.( Desi.n Considerations:
Before starting a project there are several ways to design a 1CB and one must be
chosen to suit the project&s needs.
%ingle sided! or double sidedd
5hen making a 1CB you have the option of making a single sided board! or a
double sided board. %ingle sided boards are cheaper to produce and easier to etch! but much
harder to design for large projects. If a lot of parts are being used in a small space it may be
difficult to make a single sided board without jumper over traces with a cable. 5hile there&s
technically nothing wrong with this! it should be avoided if the signal travelling over the traces is
sensitive <e.g. audio signals=.
double sided board is more e#pensive to produce professionally! more difficult to
etch on a DIQ board! but makes the layout of components a lot smaller and easier. It should be
noted that if a trace is running on the top layer! check with the components to make sure you can
get to its pins with a soldering iron.
Large capacitors! relays! and similar parts which don&t have a#ial leads can :9T have traces on
top unless boards are plated professionally.
5hen using a double sided board you must consider which traces should be on
what side of the board. Cenerally! put power traces on the top of the board! jumping only to the
bottom if a part cannot be soldiered onto the top plane <like a relay=! and vice$ versa.
%ome projects like power supplies or amps can benefit from having a solid plane to
use for ground. In power supplies this can reduce noise! and in amps it minimi6es the distance
between parts and their ground connections! and keeps the ground signal as simple as possible.
'owever! care must be taken with stubborn chips such as the T12*+A amplifier from TI. The
T12*+A datasheet specifies not to run a ground plane under the pins or signal traces of this chip
as the capacitance generated could effect performance negatively.
*.2 PIC Co'&i"er:
Department of E.C.E %# S.K.D
1IC compiler is software used where the machine language code is written and
compiled. fter compilation! the machine source code is converted into he# code which is to be
dumped into the microcontroller for further processing. 1IC compiler also supports C language
code.
It&s important that you know C language for microcontroller which is commonly
known as )mbedded C. s we are going to use 1IC Compiler! hence we also call it 1IC C. The
1CB! 1C(! and 1C' are separate compilers. 1CB is for *+$bit opcodes! 1C( is for *-$
bitopcodes! and 1C' is for *2$bit opcode 1IC microcontrollers. Due to many similarities! all three
compilers are covered in this reference manual. 3eatures and limitations that apply to only specific
microcontrollers are indicated within. These compilers are specifically designed to meet the
uni"ue needs of the 1IC microcontroller. This allows developers to "uickly design applications
software in a more readable! high$level language. 5hen compared to a more traditional C
compiler! 1CB! 1C(! and 1C' have some limitations. s an e#ample of the limitations! function
recursion is not allowed.
This is due to the fact that the 1IC has no stack to push variables onto! and also
because of the way the compilers optimi6e the code. The compilers can efficiently implement
normal C constructs! input;output operations! and bit twiddling operations. ll normal C data types
are supported along with pointers to constant arrays! fi#ed point decimal! and arrays of bits.
1IC C is not much different from a normal C program. If you know assembly!
writing a C program is not a crisis. In 1IC! we will have a main function! in which all your
application specific work will be defined. In case of embedded C! you do not have any operating
system running in there. %o you have to make sure that your program or main file should never
e#it. This can be done with the help of simple while <*= or for <KK= loop as they are going to run
infinitely.
5e have to add header file for controller you are using! otherwise you will not be
able to access registers related to peripherals.
*.( Proteus:
1roteus is software which accepts only he# files. 9nce the machine code is
converted into he# code! that he# code has to be dumped into the microcontroller and this is done
by the 1roteus. 1roteus is a programmer which itself contains a microcontroller in it other than the
Department of E.C.E %$ S.K.D
one which is to be programmed. This microcontroller has a program in it written in such a way
that it accepts the he# file from the pic compiler and dumps this he# file into the microcontroller
which is to be programmed. s the 1roteus programmer re"uires power supply to be operated! this
power supply is given from the power supply circuit designed and connected to the
microcontroller in proteus. The program which is to be dumped in to the microcontroller is edited
in proteus and is compiled and e#ecuted to check any errors and hence after the successful
compilation of the program the program is dumped in to the microcontroller using a dumper.
*.* Procedura" ste&s 3or co'&i"ationC si'u"ation and du'&in.7
*.*.1 Co'&i"ation and si'u"ation ste&s:
3or 1IC microcontroller! 1IC C compiler is used for compilation. The compilation
steps are as follows7
9pen 1IC C compiler.
Qou will be prompted to choose a name for the new project! so create a separate folder
where all the files of your project will be stored! choose a name and click save.
Fi. *.(.1: Picture o3 o&enin. a ne 3i"e usin. PIC C co'&i"er
Click 1rojectC :ew! and something the bo# named ?Te#t*? is where your code should be
written later.
Department of E.C.E %% S.K.D
:ow you have to click ?3ile! %ave as? and choose a file name for your source code ending
with the letter ?.c?. Qou can name as ?project.c? for e#ample and click save. Then you have
to add this file to your project work.
Fi. *.(.2: Picture o3 co'&i"in. a ne 3i"e usin. PIC C co'&i"er
Fi. *.(.(: Picture o3 co'&i"in. a &roject.c 3i"e usin. PIC C co'&i"er
Qou can then start to write the source code in the window titled ?project.c? then before
testing your source codeK you have to compile your source code! and correct eventual
synta# errors.
Department of E.C.E %& S.K.D
Fi. *.(.*: Picture o3 c#ec5in. errors and arnin.s usin. PIC C co'&i"er
By clicking on compile option .he# file is generated automatically.
This is how we compile a program for checking errors and hence the compiled program is
saved in the file where we initiated the program.
Fi. *.(.+: Picture o3 .#e2 3i"e e2istin. usin. PIC C co'&i"er
fter compilation! ne#t step is simulation. 'ere first circuit is designed in )#press
1CB using 1roteus 4 software and then simulation takes place followed by dumping. The
simulation steps are as follows7
Department of E.C.E %' S.K.D
9pen 1roteus 4 and click on I%*%2.
:ow it displays 1CB where circuit is designed using microcontroller. To design circuit
components are re"uired. %o click on component option.
*A. :ow click on letter &p&! then under that select 1IC*234, !other components related to the
project and click 9P. The 1IC *234, will be called your /'Target device, which is the final
destination of your source code.
*.*.2 Du'&in. ste&s:
The steps involved in dumping the program edited in proteus 4 to microcontroller
are shown below7
*. Initially before connecting the program dumper to the microcontroller kit the window is
appeared as shown below.
Fi. *.(.,: Picture o3 &ro.ra' du'&er indo
Department of E.C.E %( S.K.D
+. %elect Tools option and click on Check Communication for establishing a connection as
shown in below window
Fi. *.(.-: Picture o3 c#ec5in. co''unications $e3ore du'&in. &ro.ra' into 'icrocontro""er
,. fter connecting the dumper properly to the microcontroller kit the window is appeared as
shown below.
Fi. *.(.8: Picture a3ter connectin. t#e du'&er to 'icrocontro""er
Department of E.C.E &) S.K.D
-. gain by selecting the Tools option and clicking on Check Communication the
microcontroller gets recogni6ed by the dumper and hence the window is as shown below.
Fi. *.(.9: Picture o3 du'&er reco.nition to 'icrocontro""er
.. Import the program which is T.he#& file from the saved location by selecting 3ile option and
clicking on TImport 'e#& as shown in below window.
Fi. *.(.1>: Picture o3 &ro.ra' i'&ortin. into t#e 'icrocontro""er
Department of E.C.E &1 S.K.D
2. fter clicking on TImport 'e#& option we need to browse the location of our program and click
the Tprog.he#& and click on Topen& for dumping the program into the microcontroller.
Fi. *.(.11: Picture o3 &ro.ra' $rosin. #ic# is to $e du'&ed
4. fter the successful dumping of program the window is as shown below.
Department of E.C.E &! S.K.D
Fi. *.(.12: Picture a3ter &ro.ra' du'&ed into t#e 'icrocontro""er
CHAPTER +: PROEECT DE0CRIPTION
In this chapter! schematic diagram and interfacing of 1IC*234, microcontroller with each
module is considered.
Fi. +.1: 0c#e'atic dia.ra' o3 B!"uetoot# $ased securit% ena$"ed &oered devices contro"
s%ste')
The above schematic diagram of !"uetoot# $ased securit% ena$"ed &oered devices
contro" s%ste' e#plains the interfacing section of each component with micro controller and
Bluetooth module. Crystal oscillator connected to @
th
and *A
th
pins of micro controller and
regulated power supply is also connected to micro controller and L)D&s also connected to micro
controller through resistors.
The detailed e#planation of each module interfacing with microcontroller is as follows7
Department of E.C.E &" S.K.D
CHAPTER ,: RE0U6T0
,.1 Resu"t:
The project /!"uetoot# $ased securit% ena$"ed &oered devices contro" s%ste'0
was designed such that controlling operation of the home appliances can be done using Bluetooth
technology.
,.2 Conc"usion:
Integrating features of all the hardware components used have been developed in it.
1resence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully! thus contributing to the best
working of the unit. %econdly! using highly advanced IC&s with the help of growing technology!
the project has been successfully implemented. Thus the project has been successfully designed
and tested.
,.( Future 0co&e:
9ur project /!"uetoot# $ased securit% ena$"ed &oered devices contro" s%ste'0
is mainly intended to control the 9:;933 operations of electrical appliances like fans! lights by
using Bluetooth module. The input is given by the user using 1C to which Bluetooth is connected.
Bluetooth module interfaced to micro controller receives the input and in turn operates switches
like 8elay and Triac accordingly to which the electrical appliances are connected. The input value
to the micro controller will be checked and respective operation of that key will be performed like
switching 9:;933 a light.
The main disadvantage of this project is that the range of Bluetooth is limited.
This drawback can be eliminated by introducing a C%( module! through which the devices can be
operated from anywhere in the world and it is also possible to get the status of the devices.
This system can be e#tended by using wireless Wigbee technology to operate the
devices from longer distances.
Department of E.C.E &# S.K.D
CHAPTER -: EFPERI/ENTA6 RE0U6T0
Fi. -.1: EFPERI/ENTA6 GIT :ITH OUT OPERATION
Department of E.C.E &$ S.K.D
3ig 4.+7 )E1)8I():TL PIT 5IT' 9:) BDLB 9:
3ig 4.,7 )E1)8I():TL PIT 91)8T)D BQ BLD)T99T' (9BIL)
Department of E.C.E &% S.K.D
REFERENCE0:
The sites which were used while doing this project7
*. www.wikipedia.com
+. www.allaboutcircuits.com
,. www.microchip.com
-. www.howstuffworks.com
.. 5ww. Bluetooth.com
!oo5s Re3erred:
*. 8aj kamal B(icrocontrollers rchitecture! 1rogramming! Interfacing and %ystem Design.
+. (a6idi and (a6idi B)mbedded %ystems.
,. 1CB Design Tutorial BDavid.L.Fones.
-. 1IC (icrocontroller (anual B (icrochip.
.. )mbedded C B(ichael.F.1ont.
Department of E.C.E && S.K.D
APPENDIF
Pro.ra' Code:
The program code which is dumped in the microcontroller of our project is
shown below.
cinclude e*234,.hX ;;microcontroller used
cuse delay <clockS+AAAAAAA= ;;crystall oscillator used
cuse rs+,+ <baud S @2AA! #mitS1I:fBA! rcvS1I:fB*! streamSBLD)T99T'= ;;for bluetooth
module connection
void main<=
g
char chK
outputfhigh<1I:fC-=K
outputfhigh<1I:fC.=K
delayfms<*AAA=K
outputflow<1I:fC-=K
outputflow<1I:fC.=K
delayfms<*AAA=K
outputfhigh<1I:fC.=K
delayfms<*AAA=K
outputflow<1I:fC-=K
outputflow<1I:fC.=K
while<*=
g
ch S getc<BLD)T99T'=K
switch<ch=
g
case ?*?7
outputfhigh<1I:fC4=K ;;8elay 9:
outputfhigh<1I:fC.=K ;;L)D 9:
Department of E.C.E &' S.K.D
breakK

case ?+?7
outputflow<1I:fC4=K ;;8elay 933
outputflow<1I:fC.=K ;;L)D 933
breakK
case ?,?7
outputfhigh<1I:fC,=K
breakK
case ?-?7
outputflow<1I:fC,=K
outputflow<1I:fC-=K
breakK
h
h
h
Department of E.C.E &( S.K.D

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