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Please cite as: Owen, H., & Martin, H. (In press). Multimedia enhancement
Hazel Owen
eThos Consultancy NZ
Helen Martin
eThos Consultancy NZ
ABSTRACT
The paper explores how multimedia for education enhances outcomes and
which are the theme for this conference are examined through exploration of
learners are creating the multimedia, enable cultural appropriacy and foster
the relevant literature and illustrated using research from two very different
INTRODUCTION
It is old news to most educators that “The young person who watches digital TV,
downloads MP3 music onto a personal player, checks e-mail on a personal organiser and
revision guide” (Bratina & Abbott, 2002, p. 2). But there is still work to do in seeing the
The aim of this paper is to explore ways in which multimedia for education enhances
outcomes and opportunities for learners and practitioners engaged in open, flexible and
distance learning. The 'quality connections' and 'boundless possibilities' which are the
theme for this conference will be examined through exploration of how embedding
concepts, demonstrate practical skills, and, where learners are creating the multimedia,
enable cultural appropriacy and foster creativity. All of these factors are key in enabling
The argument will be contextualised through a discussion of the relevant literature and
illustrated using research from two very different institutions, Unitec New Zealand and
1
While distance learning is a fairly self-explanatory term, flexible learning (also known
as hybrid, or blended learning), is defined in this paper as "learning that is facilitated by
the effective combination of different modes of delivery, models of teaching and styles of
learning, and grounded on transparent communications amongst all parties involved with
a course” (Heinze & Proctor, 2004, p. 10).
WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA?
When the term 'multimedia' is employed within an education context, reference is often
brain is capable of processing and encoding simultaneous auditory and visual stimuli, and
research has indicated that text and speech are better remembered if accompanied by
visuals (Paivio, 1971). Baddeley and Hitch (1974) developed the theory of 'working
memory' to explain this phenomenon, which was further developed into dual coding
theory (Paivio, 1971), and later used by Mayer (1991) to describe how multimedia
more than one media format is used to help create mental models that meaningfully
within the context of this paper, multimedia for education purposes is defined as the
combination of more than one media format consecutively (including text, images,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RyoFN_chOtw.)
Multimedia can be used for many purposes including for demonstrations (showing how
to do something, such as structuring a specific essay genre), insights into abstract ideas or
concepts (for example, 'justice'), as well as for storytelling / narrative, research, and
capturing events. In the context of the online environment, multimedia has a range of
advantages; for example, learners can collaboratively produce and share their work
(either locally or globally), inexpensively, and anywhere, at any time. The possibilities
ENHANCING OUTCOMES
With reference to multimedia for education, Mayer's (1991) cognitive theory of learning
is underpinned by three main assumptions - dual channel, limited capacity and active
processing (see Figure 1). Dual channel assumption is based around the notion that the
human brain possesses channels for processing sight and sound inputs. The information
memory, then integrated into existing information networks in the long-term memory.
However, the limited capacity assumption identifies that each channel can only process a
known as cognitive load theory. This limitation results in the brain having to allocate
processing resources, often in response to affective factors, such as interest. Finally, the
build organised, systematic personalised mental models of inputs. As such, the human
brain is constantly occupied with the selection, organisation, and amalgamation of input
that require collaboration with peers and teachers, as well as interaction with artefacts
that use words (spoken and written), images, video, audio, movement and gesture
(Walsh, 2005). A report by Cisco (2008) indicates that studies have "shown…significant
increases in learning can be accomplished through the informed use of visual and verbal
multimodal learning" (p. 12), although they go on to say that mixed, but positive results,
point to a "lack of specificity of the type of multimedia intervention" (Cisco, 2008, p. 12),
THEORY TO PRAXIS
In this section key factors around multimedia for education have been selected, discussed
in light of relevant literature, and illustrated with evaluation and research findings from
DMC, UAE
DMC, one of fourteen colleges in the Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT) system,
The students at DMC are all Emirati males, and approximately seventy percent are
between seventeen and twenty years of age. They enter Foundations with a low-
intermediate level of English proficiency and often come from a strongly teacher-centred
learning environment, exacerbated by the challenge of studying in an English language
environment, poor research, study, critical, evaluative and analytical skills (Henderleiter
(Northover, & Donald, 2001). The focus on practical qualifications has remained,
although more academic programmes are now offered, ranging from certificate level to
PhDs. The student population comprises a variety of ages, ethnicities, backgrounds, and
and learning, often assume "a homogeneous form of motivation that applies to any
students, anywhere, anytime" (Dee, 2003, p. 42), irrespective of the multi-cultural nature
of many institutions' students 2, and range of cognitive and learning styles 3 (McLoughlin,
1999). Awareness of learning styles, and the concept they are culturally shaped (Belay,
1992), could be one positive way to improve approaches whereby educators would need
to employ a variety of strategies to meet the needs of culturally diverse students (Sutliff
& Baldwin, 2001). However, there is a tendency to disagree on basic concepts of learning
Given the controversial nature of learning styles they fall in and out of favour (Fleming,
2007), but, as Sadler-Smith and Riding (1999) argue, awareness of learning styles has the
learning difficulties and improve the performance of individuals” (p. 3). For example, in
DMC to identify their learning styles using the VARK online survey (Hatherley-Greene,
2003). Results were compared with data collected by Fleming (2007). The belief that
Emirati learners are strongly auditory or visual was challenged because the majority
significant implication for the design of activities and resources. Learners found the
results to be useful as it raised their awareness so they could effectively interact within
(but not be confined by) the learning environment (Owen & Durham, 2007). The results
from this study highlight key factors to consider around the design of open, flexible and
2
A full discussion of the considerations around designing and facilitating culturally
responsive programmes is not within the remit of this paper, especially as the subject area
is not unproblematic (McLoughlin, 1999).
3
Learning styles and learning preferences are intimately related and the terms are often
used interchangeably.
distance learning programmes, especially the importance of providing a variety of media,
Programme design also needs to encourage process (Beaudoin, 1990) rather than
focussing on the production of assessed artefacts, while also embracing the intellectual
(te taha hinengaro), the spiritual (te taha wairua), the emotional (whatumanawa), and the
physical (te taha tinana) (Irwin, 2005). As such, learning experiences should include fun,
contexts (Palmer, 1998). A case study (Owen, 2009d) was conducted at Unitec NZ in
pioneered a programme to meet the needs of managers and front line employees in the
options resulted in the suggestion that the course be offered in online distance mode.
The course was originally designed as an intensive, highly participative one-day face-to-
face experience, which included, for instance, sharing experiences and stories. It was key,
therefore, to attempt to excite learners’ interest, creativity and engagement, while also
developing a community of inquiry and learning. A space was created in the Learning
by Unitec NZ, and interaction with more experienced peers. Multimodal scaffolding
resources were devised to assist participants, not only with governance concepts, but also
with using the communication and collaboration tools. One example of cultural
responsiveness enabled by multimedia was the welcome video (Figure 2), whereby a
sense of person, place, and community identity was evoked. In the post-pilot feedback
participants commented about feeling "connected and engaged", that it was "fun to
interact with the other class members", and in part this was initiated by the "warm
welcome".
Figure 2: Example of a welcome (http://blip.tv/file/1554564)
A further benefit of multimedia is that it can offer a culturally inclusive way to share
reflection and celebrate success. Some cultures have preferences or restrictions around
how they express themselves and celebrate their achievements. As such, being asked to
celebrate one's successes can be at best uncomfortable, and at worst upsetting and
incredibly uncomfortable (Owen, 2009a). However, multimedia may provide options for
individuals to seek the input of their community to speak on their behalf, or to record
their reflections and performance of skills (Owen, 2009b) (see Figure 3).
v=c8IZSVtaMmM)
It has been recognised that because thinking, decision-making, and structuring of long-
term memories entail processing by the cognitive centre of the brain (which works
serially), cognitive overload will occur when excessive demands are made (Cisco, 2008).
Scaffolding can help with this phenomenon by assisting the creation of "schemas of
understanding" (Cisco, 2008, p. 11). In this process a learner's current level of skills or
previous knowledge are foregrounded into the working memory, and then actively
invoked by incremental input. For example, Okolo and Ferretti (1998), studying a wide
range of learners, found that student composition that utilised multimedia increased
"highly motivated by the opportunity to augment their writing with other media" (p. 54).
Participation in a learning experience that is also social has the potential to bridge the gap
between a learner’s already assimilated knowledge or skills and knowledge or skills yet
1998).
One issue identified by Foundations’ course leaders at DMC was that the curriculum did
WebCT…, SharePoint, Outlook and Calendar, Portal (and email)” (Godfrey, 2006, p. 2).
The Computer, Research Skills and Projects (CRSP) course approach aimed to address
this, partly through the use of self-access multimedia resources. A research study was
employed in the CRSP course. Data was collected in the 2003-2004 (n=189), 2004-2005
(n= 199), 2005-2006 (n= 201) academic years and semester one of 2006-2007 (n=211).
Results from the study are extensive, and only data directly related to the use of
short segments of text, were provided to help students who had pre-intermediate English
skills. Learners were able to watch the videos meaning that language did not become a
barrier, and did not have to rely on teachers to take them step-by-step through the
concepts, ideas or skills, or have to worry if they had not understood a key point.
Students could revisit videos as many times as needed, and then seek peer or teacher
support if they wished. Teachers were thereby freed up to facilitate and maximise the
support they could offer. Furthermore, marking rubrics were developed to accept
multimedia as well text for some assessments, as long as learning outcomes were
achieved, thus recognising the preference of some students to express themselves through
multimedia.
discovery, examples and models to scaffold students. Some concepts appeared to be most
relevant when captured in longer videos that could be accessed in parts or as a whole. A
demonstration video that focussed on specific skills was best split into short segments
and indexed, and for large-group work, or break-out groups, a video of between three to
synchronous communication, MSN chat was chosen to brainstorm ideas as an initial step
to writing a collaborative academic essay. Previous experience had illustrated that unless
awareness was raised around the reason for the task, as well as providing a model and
guidelines, chat sessions could rapidly disintegrate. As such, a five-minute video was
made demonstrating a chat session that began informally and then modelled the type of
encouraged reflection on the authentic purpose for the upcoming chat-sessions, and
resulting benefits.
Findings from the CRSP study indicated that multimedia was used extensively by the
majority (85.4%) of students. Specific comments around the use of videos included
affective factors such as motivation (comments are as they were written): "I had fun and
was very useful and I think it will help me a lot to improve my writing", and comments
around collaboration: "When we watch the video its funny when Arguing with a friend
about the topic...but stell the new ideas i got from my partner is useful and its new create
way to learn".
Fostering literacies
Literacies now required in many countries range far beyond the ability to decipher the
written text. Hall in 1996 accentuated how we live in the information age where we
require “the wherewithal to think, understand, create, renew, maintain, and adapt within
many different material and cultural contexts” [italics in the original] (p. 27). Literacy
skills now include decoding and conceptualising multimedia, multiple cultures, ICT,
digital, and information, to name but a few (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001).
At Unitec NZ, from July to August 2008 two groups from Kumamoto University, Japan
came to study English. Prior to the visit, the group's assigned teacher and an academic
advisor designed a course aimed at engaging the students in a creative, fun way. The
course was formulated to assist listening skills by using existing videos; writing and
known that students would require substantial initial scaffolding, and it was decided to
offer a ‘one stop shop’ in the form of a Moodle course to enable students to contact
teachers easily, and have access all the resources, instructions, and multimedia. Once the
students arrived they were introduced to the context and resources. However, their
expectations of the role of themselves as learners, as well as their culturally shaped media
literacy, meant that they had to be guided through how to use resources such as the
While not an unproblematic comparison, these tendencies are interesting when seen
July 2008, whereby ePortfolios were introduced. The selected platform was PB Wiki
session, the concept of ePortfolios was introduced and students accessed and followed the
video to set up their PBwiki site, offering peer support or asking the facilitator when
required. The session appeared successful, with all students engaged and positively
motivated, and successfully setting up a wiki site. One student commented that she
expected it to be a lot more difficult, and only one respondent to the session evaluation
survey said that she neither agreed nor disagreed that she was confident about her wiki
skills, compared with other participants who were confident or very confident.
Multimedia for education can also be utilised to foster specific skill areas such as
information literacy. At Unitec NZ, a small-scale study was conducted in 2008 to help
Professional Development (PD) (Owen & Schwenger, 2009) utilised with Automotive
education practitioners. The first two-hour tradeshow 'workshop' was organised into three
main segments, the final part of which involved visiting six workstations to complete
tasks, watch short demonstrations, and ask questions. Three of the workstations
showcased multimedia: 1) using videos (with text/audio and mixed media) (see Figure 4);
2) providing ‘pop ups’ within the text (written, visual, and audio); and 3) using reusable
(http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/nmp/sonet/rlos/studyskills/referencing_books/index.html).
recognition of practical strategies and approaches that would help students acquire
(http://blip.tv/file/1415856)
awareness of audience, autonomy and creativity. Such benefits can be seen when
academic faculty produce multimedia artefacts as part of their own PD, in particular
where the artefacts comprise part of a developmental (and later showcase) ePortfolio. At
Unitec NZ in 2009, for example, faculty have been encouraged to capture their teaching
practice using audio recorders, cameras, and/or camcorders (see Figure 5). The resultant
multimedia, alongside evaluations from the session, are hosted in an ePortfolio, shared
with peers (where the individual feels comfortable to do so), reflected on, and a plan for
changes or innovations made. Later in the same semester, the faculty member repeats the
process. With this artefact they may choose to include the result, along with an overview
of the 'journey' in their showcase ePortfolio. Opportunities for deep, reflective thinking,
CONCLUSION
This paper has explored ways in which multimedia can create quality connections while
also opening up boundless possibilities for deep learning, creativity, and self-direction
within culturally responsive contexts that acknowledge factors such as learning styles.
Furthermore, it has discussed how multimedia for education, when embedded within a
programme, can scaffold learners while also encouraging them to work in groups, express
discussed and illustrated with practical examples from the UAE and NZ, the use of
learners studying in a language that is not their first can be scaffolded through the
combination of visuals, audio and short segments of text. Learning through process is
facilitated when learners have opportunities to practice in informal contexts with low risk
2009c).
Caveats to bear in mind include practical factors such as relevance and contextualisation.
In addition, the design and facilitation of learning activities will have an impact on how
Activities that utilise multimedia, therefore, have to be carefully designed around clear
learning outcomes, which can be time-consuming and complex. Both the practitioner and
the learners need to have (or be willing to develop) a certain level of digital literacy.
invaluable.
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