(ASSIGNMENT-III) MECHTRONICS

Name: SONIL KUMAR

Roll No.: 2K11/ME/148
Email: skb2031993@gmail.com
Batch: OPQ (4th year)

ROOT LOCUS PLOT
INTRODUCTION
This is a technique used as a stability criterion in the field of control systems developed by Walter R.
Evans which can determine stability of the system. The root locus plots the poles of the closed loop
transfer function as a function of a gain parameter.
The root locus is a graphical procedure for determining the poles of a closed-loop system given the
poles and zeros of a forward-loop system. Graphically, the locus is the set of paths in the complex
plane traced by the closed-loop poles as the root locus gain is varied from zero to infinity.
The relative stability and the transient performance of a closed loop system are directly related to the
location of the closed-loop roots of the characteristic equation in the s-plane.
It is frequently necessary to adjust one or more system parameters in order to obtain suitable root
location.
It is useful to determine the locus of roots in s-plane as a parameter varied since the roots is a function
of the systems parameter.
It provides the engineer with a measure of the sensitivity of roots of the system a variation in
parameter being considered. The root locus technique may be used to great advantage in conjunction
with the Routh-Hurwitz criterion.

USES
In addition to determining the stability of the system, the root locus can be used to design the damping
ratio and natural frequency of a feedback system.
Lines of constant damping ratio can also be drawn radially from the origin and lines of constant natural
frequency can be drawn as arcs whose center points coincide with the origin. By selecting a point along
the root locus that coincides with a desired damping ratio and natural frequency a gain, K, can be
calculated and implemented in the controller

ROOT LOCUS
Let's say we have a closed-loop transfer function for a particular system:

Where N is the numerator polynomial and D is the denominator polynomial of the transfer functions,
respectively. Now, we know that to find the poles of the equation, we must set the denominator to 0, and
solve the characteristic equation. In other words, the locations of the poles of a specific equation must satisfy
the following relationship:


From this same equation, we can manipulate the equation as such:



And finally by converting to polar coordinates:


Now we have 2 equations that govern the locations of the poles of a system for all gain values:



ROOT LOCUS PROCEDURE
In the transform domain (see note at bottom), when the gain is small, the poles start at the poles of the open-
loop transfer function. When gain becomes infinity, the poles move to overlap the zeros of the system. This
means that on a root-locus graph, all the poles move towards a zero. Only one pole may move towards one
zero, and this means that there must be the same number of poles as zeros.

Note: In, the rules for the S-Plane and the Z-plane are the same, so we won't refer to the differences
between them.

If there are fewer zeros than poles in the transfer function, there are a number of implicit zeros located at
infinity that the poles will approach.

First thing, we need to convert the magnitude equation into a slightly more convenient form:



Now, we can assume that G(s) H(s) is a fraction of some sort, with a numerator and a denominator that are
both polynomials. We can express this equation using arbitrary functions a(s) and b(s), as such:


Note: We generally use capital letters for functions in the frequency domain, but a(s) and b(s) are
unimportant enough to be lower-case.

We can start drawing the root-locus by first placing the roots of b(s) on the graph with an 'X'. Next, we place
the roots of a(s) on the graph, and mark them with an 'O'.
Poles are marked on the graph with an 'X' and zeros are marked with an 'O' by common convention.
These letters have no particular meaning.

Next, we examine the real-axis. Starting from the right-hand side of the graph and traveling to the left, we
draw a root-locus line on the real-axis at every point to the left of an odd number of poles or zeros on the real-
axis. This may sound tricky at first, but it becomes easier with practice.
Double poles or double zeros count as two.

Now, a root-locus line starts at every pole. Therefore, any place that two poles appear to be connected by a
root locus line on the real-axis, the two poles actually move towards each other, and then they "break away",
and move off the axis. The point where the poles break off the axis is called the breakaway point. From here,
the root locus lines travel towards the nearest zero.
It is important to note that the s-plane is symmetrical about the real axis, so whatever is drawn on the top-half
of the S-plane, must be drawn in mirror-image on the bottom-half plane.

Once a pole breaks away from the real axis, they can either travel out towards infinity (to meet an implicit
zero), or they can travel to meet an explicit zero, or they can re-join the real-axis to meet a zero that is located
on the real-axis. If a pole is traveling towards infinity, it always follows an asymptote. The number of
asymptotes is equal to the number of implicit zeros at infinity.



ROOT LOCUS RULES
The complete set of rules for drawing the root-locus graph. We will use p and z to denote the number of poles
and the number of zeros of the open-loop transfer function, respectively. We will use P
i
and Z
i
to denote the
location of the i th pole and the j th zero, respectively. Likewise, we will use
i
and
i
to denote the angle from
a given point to the i th pole and zero, respectively. All angles are given in radians ( denotes radians).
There are 11 rules that, if followed correctly, will allow you to create a correct root-locus graph.
Rule 1
There is one branch of the root-locus for every root of b(s).
Rule 2
The roots of b(s) are the poles of the open-loop transfer function. Mark the roots of b(s) on the graph
with an X.
Rule 3
The roots of a(s) are the zeros of the open-loop transfer function. Mark the roots of a(s) on the graph
with an O. There should be a number of O's less than or equal to the number of X's. There is a number
of zeros p - z located at infinity. These zeros at infinity are called "implicit zeros". All branches of the
root-locus will move from a pole to a zero (some branches, therefore, may travel towards infinity).
Rule 4
A point on the real axis is a part of the root-locus if it is to the left of an odd number of poles and zeros.
Rule 5
The gain at any point on the root locus can be determined by the inverse of the absolute value of the
magnitude equation.

Rule 6
The root-locus diagram is symmetric about the real-axis. All complex roots are conjugates.
Rule 7
Two roots that meet on the real-axis will break away from the axis at certain break-away points. If we
set s (no imaginary part), we can use the following equation:

And differentiate to find the local maximum:

Rule 8
The breakaway lines of the root locus are separated by angles of , where is the number of poles
intersecting at the breakaway point.
Rule 9
The breakaway root-loci follow asymptotes that intersect the real axis at angles

given by:

The origin of these asymptotes, OA, is given as the sum of the pole locations, minus the sum of the
zero locations, divided by the difference between the number of poles and zeros:

The OA point should lie on the real axis.
Rule 10
The branches of the root locus cross the imaginary axis at points where the angle equation value is
(i.e., 180
o
).




Rule 11
The angles that the root locus branch makes with a complex-conjugate pole or zero is determined by
analyzing the angle equation at a point infinitesimally close to the pole or zero. The angle of departure,

d
is given by the following equation:

The angle of arrival,
a
, is given by:


ROOT LOCUS EQUATIONS

S-Domain Equations Z-Domain Equations


Note that the sum of the angles of all the poles and zeros must equal to 180.
Number of Asymptotes:
If the number of explicit zeros of the system is denoted by Z (uppercase z), and the number of poles of the
system is given by P, then the number of asymptotes (Na) is given by:

The angles of the asymptotes are given by:


For values of

NOTE: The angles for the asymptotes are measured from the positive real-axis.
Asymptote Intersection Point:
The asymptotes intersect the real axis at the point:

Where is the sum of all the locations of the poles, and is the sum of all the locations of the explicit
zeros.
Breakaway Points:
The breakaway points are located at the roots of the following equation:

or

Once you solve for z, the real roots give you the breakaway/reentry points. Complex roots correspond to a
lack of breakaway/reentry.
The breakaway point equation can be difficult to solve, so many times the actual location is approximated.

Root Locus and Stability:
The root locus procedure should produce a graph of where the poles of the system are for all values of gain K.
When any or all of the roots of D are in the unstable region, the system is unstable. When any of the roots are
in the marginally stable region, the system is marginally stable (oscillatory). When all of the roots of D are in
the stable region, then the system is stable.
It is important to note that a system that is stable for gain K1 may become unstable for a different gain K2.
Some systems may have poles that cross over from stable to unstable multiple times, giving multiple gain
values for which the system is unstable.
Here is the table which shows this:
Region S-Domain Z-Domain
Stable Region Left-Hand S Plane

Inside the Unit Circle











EXAMPLE:
Find the root-locus graph for the following system transfer function:


If we look at the denominator, we have poles at the origin, -1, and -2. Following Rule 4, we know that the real-
axis between the first two poles, and the real axis after the third pole are all on the root-locus. We also know
that there is going to be a breakaway point between the first two poles, so that they can approach the
complex conjugate zeros. If we use the quadratic equation on the numerator, we can find that the zeros are
located at:

If we draw our graph, we get the following:
Marginally Stable Region The vertical axis

The Unit Circle

Unstable Region Right-Hand S Plane

Outside the Unit Circle,



We can see from this graph that the system is stable for all values of K