NON-LINEARITY

Effects Of Non-Linearity
Harmonic Distortion
Gain Compression
Cross Modulation
Intermodulation
Analog and RF circuits can be approximated by a linear model for small-signal operation,but nonlinearities
often lead to distortion of the desired signals.
Harmonic Distortion
If a sinusoid is applied to a nonlinear system, the output generally exhibits frequency components
that are integer multiples (harmonics) of the input frequency.
if x(t) = A cost, then
The first term on the right-hand side is a dc quantity arising from second-order
nonlinearity, the second is called the fundamental, the third is the second
harmonic, and the fourth is the third harmonic. We sometimes say that even-order
nonlinearity introduces dc offsets.
Gain Compression
An amplifier maintains a constant gain for low-level input signals. However, at
higher input levels, the amplifier goes into saturation and its gain decreases.
The 1 dB compression point (P1dB) indicates the power level that causes the gain
to drop by 1 dB from its small signal value.
Cross Modulation
Cross modulation traditionally occurred in receivers receiving an AM signal in the presence of other strong AM signals.
It was found that the modulation from the strong signal was cross modulated and appeared on the weaker signal
being received.For example, suppose that the interferer is an amplitude-modulated signal, A2(1 + m
cosmt)cos 2t, where m is a constant and m denotes the modulating frequency. Then
Intermodulation
If two interferers at 1 and 2 are applied to a nonlinear system, the output generally exhibits components
that are not harmonics of these frequencies. Called intermodulation (IM), this phenomenon arises from
mixing(multiplication) of the two components as their sum is raised to a power greater than unity.
Suppose two interferers are applied to a nonlinear system (two-tone test):
We therefore have these intermodulation (IM) components:
Third Intercept Point
It is a measure of intermodulation.
If the amplitude of each tone rises, that of the output IM products increases more sharply ( ).
Thus, if we continue to raise A, the amplitude of the IM products eventually becomes equal to that of
the fundamental tones at the output. On a log-log scale, the input level at which this occurs is called
the input third intercept point (IIP3).

3
Performance parameters to characterize LNA
Noise Figure
Gain
Input Return Loss
Stability
Bandwidth
Power Dissipation
Noise Figure
The Noise Figure of a device is the degradation in the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) as a
signal passes through the device.
The Noise Figure of a device is the ratio of the total Noise Power at the output, to
that portion of the Noise Power at the output due to noise at the input when the
input source temperature is 290 Kelvin.
A good LNA should have a low value of NF.
Noise Factor :
Noise figure :
Gain
The gain of the LNA must be large enough to minimize the noise contribution of sub
sequent stages.
The choice of this gain leads to a compromise between the noise figure And the linearity
of the receiver as higher gain makes the nonlinearity of subsequent stages more
pronounced.
Input Return Loss
Return loss is the loss of power in the signal returned/reflected by a discontinuity
or impedance mismatch in a transmission line.
Reflection coefficient:
where Z
S
is the impedance toward the source and Z
L
is the impedance toward
the load.
Return loss is the negative of the magnitude of the reflection coefficient in dB.
Since power is proportional to the square of the voltage, return loss is given by
where the vertical bars indicate magnitude. Thus, a large positive return loss
indicates the reflected power is small relative to the incident power, which indicates
good impedance match from source to load.
Stability
While designing any amplifier, it is important to check the stability of the
device chosen, or the amplifier may function as an oscillator. For
determining stability, calculate Rollet's Stability factor, (represented as
variable K) using S-parameters at a given frequency.
Rollet's stability factor is a one way to get an indication of whether you'll have a
problem or not. If K>1 then the device will be unconditionally stable for any
combination of source and load impedances. For K<1 the device is potentially
unstable and will most likely oscillate with certain combinations of source and load
impedance.
Bandwidth
The bandwidth is generally defined as the range of frequencies over which a
device performs to it's rated specifications. For example, if We have an LNA that is
rated to have 20 dB of gain and a 1.3 dB noise figure, then the bandwidth will be
the range of frequencies where both of those requirements are met (along with
other specs that might be of interest, like IP3).
The LNA must provide a relatively flat response for the frequency range of interest,
preferably with less than 1 dB of gain variation.
The LNA 3-dB bandwidth must therefore be substantially larger than the actual
band so that the roll-off at the edges remains below 1 dB.
Power Dissipation
The LNA typically exhibits a direct trade-off among noise, linearity, and power
dissipation. Nonetheless, in most receiver designs, the LNA consumes only a small
fraction of the overall power. In other words, the circuits noise figure generally
proves much more critical than its power dissipation.