Public Rel at i ons Review, 24(4): 461-474 Copyright 1998 by JAI Pre~s Inc.

ISSN: 0363-8111 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

Francis J. Marra
Crisis Communi cat i on
Plans: Poor Predi ctors
o f Excel l ent Crisis
Publ i c Rel ati ons
AB$1"RACT: Public rdatiom is an ~ elemem i n
t heory i n crisis public r e - - , ms , t hough, mg g e m a shi6t is n e o ~
sary i n t he way practitioners vi ew crises. Tbe w ~ tac-
tics and techniques advocated by practitioners need t o be
replaced wi t h strategies and befie~ f r om a new p e a ~ x ~ o ~ - a
perspective or paradi gm t hat defines excellent crisis public rela-
tions practice very differently f r om t he literature o f t he past 20
y e a r s .
Frank Marra is a senior lecturer i n public relations at t he
Curt i n Business School, Curt i n University, Pert h, Western Aus-
tralia.
Co mmu n i c a t i o n is an i mp o r t a n t e l e me n t i n a l mos t all suc-
cessful crisis ma n a g e me n t effort s. Or ga ni z a t i ons or i ndi vi dual s t ha t c o mmu n i c a t e
p o o r l y d u r i n g crises o f t e n ma k e ba d s i t uat i ons wor s e. T h e Th r e e Mi l e I s l and
nucl ear p o we r acci dent , Exxon Valdez oil spill, a n d Challenger space s hut t l e
e xpl os i on are t hr e e we l l - k n o wn exampl es t ha t d e mo n s t r a t e h o w i na de qua t e c om-
mu n i c a t i o n st r at egi es can h i n d e r an or ga ni z a t i on' s abi l i t y t o ma n a g e a crisis.
Cri ses, i n a l mos t all ci r cums t ances , i mme d i a t e l y t r i gge r a de l uge o f ques-
t i ons f r o m an or ga ni z a t i on' s ma n y di f f er ent publ i cs. Re por t e r s , e mpl oye e s , st ock-
hol der s , g o v e r n me n t officials, a n d l ocal r es i dent s all w a n t - - n e e d - - t o k n o w:
Wh a t h a p p e n e d ? Wh o d i d i t h a p p e n t o? Wh e n ? Wher e? Ho w? Why? Or gani za-
Wi nt e r 1998 4 6 1
Public Relations Review
t i ons t ha t wa i t t o ans wer t hese que s t i ons of t e n suffer unne c e s s a r y fi nanci al , e mo-
t i onal , a n d pe r c e pt ua l da ma ge . Th e abi l i t y t o c o mmu n i c a t e qui ckl y a nd effect i vel y
is clearly an i mp o r t a n t c o mp o n e n t o f successful a n d effect i ve crisis ma n a g e me n t .
Ma n y publ i c r el at i ons pr act i t i oner s de ve l op c o mmu n i c a t i o n s pl ans t o he l p
t h e m pr ovi de i n f o r ma t i o n t o t hei r r el evant publ i cs d u r i n g crises. The s e crisis
c o mmu n i c a t i o n pl ans of t e n c ont a i n c o mp r e h e n s i v e checkl i st s o f wh a t t o d o dur -
i ng a crisis, na me s a nd t e l e phone n u mb e r s o f pe opl e t o cont act , a n d out l i nes o f
var i ous c o mmu n i c a t i o n s t act i cs a nd st rat egi es. The s e pl ans, i n ma n y cases, hel p
publ i c r el at i ons pr act i t i oner s successful l y ma n a g e t he i mme d i a t e a nd e n o r mo u s
n u mb e r o f r equest s f or i n f o r ma t i o n t ha t a c c o mp a n y a crisis.
Ma n y case st udi es o f crises i n t he publ i c r el at i ons l i t er at ur e i ndi cat e t he
i mp o r t a n c e o f crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n pl ans. Mo s t articles stress t he r el at i ons hi p
b e t we e n t he pr es ence a nd us e o f a c ompr e he ns i ve crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n s pl a n a nd
successful crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n . An excel l ent exampl e is t he t ypi cal s e c onda r y
s c hool fire drill. Regar dl es s o f t he r eason, s chool s can a l mos t always be qui ckl y
a nd cal ml y evacuat ed wi t h i n mi nut e s . Ot h e r exampl es o f wel l - pr epar ed or gani za-
t i onal r es pons es t o crises i ncl ude hospi t al s a n d t he mi l i t ary. Physi ci ans a nd nur s es
face crises s uch as e me r g e n c y s ur ger y a nd wi t ne s s e d [ obser ved] cardi ac, p u l mo -
nar y, or ne ur ol ogi c a l arrests o n a dai l y basis. Mi l i t ar y pe r s onne l r e s p o n d equal l y
qui ckl y t o calls t o gener al quar t er s, sear ch a nd rescue, a nd nat i onal def ens e crises.
Li ke t hese wel l - pr act i ced crisis ma n a g e me n t pl ans, crisis publ i c r el at i ons
pl ans a nd st r at egi es pr ovi de t he me a ns t o ga t he r a n d release i n f o r ma t i o n as
qui ckl y as possi bl e d u r i n g a crisis. Au t h o r s s uch as Ber ns t ei n, Ba r t on, Fear n-
Banks a nd ma n y ot her s descr i be crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n t e c hni que s i n gr eat detail. 1
Ma n y case s t u d y des cr i pt i ons o f crises of t e n ci t e t he val ue o f crisis c o mmu n i c a -
t i o n pl ans. I nves t i gat i ons o f p o o r l y ma n a g e d crises si mi l arl y of t e n reveal t he
absence o f a c ompr e he ns i ve crisis c o mmt mi c a t i o n pl an.
Bu t is t hi s cr edi t deserved? Is excel l ent crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n sol el y t he
r esul t o f pr e pa r i ng a t h o r o u g h list o f i ns t r uct i ons , s ugges t i ons , a nd checklists?
Amb r o s e ci t ed f o r me r Gener al Dwi g h t D. Ei s e nhowe r , wh o sai d " i n war , bef or e
t he bat t l e is j oi ned, pl ans are ever yt hi ng, b u t once t he s h o o t i n g begi ns, pl ans are
wor t hl es s . "2 Col l i ns a nd Por r as sai d " r e n o wn e d mi l i t ar y t he or i s t Kar l va n Cl ause-
wi t z a r gue d t ha t det ai l ed mi l i t ar y pl ans usual l y fail because ci r cums t ances i nevi t a-
bl y change. "3 An d Kh e n g - Ho r cites 2, 500 year - ol d mi l i t ar y st r at egi st Su n Tz u,
wh o bel i eved a s i ngul ar pl an l ed t o failure:
When I wi n a victory, I do not repeat the tactics, but respond t o circum-
stances in limitless ways. Militaq7 tactics are similar t o water ... As water
shapes its flow according t o the ground, an army wins by relating t o the
enemy it faces. And just as water retains no consistent shape, in war there will
be no constant condition. Thus, he who modifies his tactics according t o the
enemy' s situation shall be victorious. 4
Al t h o u g h crisis c o mmu mc a t i o n pl ans usual l y he l p t o successful l y ma n a g e cri-
ses, r ecent r esear ch i ndi cat es t hei r val ue is over r at ed. 5 Al mo s t all o f t he r esear ch i n
462 Vol. 24, No. 4
Crisis Communication Plans
crisis public relations focuses on the technical role of communication during a crisis.
Little, if any, crisis public relations research has gone beyond the technical descrip-
tions and applications incorporated in crisis communication plans.
In-depth case study analyses of several crises indicate crisis communica-
tions plans are only a p a r t of what determines excellent crisis public relations
practice. This suggests additional variables strongly influence how well an organi-
zation communicates during a crisis. Public relations practitioners, therefore,
need to expand their technical communication mindset to consider variables that
appear to predict excellent crisis public relations practice more accurately than the
mere presence of a crisis public relations plan.
Dozier, Grunig, and Grunig showed "the knowledge and expertise of com-
mtmicators is not enough for excellence. ''6 They showed excellent practical skills
were necessary, but not sufficient, predictors of excellent public relations practice.
This quantitative evidence built on the theoretical foundation of J. Gnmi g who
said "public relations departments do not exist in isolation ... conditions in and
around organizations affect the structure and practice of the public relations func-
tion. ''7 These conditions include the overall communication culture within an
organization and whether the senior public relations practitioner is viewed as a
strategic manager by the members of his or her organization's domi nant coalition
(senior decision makers).
MODEL OF CRISIS PUBLI C RELATI ONS
Marra's model of crisis public relations is the first applica-
tion of theoretical variables to crisis communication. 8 Unlike descriptive case
studies that explain how to manage crises, this model explains and predicts why
crises are managed well (or poorly). The model of crisis public relations breaks
the technicaUy-based crisis communication plan mindset most practitioners fol-
low. It includes, for the first time, characteristics that affect an organization's
response to a crisis. Evidence from a variety of case studies suggests these organi-
zational characteristics predict and explain the performance of organizations as
well, if not better, than the presence or absence of crisis plans. This model of cri-
sis public relations questions the relationship between having a crisis communica-
tion plan and the effects and outcomes of a crisis
Organizations wi t h crisis plans, for example, do not always manage crises
well. Three weU-known examples are Uni on Carbide's crisis in Bhopal, NASA' s
handling of the explosion of the Challenger, and the crises at the University of
Maryland started by the death of basketball player Len Bias. Similarly, organiza-
tions wi t hout crisis plans, such as Johnson & Johnson (Tylenol) or McDonald' s
(the shooting of 40 people in its San Ysidro, California, restaurant in 1984) have
managed crises well.
The relationship between having a crisis plan and successfully managing
crises also doesn' t explain why AT&T and Luby' s Cafeterias, for example, didn' t
use its crisis plans during its crises in 1990 and 1991. It also doesn' t explain why
Wi nt e r 1998 4 6 3
Public Relations Review
Risk
communi cat i on
acti vi ti es and
programs
Crisis
communi cati on
preparation
Pre-~risis
relationships
wi t h
relevant
publics
Crisis
communication
processes and
practices
Organisational [ Public
communi cat i on relations
autonomy
I culture
Figure I. Mo d e l o f Cri si s Publ i c Re l a t i ons
Post-cri si s
relationships
wi t h
relevant
publics
Exxon, t he rol e mode l f or p o o r crisis ma na ge me nt , was t he mos t pr of i t abl e com-
pa ny i n t he Un i t e d States ( and s econd i n t he wor l d) i n 1996. Exxon' s l ack o f an
appr opr i at e crisis pl an t o ma na ge t he 1989 Val dez oi l spill cert ai nl y di dn' t affect
its pr of i t o f $7. 5 bi l l i on i n 1996.
These cont r adi ct i ons suggest excel l ent crisis publ i c rel at i ons pract i ce is not
sol el y t he resul t o f cr eat i ng a t h o r o u g h list o f i nst r uct i ons and checklists. Mar r a' s
i n- de pt h i nvest i gat i on o f several crises conf i r med t he fi ndi ngs o f J . Gr uni g: Excel-
l ent publ i c rel at i ons pract i ce requi res mor e t ha n a knowl edgeabl e a nd skillful
publ i c rel at i ons pr act i t i oner or depar t ment . 9 Li ke J. Gr uni g, Ma r r a f ound t hat
t he unde r l yi ng c o mmu n i c a t i o n cul t ur e o f an or gani zat i on and t he level o f aut on-
o my o r p o we r o f t he publ i c rel at i ons depar maent wi t hi n an or gani zat i on can eas-
i l y pr event ( or enhance) pr act i t i oner s f r om i mpl e me nt i ng t he best crisis
o a mmu n i c a t i o n plan.10
G O M M U N I C A T I O N C U L T U R E
Or gani zat i onal cul t ur e is r ef er r ed t o by s ome researchers
as i t s " d i ma t ~ " " i deol ogy, " o r " phi l os ophy. " Mi t r of f a nd Ki l ma nn de f me d orga-
n i z a t i o n ~ cul t ur e i n t er ms o f a "f or ce fi el d" anal ogy:
It is n o t mechanical, chemical, or electrical energy. Culture is best thought of
as a social energy which has an existence and life all its own. The culture of an
organization is distinct from its mission, its technologies, formal reward sys-
tems, explidt policies, and written job descriptions ... [it is] a separate force
that controls members' behaviors and attitudes at the work place.
4 6 4 Vol. 24, No. 4
Crisis Communication Plans
Culture is defined as a set of shared philosophies, ideologies, values, beliefs,
expectations, attitudes, assumptions, and norms. Rarely are these intangibles
of organizational life formally written down anywhere. Rather, t hey are
learned by living in the organization and becomi ng a part of it. One has t o
experience the energy t hat flows from such shared understandings in order t o
know it. 11
Or ga ni z a t i ons o f t e n have ma n y di f f er ent cul t ur es wi t h i n t hemsel ves. I t is
n o t unus ua l , f or exampl e, f or or ga ni z a t i ons t o have di f f er ent u n wr i t t e n "r ul es "
a b o u t safety, p r o mo t i o n , deci s i on ma k i n g , pe r s ona l appear ance, r e i mb u r s e me n t ,
a n d absence f r o m wor k. Mi t t o f f a nd Ki l ma n n l i st ed several t ypi cal or ga ni z a t i ona l
n o r ms : Do n ' t di sagr ee wi t h y o u r boss, d o n ' t r oc k t he boat , t r eat w o me n as sec-
ond- cl ass ci t i zens, d o n ' t e n j o y y o u r wo r k , cheat o n y o u r expens e a c c ount , a n d
l o o k bus y even wh e n y o u are not . 12 I n a si mi l ar f as hi on, ma n y or ga ni z a t i ons al so
have def i nabl e c o mmu n i c a t i o n cul t ur es. S o me or ga ni z a t i ons e n c o u r a g e t wo - wa y
c o mmu n i c a t i o n whi l e ot he r s rarel y or g r u d g i n g l y di s s e mi na t e i n f o r ma t i o n t o its
r el evant audi ences.
Sr i r a me s h a n d Gr u n i g n o t e d f e w r esear cher s have e x a mi n e d t he r el at i on-
s hi p b e t we e n or ga ni z a t i ona l cul t ur e a n d publ i c r el at i ons. Th e y bel i eve, h o we v e r ,
t ha t " c ul t ur e i nf l uences publ i c r el at i ons by p r o v i d i n g a b r o a d base o f wor l dvi e w,
me a n i n g , a n d val ues t ha t affect all deci s i ons i n t he o r g a n i z a t i o n - - i n c l u d i n g t he
choi ce o f a mo d e l o f publ i c r el at i ons . " l 3
Res ear cher s s uc h as Fo r d , Ga t e wo o d a nd Car r ol l , Mi t r o f f a n d Ki l ma n n ,
Pa uc ha nt , Pa u c h a n t a n d Mi t r of f , a n d Ro b e r t s a n d La Po r t e have e x a mi n e d h o w
c or por a t e cul t ur e affects or ga ni z a t i ons ' r es pons es t o crises. 14 Un f o r t u n a t e l y , as
al r eady n o t e d by Sr i r a me s h a n d Gr uni g, l i t t l e wo r k has f oc us e d o n h o w or gani za-
t i onal cul t ur e affects publ i c r el at i ons act i vi t y ( a nd vi ce versa). 15 Re s e a r c h by
Pa u c h a n t a nd Mi t r of f , howe ve r , i ndi c a t e d a s t r o n g r el at i ons hi p b e t we e n an or ga-
ni zat i on' s over al l c ul t ur e a n d its r e s pons e t o crises. 16 Thi s suggests a si mi l ar rela-
t i o n s h i p b e t we e n a mo r e speci fi c c o mmt mi c a t i o n cul t ur e a n d or gani zat i onal
r es pons es t o crises.
Evi de nc e f r o m ma n y case s t udi es i ndi cat es excel l ent crisis publ i c r el at i ons
does n o t oc c ur wi t h o u t a s uppor t i ve or ga ni z a t i ona l c o mmu n i c a t i o n i deol ogy. I f
an or ga ni z a t i on doe s n o t have a c o mmu n i c a t i o n p h i l o s o p h y t h a t s u p p o r t s t he
at t r i but es necessar y f or excel l ent crisis publ i c r el at i ons, a crisis pl an, n o ma t t e r
h o w effect i ve, wi l l n o t l i kel y wor k.
Un f o r t u n a t e l y , f e w publ i c r el at i ons pr act i t i oner s r ecogni ze t he i mp o r t a n t
r el at i ons hi p b e t we e n c o mmu n i c a t i o n cul t ur e a n d excel l ent crisis publ i c rel at i ons.
Ma n y pr act i t i oner s de vot e si gni f i cant r esour ces t o p r o d u c e a crisis c o mmu n i c a -
t i ons pl a n t ha t is de s t i ne d t o fail because t he t echni cal st r at egi es c o n t a i n e d i n t he
pl a n c ont r a di c t t he d o mi n a n t a nd accept ed c o mmu n i c a t i o n phi l os ophi e s us e d by
t hei r or gani zat i on. I n o t h e r wo r d s , a gr eat crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n s pl a n wo n ' t
wo r k i f "i t ' s n o t t he wa y we d o t hi ngs her e. "
I n - d e p t h r evi ews o f several crises i ndi c a t e d c o mmu n i c a t i o n cul t ur e si gni fi -
c a n d y affects h o w or ga ni z a t i ons r e s p o n d t o crises. A n u mb e r o f exampl es cl earl y
Win~r1998
Public Relations Review
s h o w t he c o mmu n i c a t i o n cul t ur e pr e s e nt wi t h i n an or ga ni z a t i on at t he t i me o f a
crisis is a far bet t er pr e di c t or o f successful crisis ma n a g e me n t t h a n t he pr es ence or
absence o f a crisis c o mmt mi c a t i o n pl an.
AT&T' S LONG DI STANCE NETWORK CRISIS
AT &T rel i ed o n its c or por a t e cul t ur e, a n d n o t a crisis
pl an, t o ma n a g e a si gni f i cant crisis i n 1990. I n - d e p t h i nt er vi ews wi t h AT &T
Se ni or Vi ce Pr e s i de nt f or Publ i c Rel at i ons Ma r i l yn Laur i e a nd he r staff, as wel l as
a r evi ew o f t hei r pe r f or ma nc e , s h o we d t hei r behavi or d u r i n g its l o n g di st ance net -
wo r k crisis i n 1990 was based o n t he u n d e r l y i n g c o mmu n i c a t i o n pr i nci pl es t h e y
us e day- t o- day. 17 Al t h o u g h t he y h a d a c ompr e he ns i ve crisis pl an t o r ef er t o, f e w
me mb e r s o f t he publ i c r el at i ons st af f t o o k t hi s pl a n o f f t he s hel f i n t hei r offices.
Th e c o mmu n i c a t i o n cul t ur e is so s t r o n g at AT &T t ha t its pr act i t i oner s k n e w
wh a t t o d o wi t h o u t ha vi ng t o r ef er t o a crisis pl an. Crisis publ i c r el at i ons, sai d
Laur i e, is wh a t t he y pr act i ce ever y day, b u t " i n a di f f er ent t i me f r ame a nd wi t h a
di f f er ent i nt ensi t y. "18
Twe n t y - o n e i n - d e p t h i nt er vi ews wi t h 16 mi d d l e a nd s eni or publ i c r el at i ons
ma na ge r s at AT &T i ndi c a t e d u n a n i mo u s s u p p o r t : Eve r yone k n e w exactly wh a t
pr i nci pl es dr ove t he c ompa ny' s c o mmu n i c a t i o n policies. 19 The r e was n o d o u b t i n
anyone' s mi n d t ha t AT &T di s cl os ed as mu c h i n f o r ma t i o n as possi bl e ( t o t he
ext ent i t c o u l d wi t h o u t r el easi ng pr opr i e t a r y i n f o r ma t i o n or i n f o r ma t i o n r epor t -
ers wo u l d unl i kel y uncover ) as qui ckl y as possi bl e. Thi s i nor di na t e l y s t r o n g c om-
mu n i c a t i o n cul t ur e, i n pl ace si nce t he f o u n d i n g o f A T &T by Th e o d o r e Vai l , was
t he f or ce b e h i n d AT&T' s crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n pract i ces.
Mar r a' s r evi ew o f t he AT &T crisis s h o we d t ha t all o f its publ i c r el at i ons
st af f r ef er r ed i n s o me wa y t o an u n wr i t t e n , b u t ver y powe r f ul , c o mmu n i c a t i o n
cul t ur e t ha t d o mi n a t e d t hei r pr act i ce o f publ i c rel at i ons. Ma n y o f t h e m sai d t he y
wo u l d n o t last l o n g wi t hi n AT &T i f t he y wer e a n y t h i n g b u t pr oact i ve. Ma n y o f
t he AT &T publ i c r el at i ons pr act i t i oner s sai d t hi s aggressi ve, "t el l o u r si de o f t he
s t or y, " pr oact i ve c o mr mmi c a t i o n s cul t ur e is qui ckl y pas s ed t o n e w e mpl oye e s
f r o m a rel at i vel y st abl e staff. Ma n y AT &T publ i c r el at i ons st af f me mb e r s have
wo r k e d f or t he c o mp a n y f or at l east 10 years, s o me as l o n g as 27.
I nt er vi ews wi t h AT &T publ i c r el at i ons ma na ge r s , s uch as Vi ce Pr e s i de nt
Bill Mul l ane, clearly s h o we d t he pr es ence o f a wel l - def i ned c o mmu n i c a t i o n i deol -
o g y wi t h i n t he publ i c r el at i ons f u n c t i o n at AT&T: "We' ve always be ha ve d t ha t
way. I t was t he cul t ur e t ha t I was t a u g h t t he day I came in. I t ' s t he cul t ur e t ha t
o t h e r pe opl e are expect ed t o f ol l ow. Wh e n t he y don' t , we ge t t h e m out . ' ' 2
AT&T' s ver y pr oact i ve a nd cooper at i ve c o mmu n i c a t i o n s i d e o l o g y di d n o t
c ha nge wh e n t he J anuar y 15, 1990 crisis occur r ed. T o m Frazee, t he publ i c rela-
t i ons ma n a g e r f or t he af f ect ed Ne t wo r k Services Di vi s i on, sai d t her e was "abso-
l ut el y n o d o u b t " i n hi s mi n d h o w he wo u l d r e s p o n d t o me d i a i nqui r i es d u r i n g
t he crisis. 21 Car ol Al br i ght , a publ i c r el at i ons ma n a g e r wh o r e p o r t e d t o Frazee,
466 Vol. 24, No. 4
Crisis Communication Plans
agr eed t hat t he c ompa ny' s publ i c r el at i ons crisis st r at egy was di ct at ed mo r e by
AT&T' s c o mmu n i c a t i o n i de ol ogy t ha n any crisis c ommuni c a t i ons pl an:
There was never any indication that we woul d hide anything or do anything
less than be totally honest and up front with the media. Nobody ever said
before, ' I f we ever have a huge crisis, let's make sure we hide it.' No one even
t hought to do that. It's just part of that culture. 22
Several seni or AT &T publ i c r el at i ons manager s , i ncl udi ng Di r e c t or o f
Cor por a t e I n f o r ma t i o n Wal t er Mu r p h y , also cl earl y i ndi cat ed t he company' s
c ommuni c a t i ons i de ol ogy was t he basis f or t hei r act i ons dur i ng t he crisis:
There simply was no discussion of what it was we ought to do. We just would
immediately, as we woul d normally do, answer press calls with as many of the
facts as we then had them. There was no t hought given to t ry t o stonewall nor
to t ry sugarcoating this thing. It goes back to what I had said earlier. That this
is just the normal way that AT&T public relations and media relations oper-
ate. There was not that night any discussion particularly of how we ought to
respond t o the press. I don' t recall even talking to Marilyn Laurie. 23
T HE EFFECT OF C O MMU N I C A T I O N
C U L T U R E I N O T H E R CRI SES
J ohns on & J ohns on is a not he r or gani zat i on t hat r el i ed
al most ent i r el y o n its c or por a t e i de ol ogy ( out l i ned i n its we l l - known Cr e do) dur -
i ng t wo separ at e p r o d u c t t a mpe r i ng crises. Thi s or gani zat i onal s t at ement o f
beliefs was an i mp o r t a n t r eas on J ohns on & J ohns on handl ed t he crises as well as
i t di d- - - especi al l y si nce t he c o mp a n y di d n o t have a crisis pl an t o r el y on. Fi nk
s ugges t ed t hat a l t hough J ohns on & J ohns on di d not have a crisis ma n a g e me n t
pl an i n pl ace at t he t i me o f t he fi rst t a mpe r i ng i nci dent i n 1982, t he c ompa ny' s
cul t ur e mo r e t ha n ma de up f or t hi s defi ci ency:
There are many in the company, however, who feel that J&J had a crisis man-
agement plan of sorts all al ong- - and fbllowed i t - - but never knew it because
they don' t call it a crisis management plan. They are referring to the Johnson
& Johnson Credo, which carries a lot of weight with J & J managers. Written
more than 40 years ago by the late Robert Wood Johnson (son of the com-
pany founder), the Credo has changed slightly over the years, but its basic
message hasn' t. It says the company has four responsibilities, and, in order,
they are: (1) to the consumers, (2) to the employees, (3) to the communities
they serve, [and] (4) to the stockholders.
There are many in the company who say with sincere conviction that when
they were faced with stressful, crisis-induced decisions during the Tylenol cri-
sis, they looked t o the Credo for guidance and, specifically, to see i f the deci-
sion they were about t o make (such as whet her or not to withdraw the
Winter 1998 467
Public Relations Review
product) was in keeping wi t h the first line of the Credo: "We believe our first
responsibility is t o the doctors, nurses, and patients, t o mot hers and al l others
who use our products and services . . . . ,,24
Case s t udi es o f addi t i onal crises also c ont r a di c t t he bel i ef t ha t a crisis c om-
mu n i c a t i o n pl a n is r e qui r e d f or excel l ent crisis publ i c r el at i ons pract i ce. Wh e n 40
c us t ome r s i n a Mc Do n a l d ' s r es t aur ant we r e s hot by a g u n ma n i n 1984 ( 19 o f
t hese pe opl e we r e ki l l ed), t he mul t i na t i ona l c o mp a n y t u r n e d t o t he val ues o f its
s eni or ma na ge r s , n o t a crisis pl an. Ac c o r d i n g t o Ri c h a r d G. St a r ma nn, t he s eni or
vi ce pr e s i de nt o f c o mmu n i c a t i o n f or Mc Do n a l d ' s Co r p o r a t i o n , t he c o mp a n y
k n e w i t h a d t o " d o wha t ' s r i ght : "
While no special plan was in place, an underlying business phi l osophy charac-
terized McDonald' s response t o the crisis. I t was expressed by Don Horwitz,
t hen executive vice president and general counsel of the company, who the
day after t he incident t ol d a few o f us who were respondi ng t o more t han
1,000 media calls, ' I don' t want you people t o worry or care about the legal
impfications o f what you mi ght say. We are goi ng t o do what' s right for the
survivors and families o f t he victims and we'll worry about the lawsuits later.'
' We' re goi ng t o do what' s right' became t he ' Horwi t z Rule. '2s
" Do i n g wha t ' s r i ght " was al so t h e basis f or a si mi l ar l y t r agi c crisis f aced by
Luby' s Caf et er i as i n 1991. Ac c o r d i n g t o Ba r t on, "a depr es s ed, o u t - o f - wo r k Te xa n
d r o v e hi s pi c kup t r u c k t h r o u g h t h e f r o n t wal l o f a bus y Luby' s Caf et er i a i n
Ki i l een, Texas . . . I n a ma t e r o f mi n u t e s , h e s h o t a n d ki l l ed s o me t we n t y - f o u r
me n , wo me n , a n d chi l dr en. Scores o f ot he r s wer e wounded. "26 Ra l p h " Pe t e "
Er be n, t he c h i e f execut i ve ofl[icer o f Luby' s Cafet eri as, I nc. , chos e t o i gnor e t he
crisis pl a n hi s c o mp a n y h a d devel oped. H e mi d Ba r t on, " We act ual l y have a crisis
pl a n t h a t est abl i shes he a dqua r t e r s as o u r crisis cent er . I d i d n o t r ef er t o i t because
we all k n e w o u r r esponsi bi l i t i es. "27 Wi t h i n t wo h o u r s o f t h e s h o o t i n g , Er b e n h a d
ar r i ved at t he si t e o f t he s h o o t i n g a n d a r r a nge d f or a d o n a t i o n o f $ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o
st ar t a r el i ef f i r ed f or pe opl e af f ect ed by t h e crisis.
Whi l e t he pr es ence o f a s t r ong, pr oact i ve c o mmu n i c a t i o n c ul t ur e can over -
c o me t he l ack o f a crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n pl an, t he o p p o s i t e is al so t r ue. Several
case s t udi es pr ovi de exampl es o f h o w a n equal l y s t r o n g b u t cl os ed a n d def ensi ve
c o mmu n i c a t i o n cul t ur e can neut ral i Te a ny benef i t o f a crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n pl an.
NASA' s c o mp r e h e n s i v e crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n pl a n ma n d a t e d a r e s pons e
wi t h i n 20 mi n u t e s o f a crisis. Yet i t t o o k mo r e t h a n six h o u r s f or t h e agency t o
release i t s fi rst s t a t e me n t f ol l owi ng t h e e xpl os i on o f t h e Chal l enger. T h e c o mmu -
ni c a t i on cul t ur e wi t h i n NAS A d i d n ' t ma t c h t h e r e q u i r e me n t s o f i t s crisis pl an.
T h e c o mmu n i c a t i o n cul t ur e wi t h i n Exxon al so c o n t r a d i c t e d t h e c o mp r e h e n s i v e
( but woe f ul l y i nadequat e) crisis pl a n i n pl ace at P o r t Val dez, Al aska. La wr e nc e
Ra wl , t he c h a i r ma n o f Exxon, ma d e hi s fi rst c o mme n t s a b o u t t he Val dez oi l spi l l
six days aft er t he t anker b e g a n spi l l i ng oil. An d t h e crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n pl a n i n
pl ace at t he Uni ve r s i t y o f Ma r yl a nd fai l ed t o o v e r c o me t he s chool ' s def ensi ve,
l ow- ke y c o mmu n i c a t i o n cul t ur e f ol l owi ng t he c oc a i ne - i nduc e d d e a t h o f basket -
4 6 8 Vol . 24, No . 4
Crisis Communication Plans
ball pl ayer L e n Bias i n 1986. Th e crisis pl a n i n pl ace at t he s c hool i n c l u d e d releas-
i ng i n f o r ma t i o n as qui ckl y as possi bl e. Se ni or admi ni s t r at or s , howe ve r , r e ma i n e d
l ar gel y si l ent f or mo r e t h a n o n e mo n t h whi l e pol i t i ci ans, l awyers, a n d ot her s char-
act er i zed t he c a mp u s as a h a v e n f or d r u g us e a nd a uni ver s i t y- bas ed s por t s fran-
chi se t h a t unf ai r l y e xpl oi t e d s t udent - at hl et es .
C O M M U N I C A T I O N A U T O N O M Y
Co mmu n i c a t i o n a u t o n o my is a n o t h e r or ga ni z a t i ona l vari-
abl e t h a t appear s t o pr e di c t excel l ent crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n act i vi t i es bet t er t h a n
t he pr es ence or absence o f a crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n pl an. Co mmu n i c a t i o n a ut on-
o my is t h e a mo u n t o f p o we r a n d r es pons i bi l i t y an or ga ni z a t i on gi ves its publ i c
r el at i ons staff. Excel l ent publ i c r el at i ons r equi r es t he abi l i t y t o i mme d i a t e l y i mpl e-
me n t crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n t a c t i c s - - a n i mp o r t a n t di f f er ence t ha t goes b e y o n d
p r e p a r i n g a n d ha vi ng a crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n pl a n at ha nd. Wi t h o u t an a de qua t e
p o we r base, publ i c r el at i ons pr act i t i oner s can be p r e v e n t e d f r o m u s i n g c o mmu n i -
c a t i on t e c hni que s t h a t c o u l d r educe t he effect s o f an or gani zat i onal crisis.
Excel l ent crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n r equi r es t he abi l i t y t o pr ovi de i n f o r ma t i o n
t o an or ga ni z a t i on' s r el evant publ i cs a l mos t i mme di a t e l y. Or ga ni z a t i ons , t her e-
f or e, n e e d t o gi ve its publ i c r el at i ons s t af f t he necessar y a u t o n o my t o t al k wi t h
t hese audi ences. Or ga ni z a t i ons n e e d t o p r e v e n t del ays i n r el easi ng i n f o r ma t i o n
t ypi cal l y caus ed wh e n publ i c r el at i ons pr act i t i oner s have l i t t l e or n o a u t h o r i t y t o
release i n f o r ma t i o n t hemsel ves. Ca n a publ i c r el at i ons s t af f d o wh a t i t has t o do- - -
c o mmt mi c a t e - - o r mu s t e ve r yt hi ng be r evi ewed mul t i pl e t i me s bef or e i t r eaches
t he appr oval stage?
Th e i mp o r t a n c e o f deci s i on ma k i n g a u t o n o my d u r i n g crises is s u p p o r t e d
by r esear ch c o n d u c t e d by Ro b e r t s a n d La Por t e . Pfei ffer, r evi ewi ng Ro b e r t s a nd
La Por t e ' s research, sai d h i g h rel i abi l i t y or ga ni z a t i ons p e r f o r m wel l because o f
i nt ens e t r ai ni ng, o p e n c o mmu n i c a t i o n , fi erce l oyal t y a nd dedi cat i on, a n d t he abil-
i t y o f " c ogs " t o ma ke " bi g whe e l " deci si ons:
Most organizations consist of people in separate categories: big wheels, cogs,
and specialists like accountants or chemical engineers. But the hi gh reliability
version is a hybrid, a mix of these roles played by the same individuals under
different circumstances. The big wheels are there, but use their power rarely.
The chain of command is much in evidence, orders may be barked out , and
subordinates behave appropriately as spit-and-polish yes-men. But when ten-
sion is runni ng high, all work t oget her as specialists among specialists on an
equal foot i ng in a mor e collegial atmosphere.
The most striking and surprising role change occurs in the white heat of dan-
ger, when the entire system threatens t o collapse. Then cogs can become big
wheels. What e v e r t hei r st at us i n the f o r ma l hierarchy, they are t rai ned intensively
every day so t hat - - bas e d on t hei r experi ence- - t hey can t ake complete command,
redirect operations or bri ng t he m to a complete hal t (italics added).28
Winter 1998 469
Public Relations Review
Robert s and LaPorte' s research--al l owi ng tittle cogs t o become big
wheel s--i ndi cat es organizations benefit f r om allowing properl y t rai ned (public
relations) empl oyees to make on-t he-spot decisions duri ng crises. The presence or
absence of this characteristic, however, is not always predi ct ed by t he presence or
absence of a crisis commt mi cat i on plan. While many crisis communi cat i on plans
stress t he i mport ance of provi di ng i nformat i on t o relevant publics as quickly as
possible, most crisis plans i gnore t he political realities of power-based relation-
ships wi t hi n their organizations. Public relations practitioners wi t h l ow levels of
aut onomy will rarely be able t o apply policies in a crisis manual t o overcome a
lack of power wi t hi n their organization. Practitioners and depart ment s wi t h hi gh
levels of aut onomy, on t he ot her hand, will typically mai nt ai n t he power it occu-
pies under nor mal circumstances and be able t o provide i nformat i on quickly dur-
ing crises.
AT&T, for example, a company t hat di dn' t refer to its crisis plan duri ng its
1990 l ong distance net wor k crisis, has an unusually hi gh level of aut onomy
wi t hi n its public relations staff. Most people agree AT&T managed this crisis very
well, in part, because its mid-level public relations managers began provi di ng
i nformat i on wi t hi n 30 mi nut es of t he start of t he crisis. They were able t o pro-
vide i nformat i on this quickly because t hey were empower ed to do their job.
These public relations practitioners felt very comfort abl e releasing i nformat i on
wi t hout obt ai ni ng approval f r om senior managers, particularly attorneys. AT&T
Public Relations Vice President Bill Mullane, in fact, said he di dn' t consult wi t h a
company at t orney duri ng the entire crisis:
I did not see a lawyer from the time it started until after it was over, other
than to get a cup of coffke in the executive area that morning. The general
counsel said to me "Is everything under control?" I said [it is] as far as I' m
concerned. 29
MuUane (1993) said he had t he power and support of senior management
t o do his job:
As time for the late [11 pm] news approached, I urged the operating people
in attendance to support an announcement that service had been restored.
They were reluctant, but a long-time associate, Craig Gipple, a Network Ser-
vices vice president who had stayed around in the event he could help, assured
me that the repairs had been made. With that knowledge, I prodded others to
give me the green light, which they finally did. H a d they not agreed, I was pr e-
pared to make the decision on my own to release the i nf ormat i on t hat the ni ght mar e
had ended (italics added).30
Mullane also said t he hi gh level of aut onomy at AT&T is an unwri t t en, but
very clearly under st ood part of how t he company responds t o a crisis:
In the wake of the net work failure any number of people have asked me and
others at AT&T who was in the ' meet i ngs' that must have been held when
470 Vol. 24, No, 4
Crisis Communication Plans
AT&T decided to go public, hold a press conference, or make other initia-
tives. The answer quite simply, except for the decision on the compensation to
customers, was nobody. The decisions were generated within the public rela-
tions division and carried out as we normally carry out our duties. We have
that level of respect and authority in the company .... Knowledge ... is wasted
if people can't use it because of strict ' no comment' rules from higher manage-
ment. The major failing of public relations today is its failure to do what it is
paid to do---take those steps that are necessary to enhance and protect the rep-
utation of the company, product, and organization. 31
The public relations st aff at AT&T certainly di dn' t become the big wheels
and take compl et e c omma nd of its crisis, but its ability t o quickly release i nforma-
t i on wi t hout mul t i pl e and t i me- consumi ng approvals clearly cont ri but ed t o its
successful management of t he crisis.
Public relations managers at many organizations, unf or umat el y, do not have
t he aut onomy present at AT&T. A crisis at t he Uni versi t y of Maryl and in 1986 indi-
cat ed al t hough its crisis plan mandat ed releasing i nformat i on as quickly as possible,
its public relations st af f had a very l ow level of aut onomy. I n- dept h interviews wi t h
all of t he senior admi ni st rat ors of t he university agreed t he decision t o release infor-
mari on was oft en made by t he chanceUor, his vice chancellors, and t he university
attorneys.32 All of t he senior administrators agreed t hat t hr oughout most of t he cri-
sis, t he public relations st aff di d not have t he aut onomy or power t o release infor-
mat i on or make ot her relatively i mpor t ant decisions on t hei r own. The di rect or of
public i nf or mat i on was onl y allowed t o release i nformat i on t hat had been approved
by t he university' s president, his vice presidents, and t he school' s senior attorney.
A dean at t he Uni versi t y of Maryl and (and a f or mer newspaper managi ng editor)
said it typically t ook a t hr ee- hour cabinet meet i ng t o decide what i nformat i on t hey
woul d release on any gi ven day dur i ng t he crisis. 33
The campus legal office furt her reduced t he public relations staff's l ow
aut onomy. The di rect or of public i nformat i on said she "automatically woul d
show everyt hi ng t o legal t hat I di d in t he Bias t hi ng. . . even i f it has not hi ng t o do
wi t h any legality. ''34
The decision t o delegate much of t he responsibility for commt mi cat i on t o a
mid-level technician wi t h tittle aut onomy was a significant gaffe by Uni versi t y of
Maryl and administrators. The Washington Post covered t he crisis for 42 consecutive
days, wi t h 18 stories on page one and 42 stories on t he front page of an inside sec-
t i on of t he newspaper. The absence of aut onomy for t he university' s public relations
practitioners cont ri but ed, in part, t o t he overwhel mi ngl y (84%) negative stories in
the Washington P0st--stories t hat coul d likely have been balanced i f public relations
staff at t he university been able t o communi cat e mor e quickly.
CONCL US I ONS
The model of crisis public relations indicates crisis com-
muni cat i on plans simply aren' t as valuable as many practitioners believe. A review
Winter 1998 471
Public Relations Review
o f t he l i t er at ur e i ndi cat es t o o ma n y ma na ge r s t r eat crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n pl ans as
a s i mpl e a n d s i ngul ar s ol ut i on t o a crisis. Th e mo d e l i ndi cat es equal l y i mp o r t a n t
or gani zat i onal v a r i a b l e s - - c o mmu n i c a t i o n cul t ur e a nd a u t o n o my - - a r e mu c h bet -
t er pr edi ct or s o f h o w wel l an or ga ni z a t i on ma na ge s a crisis.
S t r a t e g y - - d e t e r mi n e d by an or gani zat i on' s d o mi n a n t c o a l i t i o n - - d e t e r -
mi ne s wh i c h c o mmu n i c a t i o n t e c hni que s are us e d d u r i n g a crisis. Go o d st r at egy,
wi l l , i n mo s t cases, l ead t o successful crisis ma n a g e me n t . P o o r st r at egy, i n t ur n,
wi l l wo r s e n a crisis. Excel l ent crisis publ i c r el at i ons skills, howe ve r , c a n n o t save
ba d ma n a g e me n t , p o o r pol i ci es, a nd we a k st r at egy. Thi s paral l el s J. Gr t mi g' s dif-
f er ent i at i on " b e t we e n pr act i t i oner s wh o us e onl y super f i ci al s ymbol i c act i vi t i es - -
t he que s t f or posi t i ve i ma g e s - - a n d t hos e wh o bui l d s ubs t ant i ve behavi or al rela-
t i ons hi ps b e t we e n or gani zat i ons a n d publ i cs. "35
Mu c h o f t he l i t er at ur e i n crisis publ i c r el at i ons f ocuses o n t echni cal s ki l l s - -
i mages a n d symbol s. Thi s l i t er at ur e rarel y f ocuses o n t he i mp o r t a n c e o f t he ma n-
ageri al r ol e i n crises a n d t he i nf l uence o f or gani zat i onal charact eri st i cs s uch as cul-
t ur e a n d a u t o n o my . I ns t ead, t he l i t er at ur e pr es ent s ver y det ai l ed analysis o f
t echni cal el ement s s uch as crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n pl ans, me d i a r el at i ons t act i cs,
a n d crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n cent ers.
The s e t echni cal skills ma k e an i mp o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o wa r d pr act i ci ng
excel l ent crisis publ i c rel at i ons. But t hese skills are n o t as i mp o r t a n t as t he st rat -
egy t ha t gui de s t h e m. Publ i c r el at i ons pr act i t i oner s t he r e f or e n e e d t o shi f t t hei r
emphas i s f r o m crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n s pl ans t o crisis ma n a g e me n t st r at egi es t ha t
cons i der or gani zat i onal charact eri st i cs s uch as cul t ur e a nd a u t o n o my . Que s t i ons
n o t likely t o be c ons i de r e d i n a crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n pl an, f or exampl e, i ncl ude:
Is t he s eni or publ i c r el at i ons pr a c t i t i one r a val ued me mb e r o f t he
d o mi n a n t coal i t i on? Is he or she a manager ? Is he or she a leader?
Do t he y r e por t di r ect l y t o t he c hi e f execut i ve?
Doe s t he s eni or publ i c r el at i ons pr a c t i t i one r have t he a u t h o r i t y
a nd r esour ces t o mo v e qui ckl y a nd act deci si vel y t o i ns t i t ut e c om-
mu n i c a t i o n st r at egi es a nd tactics?
Wi l l t he s eni or publ i c r el at i ons pr act i t i oner be abl e t o set t he c om-
mu n i c a t i o n s t r at egy f or t he or ga ni z a t i on d u r i n g a crisis? Wh a t
pe opl e or d e p a r t me n t s have t he mo s t p o we r i n t he or gani zat i on?
Doe s t he s eni or publ i c r el at i ons pr a c t i t i one r val ue a nd us e t wo-
wa y c o mmu n i c a t i o n ?
Is t he l egal d e p a r t me n t an ally, par t ner , or adversary?
Do t he st r at egi es i n t he crisis c o mmu n i c a t i o n pl a n ma t c h t he day-
t o- da y c o mmu n i c a t i o n st r at egi es o f t he or gani zat i on?
Ar e de ve l opi ng a nd ma i n t a i n i n g r el at i ons hi ps wi t h r el evant pub-
lics an i mp o r t a n t pa r t o f t he or gani zat i on' s cul t ur e?
472 Vol. 24, No. 4
Crisis Communication Plans
Wh a t cor e val ues ( s uch as service, safety, or sales), does t he or ga-
ni z a t i on h o l d t h a t wi l l i nf l uence deci s i ons d u r i n g a crisis? Wi l l t he
cor e val ues be he l d cl ose a n d u s e d t o g u i d e t he deci s i on process?
Th e l i t er at ur e i n crisis publ i c r el at i ons i gnor es t hese ( a nd ot he r ) que s t i ons
r el evant t o ma n a g i n g crises. Ma n y exampl es i l l ust rat e t he f ocus o n c o mmu n i c a -
t i o n skills at t he expens e o f publ i c r el at i ons ma n a g e me n t . Or ga ni z a t i ons t ha t have
ma n a g e d crises wel l , s uc h as A T &T a n d J o h n s o n & J o h n s o n , d i d so, i n par t ,
because t he s eni or publ i c r el at i ons pr a c t i t i one r was i ns i de t he b o a r d r o o m h e l p i n g
t o set st r at egy, n o t out s i de t he b o a r d r o o m wa i t i n g t o be t o l d wh a t t o do. I n t hese
cases, publ i c r el at i ons is a ver y i mp o r t a n t a n d va l ue d pa r t o f t he c o mp a n y ' s cul-
t ur e a n d t he s eni or publ i c r el at i ons pr a c t i t i one r is a t r us t e d advi ser t o t he CEO.
Thi s cont r as t s t o p o o r l y - ma n a g e d crises, s uch as Exxon, Thr e e Mi l e I sl and, t he
p r o d u c t t a mp e r i n g crisis f aced by Ger ber , t he ri nk o f t oxi c s hoc k s y n d r o me t o
Pr oc t e r a n d Ga mbl e ' s Re l y b r a n d t a mp o n , a n d F o r d Mo t o r Co mp a n y ' s Pi n t o
a u t o mo b i l e crisis. I n all o f t hes e crises, a l t h o u g h each c o mp a n y ' s publ i c r el at i ons
st af f h a d g o o d t echni cal skills, t hese skills c o u l d n o t o v e r c o me p o o r c o mmu n i c a -
t i ons s t r at egy d e t e r mi n e d by n o n - p u b l i c r el at i ons execut i ves.
Th e f ocus o f t he c u r r e n t mi n d s e t o f crisis publ i c r el at i ons pr a c t i c e - - pr e pa r -
i ng excel l ent c o mmu n i c a t i o n p l a n s - - h a d l i t t l e effect o n t he o u t c o me o f t hese cri-
ses. Thi s s ugges t s a c ha nge i n mi n d s e t f r o m t e c hni que s t o l arger, ma na ge r i a l a nd
or ga ni z a t i ona l issues is a pr er equi s i t e f or excel l ent crisis publ i c r el at i ons pract i ce.
NOTES
1. Alan Bernstein, The Emergency Public Relations Manual (Hi ghl and Park, NJ: PACE,
1986); Laurence Barton, Crisis in Organizations: Managing and Communicating in
the Heat of Chaos (Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 1993); and
Kathleen Fearn-Banks, Crisis Communications: A Casebook Approach (Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc, 1996).
2. Stephen E. Ambrose, Undaunted Courage (NY: Touchst one, 1996), p. 81.
3. James C. Collins and Jerry I. Porras, Built to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary Com-
panies (New York: HarperBusiness, 1997), p. 148.
4. Khoo Kheng-Hor, Surviving in Times of Crisis (Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia:
Pelanduk Publications, 1998), p. 148.
5. Francis J. Marra and Rick Lyke, "New Mi ndset Required for Excellent Crisis Public
Relations," paper presented t o the Public Relations Society of America, Nashville,
November 1997.
6. David M. Dozier, Larissa Grunig, and James E. Grunig, Manager's Guide to Excel-
lence in Public Relations and Communication Management (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 1995), p. 117.
7. James E. Gruni g (ed.), Excellence in Public Relations and Communications Manage-
ment (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992), p. 465.
8. Francis J. Marra, "Crisis Public Relations: A Theoretical Model, " unpublished doc-
toral dissertation, The University of Maryland, College Park, 1992.
9. James E. Grunig, op. cit.
Winter 1998 473
Public Relations Review
10. Francis J. Marra, op. cir.
11. Ian I. Mitroff and Ralph H. Kilmann, Corporate Tragedies: Product Tampering, Sabo-
tage, and Other Catastrophes (New York: Praeger, 1984), p. 65.
12. Ibid., p. 69.
13. K. Sriramesh and James E. Grunig, "Culture, Communication and Public Rela-
tions," paper presented to the Educator Academy of the International Association of
Business Communicators, Anaheim, June 1988.
14. Jeffrey D. Ford, "The Management of Organizational Crises," Business Horizons 24
(May/June, 1981), pp. 10-16; Elizabeth Gatewood and Archie B. Carroll, "The
Anatomy of Corporate Social Response: The Rely, Firestone 500, and Pinto Cases,"
Business Horizons 24 (September/October, 1981), pp. 9-16; Ian I. Mitroff and
Ralph H. Kilmann, op. cir.; Thierry C. Pauchant, "Crisis Management and Narcis-
sism: A Kohutian Perspective," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Graduate School
of Business Administration, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1988;
Thierry C. Pauchant and Ian I. Mitro~]~; "Is Your Compan)~s Culture Its Own Worst
Enemy in Creating Crises," Industrial Crisis Quarterly 2 (1988), pp. 53-63; Karlene
Roberts and Todd R. LaPorte, "High Reliability Organizations: The Berkeley
Project," paper presented to the Second Conference on Industrial and Organiza-
tional Crisis Management, New York, November 1989.
15. K. Sriramesh and James E. Grunig, op. tit.
16. Thierry C. Pauchant and Ian I. Mitrof~; op. cir.
17. Francis j'. Marra, op. cit.
18. Personal interview, November 20, 1990.
19. Francis J. Marra, op. cir.
20. Personal interview, August 30, 1990.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. Stephen Fink, Crisis Management: Planning for the Inevitable (New York: AMA-
COM, 1986), p. 217.
25. Richard G. Starmann, "Tragedy at McDonald's," in Jack Gottschalk (ed.), Crisis
Response: Inside Stories On Managing Image Under Siege (Detroit: Visible Ink Press,
1993), p. 309.
26. Laurence Barton, 1993, op. cir., p. 99.
27. Ibid., p. 101.
28. John Pf~iffer, "The Secret of Lit~ at the Limits: Cogs Become Big Wheels," Smithso-
nian 40 (July, 1989), p. 40.
29. Personal interview, August 30, 1990.
30. William P. Mullane, "The AT&T Network Breakdown," in Jack Gottschalk (ed.),
Crisis Response: Inside Stories On Managing Image Under Siege (Detroit: Visible Ink
Press, 1993), p. 21.
31. Ibid., pp. 24, 30.
32. Francis J. Marra, "Crisis in College Park: The Len Bias crisis at the University of
Maryland," in Laurence Barton (ed.), Ethics: The Enemy in the Workplace (Cincin-
nati: South-Western Publishing, 1995), pp. 176-183.
33. Ibid.
34. Personal interview, September 18, 1990.
35. James E. Grunig, "Image and Substance: From Symbolic to Behavioral Relation-
ships," Public Relations Review 19 (1993), p. 121.
474 Vol. 24, No. 4