2 Whats the deal with egg consumption and cardiovascular disease? By Alan Aragon
7 Moderate protein intake improves total and regional body composition and insulin sensitivity in overweight adults.
Arciero PJ , et al. Metabolism. 2008 J un;57(6):757-65. [Medline]
8 Effects of dietary protein content on IGF-I, testosterone, and body composition during eight days severe energy deficit and arduous physical activity. Alemany J A, et al. J Appl Physiol. 2008 May 1. [Epub ahead of print] [Medline]
9 Effect of Preexercise Meals With Different Glycemic Indices and Loads on Metabolic Responses and Endurance Running.
Chen YJ, et al. IJ SNEM. 2008:(18):281-300. [IJ SNEM]
10 High rates of muscle glycogen resynthesis after exhaustive exercise when carbohydrate is co- ingested with caffeine.
Pedersen DJ, et al. J Appl Physiol. 2008 May 8. [Epub ahead of print] [Medline]
11 Effects of resistance vs. aerobic training combined with an 800 calorie liquid diet on lean body mass and resting metabolic rate. Bryner RW, et al. J Am Coll Nutr. 1999 Apr;18(2):115-21. [Medline]
12 The wisdom of pro bodybuilder Lane Norton. Interviewed by Alan Aragon
14 The wisdom of pro figure competitor Pauline Nordin. Interviewed by Alan Aragon
Whats the deal with egg consumption and cardiovascular disease? By Alan Aragon
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n this article I find it humorous that whole eggs are a controversial food. Ironically, a food that (quite literally) embodies the essence of life has been portrayed by many as a stealthy dealer of death. This article will first take a look at the structure and function. Then well examine the research behind the dichotomous reputation of the humble egg, and attempt to draw some conclusions about whats bull and whats genuinely concerning. Before we dive in, lets get to know the egg a little better by starting with its chemical composition.
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hats in an egg? As much as I would love to fantasize about eating ostrich egg omelettes, our discussion will be limited to chicken eggs. Heres some of the relevant nutritional information:
Eggs are approximately 9.5% shell, 63% albumen (egg white), and 27.5% yolk. Their predominant component is water (75%), with proteins and fats evenly splitting the remainder. A little- known fact is that eggs actually contain carbohydrate, but only as a minor component, existing in free and conjugated forms, attached to the fats and proteins. The majority of the proteins are found in the yolk and the white, with a small proportion in the shell and shell membrane. Fats (mainly in the form of lipoproteins) are virtually all in the yolk. Most of the minerals in eggs are in the shell. Diverse Biological Functions
Aside from their well-known high protein quality, eggs have a surprisingly wide range of beneficial biological effects. Both the white and the yolk have anti-microbial, anti-adhesive (thus anti- infective), protease-inhibitory (thus anti-cancer), anti- inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. 1 Including egg yolk phospholipids in infant formula increases its semblance to mothers milk, and has been seen to decrease the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis (an intestinal disease). 2 Egg yolks contain phosphatidyl choline, which plays a key role in brain development and memory retention. To top things off, yolks are a significant source of the carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin. As little as one egg per day has been seen to increase plasma and macular levels of these antioxidant nutrients. 3,4 The significance that increased blood levels of lutein and zeaxanthin are associated with a lower risk of age-related macular degeneration. 4 According to a review by Krinsky et al, lutein and zeaxanthin in the macula of the eye absorb blue-light, and thus protect the photoreceptor layer from light damage. 5 With a multitude of benefits to human health, it would seem pretty easy to position eggs as a stereotypical superfood. But due to the focus on a singular aspect of its composition (cholesterol content), a storm of debate has raged on for much of the last half-century. 1 Large Egg (50 g): Selected Nutrient Content Source: Hhttp://www.nutritiondata.com/facts-C00001-01c201t.html
Nutrient Amount % Daily Value
Kcal....................................... 77.5 4% P
rotein................................... 6.3 g 13% Total carbohydrate.................... 0.6 g -- Sugar.......................... 0.6 g -- Starch......................... 0.0 g -- Fiber....................
....... 0.0 g -- Total fat................................. 5.3 g 8% Saturated............................ 1.6 g 8% 16:0 (palmitic acid)........ 1174 mg -- 18:0 (stearic acid).......... 414 mg -- Other saturates.............. [trace] Monounsaturated................... 2.0 g -- 18:1 (oleic acid)............. 1862 mg -- 16:1 (palmitoleic acid)..... 155 mg -- Other monounsaturates.... [trace] Polyunsaturated.................... 0.7 g -- Omega-3 fatty acids....... 39 mg** -- Omega-6 fatty acids....... 594 mg -- Other fatty acids............ 67 mg Trans fatty acids................... [unlisted, but not likely a significant source]
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holesterol.............................. 212 mg 71% Lutein + Zeaxanthin.................. 176 mcg --
--No value established * 3 *Omega- fortified eggs contain about 6-10 times as much as regular eggs
Cholesterol at the heart of controversy
Cholesterol is a component of all animal (including human) cell membranes, a critical requirement of infant growth, and a precursor to a range of hormones in the body. However, it has been targeted as an enemy of cardiovascular health by much of the medical mainstream. In one of their recently updated online articles, the American Heart Association (AHA) recommends that cholesterol intake should be limited to less than 300 mg per day for most people. 6 Those with coronary heart disease or an LDL level of 100 mg/dl or more should consume less than 200 mg of cholesterol per day. Taking a look at the chart on the left, cholesterol per egg is 212 mg. Thats about two-thirds of the recommended intake down the hatch for normal individuals, and it completely takes care of the daily limit (and then some) for those with CHD or high LDL readings. I eat three whole eggs almost every day of the week, so as far as AHA limits are concerned, Im blowing past them like Stevie Wonder through a stop sign. Yet, my blood lipids are all within normal ranges. This is a personal example, and individual case studies hold very little weight since they involve many uncontrolled variables. So, lets ease into the literature for an objective look, beginning with the roots of the issue.
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rigins of indictment As stubborn as large-scale health organizations are, theres generally some degree of evolution in their recommendations. Take for example, the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Theyve gone from having four food groups and relative simplicity from 1950s-1970s, to a six-group Pyramid which mainly succeeded in confusing the public from 1992-2000. This was followed up by the current Pyramid an even more abstract/symbolic rendering that requires either online access or extensive literature for the lay public to vaguely understand; let alone implement. In contrast, the AHA has maintained a rigid stance despite substantial contrary evidence. A 1961 AHA report published in the journal Circulation recommended a reduced intake of total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol, and an increased proportion of polyunsaturated fat. 7 This particular set of recommendations support whats now known as the diet-heart hypothesis, which essentially states that dietary cholesterol increases serum cholesterol, and elevated serum cholesterol increases the risk for heart disease. Thus, it follows that consuming whole eggs would directly violate these tenets. However, based on accumulating research data, the AHAs tenacious grip on the diet-heart hypothesis now resembles a childish refusal to admit error. The kicker of it all is that the only controlled intervention trials supporting the guidelines in the original 1961 AHA report were on rabbits fed diets way out of their natural pattern. Lets look at humans, shall we?
Epidemiological soup
Epidemiology is observational (also called exploratory) research that attempts to identify disease risk factors by using correlational methods. Whereas experimental (controlled intervention) research may not always reflect the big picture or the real world, epidemiological research can be confounded by uncontrolled yet critical details. Unlike experimental research, epidemiology can only establish potential associations between variables, not causal relationships. Keeping those limitations in mind, the plus-side of epidemiology is that it gives us hints and hypotheses that can eventually be put to controlled trials.
Let it be known that the epidemiological data as a whole is an ongoing convoluted mess. However, the majority of it does not support the idea that increased egg or cholesterol consumption increases the risk for cardiovascular disease. 8-12 In an interesting example, Okayama et al examined J apans dietary habits from 1980-1989 and found a decline in mortality from coronary heart disease while the prevalence of hypercholesterolemia in both men and women increased nearly 100%. 13 Weird stuff, this uncontrolled research. In another example of an inverse relationship, Dawber et al found that in a population of 12,847 men with total cholesterol levels <200 mg/dL consumed more
eggs as a percent of calories than did participants with cholesterol
levels 220mg/dL. Hu et al conducted one of the largest studies of its kind (over 100,000 subjects), and found that coronary heart disease risk was not associated with higher egg consumption, with the exception of diabetic subjects. 14 A more recent comparably-sized study of the J apanese population found no association between higher egg consumption and increased coronary heart disease incidence. 15 A more recent trial by than the latter echoed the results of Hu et al. Qureshi et al found that one egg per day did not increase the risk for cardiovascular diseases and mortality, except in diabetics. 16
AlanAragonsResearchReviewJune,2008[BacktoContents] Page3 In the most recent set of reports to date, the Physicians Health Study found that egg consumption of one or more per day was associated with the risk of heart failure. 17 In addition, egg consumption was positively correlated with mortality, especially in diabetic subjects. 18 Its noteworthy that this particular trial examined the health of physicians, who at least from an anecdotal standpoint are no better off than the lay public. In fact, many of them lead less balanced lives in terms of health and fitness behaviors compared to the average Joe whose career demands and general barometer of life stress may be considerably less. Okay, lets forget about anecdote for a second. This study has a few important limitations to bear in mind. First of all, its epidemiology, in all of its uncontrolled, self-reported, survey-based glory. There was a clear lack of complete, detailed dietary information,
such as intake of saturated and trans fats,
fruit and vegetables, whole grains and other fiber-containing foods, and fish/fish oil. Secondly, egg intake as assessed every 2 years for a 10 year period. A time-dependent Cox model was used to determine event history. Cox regression does not require researchers to specify a baseline hazard rate or estimate absolute risk. As such, since egg intake at 2 years wassimilar to baseline, these values were substituted for
baseline data in the 113 participants with missing baseline data. To quote an editorial by Eckel regarding this particular trial, 19
One would assume that the overall lifestyle of subjects with
higher egg consumption would have predicted more CVD. That is,
the physicians with higher egg intake were older, smoked more
cigarettes, were less physically active, ate breakfast cereal
less often, and had a higher prevalence of hypertension and
diabetes than did those with lower egg intake.
As illustrated by the above point, large-scale observational studies are much like an attempt to find diamonds in the snow when it comes to hinting toward causality. There are far too many variables that might confound the data. So, this brings us to the next and last leg of the trip, the controlled experiments. Although by nature, lab-supervised controlled interventions dont necessarily reflect free-living conditions, they can at least suppress the frustrating floating variables. Lets take a look.
Controlled interventions: revenge of the yolk
For those unfamiliar with the jargon, HDL-C is often tagged as good cholesterol. In a very recent trial by Mutungi et al on overweight men on a carbohydrate-restricted diet (10-15% of total kcal), 3 eggs per day raised HDL-C without raising LDL- C. 20 Notably, this was despite an additional daily dose of 640 mg cholesterol for 12-weeks. Both groups reduced bodyweight, waist circumference, and triacylglycerol levels. Since there was no HDL-C increase in the control group, the egg group actually proved to receive the more cardioprotective treatment. In other carb-restriction research, Ratliff et al found 3 eggs per day to reduce markers of inflammation after 12 weeks compared to an eggless carb-restricted diet. 21 In fact, the authors directly credit the higher cholesterol content of the diet as a key contributor to the overall beneficial effect since it led to increased HDL-C. They also suspect that the lutein content of the egg group also played a key role in the favorable outcomes.
Speaking of antioxidant carotenoids in the yolk, Goodrow et al demonstrated that one egg per day for 5 weeks can significantly increase serum lutein and zeaxanthin levels without elevating total cholesterol or LDL-C concentrations. 22 In yet another example, Greene et al found that 2 eggs per day raised LDL-C, but also raised HDL-C to a degree that did not alter the ratio of the two types thus neutralizing any potential atherogenic
concerns. 23 This brings us to our next area of controlled research: dietary cholesterol response variability.
Response classification
Blood cholesterol levels are the result of feedback control between dietary intake and endogenous production within the liver. In other words, the more cholesterol you consume through dietary sources, the less cholesterol your liver produces. Conversely, the less you consume, the more you biosynthesize. However, this feedback mechanism is not 100% efficient. Although the effects of elevated blood cholesterol on heart disease are unclear, meta-analyses of controlled trials indicate that dietary cholesterol indeed causes a small yet measurable increase in blood cholesterol. 24,25 According to the cumulative data in these reports, a plasma total cholesterol increase of 0.05 0.06 mmol/L (22.2 mg/dL) can bepredicted for every 100 mg increase in dietary cholesterol. Response to dietary cholesterol varies among individuals, and those whose plasma cholesterol increases exceed 2.2 mg/dL per every 100 mg increase in dietary cholesterol are generally considered hyperresponders. Those whose plasma increases are under that threshold are considered hyporesponders.
This variability of response has prompted researchers to investigate its clinical relevance, and some interesting results have surfaced. In perhaps the first study to examine metabolic responses to feedings in the two types of responders, Herron et al found that the 3 egg/day experimental groups LDL:HDL ratio increased slightly in hyperresponders but not hyporesponders. 26
Despite the increase, levels were still within National Cholesterol Education Program guidelines. Whats pivotal is that the hyperresponders had increased levels of lecithin cholesterol acyltransferase and cholesteryl ester transfer protein activities during the egg treatment. This indicates that hyperresponders metabolize excess plasma cholesterol via an acceleration of the reverse cholesterol transport pathway. The authors thus concluded that additional dietary cholesterol does not adversely impact lipid profiles in healthy men, regardless of response classification. A subsequent study also led by Herron yielded similar outcomes to the previous trial, but also demonstrated that LDL peak diameter was not decreased, and the larger (less atherogenic) LDL-1 subclass was greater in hyperresponders. 27
The investigators concluded that a high-cholesterol diet from the equivalent of 3 eggs per day does not increase the atherogenicity of the LDL particle, regardless of response category. Put in more plain English, consumption of 3 eggs per day does not appear to promote indicators of heart disease.
In related research, Clark et al found a potential hidden blessing in hyperresponders regarding carotenoid response. 28 Plasma concentrations of lutein and beta-carotene were significantly greater in hyperresponders than in hyporesponders as a result of the same chronic 3-egg protocol in previous trials. Another veiled benefit mentioned in a review by Hernandez is the ability of increased egg intake in addition to promoting the formation of large LDL, is the shifting of the LDL pattern B to the less atherogenic pattern A. 29
Omega-3 eggs: an expensive attempt to improve nature? Theres been a growing interest in the benefits of omega-3 (commonly denoted as n-3) fatty acid intake, which has received a lot of positive hype and press in the literature for a myriad of health benefits ranging from cardiovascular protection, fat loss (note that this is highly debatable), anti-depression, and even bone health. 30-33 So, a logical direction in food technology was the enrichment (technically, in the case of eggs its fortification) of eggs with omega-3s. In an interesting yet unreplicated example by Ferrier et al, 34 normolipidemic subjects who consumed four n-3 eggs per day experienced a significant increase in n-3 status of blood platelet phospholipids (a good thing), yet no significant changes in overall blood cholesterol and its subtypes. In agreement with these findings, a review by Lewis et al states, 35 Overall results of studies to date demonstrate positive effects and no negative effects from consumption of n-3-enriched eggs.
So how can n-3 fortification of eggs at all be a bad thing? Its known that n-3 eggs can lower triacylglycerol levels and boost the n-3 status of the body, these effects are obviously beneficial. However, my (perhaps nit-picky) concern is the idea of increasing the proportion of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in a food thats typically cooked under high heat, especially if yolks are broken and scrambled. The problem with this is the greater potential of the long-chain PUFAs to form genotoxic oxidation products that can adversely alter cell DNA. 36 Its fairly well known that cooking with polyunsaturated fats is generally a bad idea compared to cooking with more heat- stable fats such as saturates and monounsaturates. The actual degree to which adverse effects can occur via normal cooking practices of n-3 eggs compared to regular eggs is unknown, and its not likely something to lose sleep over if only a small amount of eggs is consumed. However, it makes more sense to me to stick with the more economical regular eggs, and get the bulk of the n-3s elsewhere in the diet, or through supplementation. This is yet another reason to avoid the line of thinking that more n-3 is better, and that eggs need some sort of compensatory crutch for their cholesterol content which hasnt been proven harmful in the first place.
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ummary points Eggs are a high-quality source of protein, fat, and various micronutrients. Egg yolks possess a surprisingly diverse range of protective biological functions, including the potential to prevent vision degeneration. The AHAs guidelines restrictive guidelines on cholesterol consumption are amazingly enough not rooted in a complete data set that includes controlled human experiments, and thus should be viewed with considerable caution. Because of their cholesterol content, eggs yolks have historically, yet mistakenly been pegged as a food to either minimize or avoid altogether. Epidemiological evidence is mixed, but the majority of it does not support the hypothesis that increased egg or cholesterol consumption increases the risk for cardiovascular disease. Some of it even correlates a higher risk of heart disease with lower cholesterol consumption. Recent research has credited the cholesterol content of the egg as being inherently beneficial since it allows the production of HDL-C. Whole egg consumption can raise total cholesterol, but it does not negatively alter the ratio of HDL-C to LDL-C. Furthermore, it does not increase the LDL-C subtypes considered to be atherogenic (artery-clogging). The majority of controlled trials on the whole egg consumption find either neutral or beneficial changes in blood lipid profiles. Recent research found eggs to reduce markers of inflammation under hypocaloric conditions, thus proving to actually have cardioprotective properties. Although increases in dietary cholesterol can produce small increases in blood cholesterol, the link between increased blood cholesterol and cardiovascular risk is far from clearly established. Its an outdated hypothesis that does not have a consistent base of evidence. Hyperresponders (those whose blood cholesterol increases to a greater degree as a result of increases in dietary cholesterol) show blood elevations of enzymes that deal with elevated cholesterol through non-atherogenic means. Fortifying eggs with n-3 fatty acids has been demonstrated to increase n-3 levels in tissues, and lower plasma triacylglycerol. However remote or insignificant it might be, increasing the proportion of long-chain PUFA in designer eggs has the potential drawback of a greater formation of harmful oxidation products from cooking.
1. Kovacs-Nolan J , et al. Advances in the value of eggs and egg components for human health. J Agric Food Chem. 2005 Nov 2;53(22):8421-31. [Medline] 2. Carlson SE, et al. Lower incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis in infants fed a preterm formula with egg phospholipids. Pediatr Res. 1998 Oct;44(4):491-8. [Medline] 3. Goodrow EF, et al. Consumption of one egg per day increases serum lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations in older adults without altering serum lipid and lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations. J Nutr. 2006 Oct;136(10):2519- 24. [Medline] 4. Wenzel AJ , et al. A 12-wk egg intervention increases serum zeaxanthin and macular pigment optical density in women. J Nutr. 2006 Oct;136(10):2568-73. [Medline] 5. Krinsky NI, et al. Biologic mechanisms of the protective role of lutein and zeaxanthin in the eye. Annu Rev Nutr. 2003;23:171-201. [Medline] 6. American Heart Association (online). Know your fats. April 2008. [AHA] 7. Page IH, et al. Dietary Fat and Its Relation to Heart Attacks and Strokes. Circulation. 1961;23:133-136. [Circulation] 8. Kritchevsky SB. A review of scientific research and recommendations regarding eggs. J Am Coll Nutr. 2004 Dec;23(6 Suppl):596S-600S. [Medline] 9. Kritchevsky SB, Kritchevsky D. Egg consumption and coronary heart disease: an epidemiologic overview. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000 Oct;19(5 Suppl):549S-555S. [Medline] 10. McNamara DJ. The impact of egg limitations on coronary heart disease risk: do the numbers add up? J Am Coll Nutr. 2000 Oct;19(5 Suppl):540S-548S. [Medline]
APPLICATION Since neither the bulk of the epidemiological nor the experimental research supports the hypothesis that whole eggs are cardiovascular threats, they may be eaten freely within the confines of the diets macronutrient targets. For example, while eating a dozen eggs in one sitting is not an inherently bad thing to do, it might fulfill your entire fat allotment for the day, and any more fat on top of that will contribute to an excessive caloric surplus. As long as they fit in the daily macronutrient target, actual amount of eggs consumed should be left to individual preference keeping in mind that the average-size whole egg contains roughly 6 grams of protein and 5 grams of fat. Since fat consumption occurs from several different sources per day, it simply wouldnt be practical in most cases to exceed an upper range of 4-6 eggs per day unless caloric demands are xceptionally high. e
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word about research funding source The majority of egg research is funded by the egg industry. As such, its no surprise that eggs can come off as some sort of a superfood, which is not the case. Theyre simply a viable, non-threatening option for those seeking a high- quality balanced source of protein and fat. Regardless of potential sponsorship bias, eggs and cholesterol intake have received a bad rap despite numerous controlled experiments that are yet to be refuted by non-industry sources. 11. McNamara DJ . Dietary cholesterol and atherosclerosis. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2000 Dec 15;1529(1-3):310-20. [Medline] 12. Kratz M. Dietary cholesterol, atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Handb Exp Pharmacol. 2005;(170):195-213. [Medline] 13. Okayama A, et al. Changes in total serum cholesterol and other risk factors for cardiovascular disease in J apan 1980- 1989. Int J Epidemiol. 1993 Dec;22(6):1038-47. [Medline] 14. Hu FB, et al. A prospective study of egg consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease in men and women. J AMA. 1999 Apr 21;281(15):1387-94. [Medline] 15. Nakamura Y, et al. Egg consumption, serum total cholesterol concentrations and coronary heart disease incidence: J apan Public Health Center-based prospective study. Br J Nutr. 2006 Nov;96(5):921-8. [Medline] 16. Qureshi AI, et al. Regular egg consumption does not increase the risk of stroke and cardiovascular diseases. Med Sci Monit. 2007 J an;13(1):CR1-8. [Medline] 17. Djouss L, Gaziano J M. Egg consumption and risk of heart failure in the Physicians' Health Study. Circulation. 2008 J an 29;117(4):512-6. [Medline] 18. Djouss L, Gaziano J M. Egg consumption in relation to cardiovascular disease and mortality: the Physicians' Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 Apr;87(4):964-9. [Medline] 19. Eckel RH. Egg consumption in relation to cardiovascular disease and mortality: the story gets more complex. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 Apr;87(4):799-800. [Medline] AlanAragonsResearchReviewJune,2008[BacktoContents] Page6
20. Mutungi G, et al. Dietary cholesterol from eggs increases plasma HDL cholesterol in overweight men consuming a carbohydrate-restricted diet. J Nutr. 2008 Feb;138(2):272-6. [Medline] 21. Ratliff J C, et al. Eggs modulate the inflammatory response to carbohydrate restricted diets in overweight men. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2008 Feb 20;5:6. [Medline] 22. Goodrow EF, et al. Consumption of one egg per day increases serum lutein and zeaxanthin concentrations in older adults without altering serum lipid and lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations. J Nutr. 2006 Oct;136(10):2519- 24. [Medline] 23. Greene CM, et al. Maintenance of the LDL cholesterol:HDL cholesterol ratio in an elderly population given a dietary cholesterol challenge. J Nutr. 2005 Dec;135(12):2793-8. [Medline] 24. Clarke R, et al. Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies. BMJ . 1997 J an 11;314(7074):112-7. [Medline] 25. Howell WH, et al. Plasma lipid and lipoprotein responses to dietary fat and cholesterol: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997 Jun;65(6):1747-64. [Medline] 26. Herron KL, et al. Men classified as hypo- or hyperresponders to dietary cholesterol feeding exhibit differences in lipoprotein metabolism. J Nutr. 2003 Apr;133(4):1036-42. [Medline] 27. Herron KL, et al. High intake of cholesterol results in less atherogenic low-density lipoprotein particles in men and women independent of response classification. Metabolism. 2004 Jun;53(6):823-30. [Medline] 28. Clarke RM, et al. Hypo- and hyperresponse to egg cholesterol predicts plasma lutein and beta-carotene concentrations in men and women. J Nutr. 2006 Mar;136(3):601-7. [Medline] 29. Fernandez ML. Dietary cholesterol provided by eggs and plasma lipoproteins in healthy populations. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2006 J an;9(1):8-12. [Medline] 30. Ruxton CH, et al. The health benefits of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: a review of the evidence. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2007 J un;20(3):275-85. [Medline] 31. Hill AM, et al. Combining fish-oil supplements with regular aerobic exercise improves body composition and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 May;85(5):1267-74. [Medline] 32. Psota TL, et al. Dietary omega-3 fatty acid intake and cardiovascular risk. Am J Cardiol. 2006 Aug 21;98(4A):3i- 18i. [Medline] 33. Hogstrom M et al. n-3 Fatty acids are positively associated with peak bone mineral density and bone accrual in healthy men: the NO2 Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Mar;85(3):803- 7. [Medline] 34. Ferrier LK et al. alpha-Linolenic acid- and docosahexaenoic acid-enriched eggs from hens fed flaxseed: influence on blood lipids and platelet phospholipid fatty acids in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995 J ul;62(1):81-6. [Medline] 35. Lewis NM, et al. Enriched eggs as a source of N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for humans. Poult Sci. 2000 J ul;79(7):971-4. Review. [Medline] 36. Fujioka K, Shibamoto T. Formation of genotoxic dicarbonyl compounds in dietary oils upon oxidation. Lipids. 2004 May;39(5):481-6. [Medline]
Moderate protein intake improves total and regional body composition and insulin sensitivity in overweight adults.
Arciero PJ , et al. Metabolism. 2008 J un;57(6):757-65. [Medline]
PURPOSE: To test the hypothesis that moderate protein intake (~25% of energy intake) would elicit similar benefits on body composition and metabolic profile as high protein intake. METHODS: 24 overweight/obese men and women (BMI = 32.2, %BF =37.3) were randomly assigned to one of 3 groups for a 3-month nutrition/exercise training intervention: (1) high- protein diet (~40% of energy intake) and combined high- intensity resistance and cardiovascular training (HPEx), (2) moderate-protein diet (~25% of energy intake) and combined high-intensity resistance and cardiovascular training (MPEx), or (3) high-protein diet only (HPNx). Total and regional body composition (via DEXA), insulin sensitivity, insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), IGF binding protein-1 (IGFBP-1), IGF binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3), and blood lipids were measured. RESULTS: All groups had similar losses of body weight, BMI, and total and abdominal %BF, and similar improvements in insulin sensitivity and leptin levels. HPEx had decreases in total cholesterol (TC) and triacylglycerol, and increases in IGF-1 and IGFBP-1. MPEx decreased TC, whereas the HPNx group had increases in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), ratio of TC:HDL-C, IGF-1, and IGFBP-1. CONCLUSION: Moderate protein intake elicits similar benefits in body composition and insulin sensitivity as a high-protein diet. These findings. SPONSORSHIP: Abbott Laboratories, EAS division.
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tudy strengths Its always nice to see DEXA (the gold standard) used for assessing body composition. Time of assessment was normalized (after a 12-hr fast), as was the restriction of alcohol, caffeine, and exercise 48 hours prior to testing. Another plus was the comparison of mixed exercise treatments in addition to the different dietary treatments. Exercise was supervised by a certified strength and conditioning specialist and a member of the research team. Compliance to the exercise protocol was enforced via daily exercise monitoring and subject-researcher contact. The exercise protocol contained a higher frequency of work than whats typically seen in research of this type. Six days total per week consisted of 3 resistance training days (35-40 minutes per session) alternated with 3 high-intensity interval cardio (20 minutes per session). Diets were set at 2000 kcals, making them relevant to populations involved with moderate rather than extreme calorie reduction. Dietary compliance was bolstered by weekly meetings with a registered dietitian as well as daily subject-researcher contact.
Study limitations The allowance of up to 3 alcoholic beverages and 1 free day per week was implemented for the purpose of decreasing boredom and improving compliance. However, all this really does ultimately is decrease the level of experimental control. A better move would have been to either fix (absolutely or proportionately) the allotment of alcoholic beverages, and either provide or specifically define the free day in order to minimize variation across individuals. Those who are familiar with EAS and the Body-for-Life program would immediately recognize the exercise protocol, as well as the dietary protocol of 3 protein- rich meal replacement products plus 3 real food meals. As mentioned by the authors themselves, questions remain about whether this 6 meals/day frequency is applicable to free living conditions. In other words, 6 meals per day might be a pain in the ass for many dieters to sustain long-term.
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omment/application. Here are the key nutritional variables of exercising groups at baseline and at the end of the trial, including the degree of change:
Variable High-Protein Moderate-Protein
Pre Post Change Pre Post Change
Kcals 2180 1855 -15% 2043 1890 -7% Protein (g) 80.2 187.0 +137% 86.8 109.8 +31.1% Carbohydrate (g) 266.2 113.5 -56.8% 242.6 183.1 -19.3% Fat (g) 85.6 59.6 -26.5% 80.3 53.0 -16.6 Since there were no significant differences between the exercising groups regarding body composition and insulin sensitivity. This serves to illustrate a point I often make that exercise is the great equalizer. In other words, with a sufficient exercise program in place, dietary differences tend to make less of an impact on body composition. This is especially the case when protein intake is sufficient across the groups. But as you can see in the above chart, this equalizing effect can also occur when protein intake is low-balled (as in the case of the moderate-protein group at 109.8g/d). I found it interesting that this group not only kept its lean mass despite the lower protein intake, but it actually appeared to gain a bit of lean weight (+0.2 kg) while the high-protein group lost a bit of it (-0.1 kg). This can be attributed to either greater glycogen stores, or inaccurate self-reporting.
The differences between the exercising groups boiled down to certain aspects of blood lipid profile. Triacylglycerol levels decreased significantly in the high-protein group, but not in the moderate-protein group. This is consistent with other research showing the plasma triacylglycerol-retentive ability of a higher- carbohydrate diet. 1 Improvements in cholesterol occurred in both groups, but differed slightly in nature. The high-protein group decreased total cholesterol (TC), while the moderate-protein group displayed a significant reduction in TC to HDL ratio but no change in TC. This discrepant outcome, once again, is likely a result of the inaccuracies of self-reported dietary intake.
The authors conclude that its possible to get the same benefits of a high protein (40%) diet on a moderate protein (25%) diet. Given the substantive exercise protocol, this didnt surprise me. However, I am surprised that the studys sponsor (EAS a sports supplement company) didnt tweak all of the outcomes in favor of the high-protein group, since this would benefit protein supplement sales. Either there still is a shred of integrity in science, or theyre working on a carb supplement. Effects of dietary protein content on IGF-I, testosterone, and body composition during eight days severe energy deficit and arduous physical activity.
Alemany J A, et al. J Appl Physiol. 2008 May 1. [Epub ahead of print] [Medline] AlanAragonsResearchReviewJune,2008[BacktoContents] Page8
PURPOSE: To determine the effects of two levels of dietary protein content and its effects on IGF-I, androgens, and losses of fat free mass accompanying energy deficit. METHODS: 34 men (24 yrs old, 180.1 cm, 83.0 kg) underwent an 8-day military exercise characterized by high energy expenditure (16.5 MJ /d; 3940.9 kcal), low energy intake (6.5 MJ /d; 1552.5 kcal), and sleep deprivation (4 h/24 h) were divided into two groups of 0.9 g/kg or 0.5 g/kg dietary protein. IGF-I system analytes, androgens and body composition were assessed throughout the intervention. RESULTS: Total, free and non-ternary IGF-I as well as testosterone declined 50%, 64%, 55% and 45%, respectively, with similar reductions both groups, except that there was a diet x time interaction on day 8 for total IGF-I and sex-hormone binding globulin. Decreases in body mass (3.2 kg), fat-free mass (1.2 kg), fat mass (2.0 kg) and & body fat (1.5 %) were similar in both groups. CONCLUSION: Protein intake of 0.5 or 0.9 g/kg had minimal effects in attenuating the decline in the IGF-I and androgenic systems and fat-free mass during eight days of negative energy balance associated with high energy expenditure and low energy intake SPONSORSHIP: Army Medical Research and Materiel [thats the actual spelling] Command
Study strengths
The general concept here is interesting, and it was a reality- based progression; the study occurred during the U.S. Marine Corps Infantry Officer Candidate (IOC) 17 school eight-day military field exercise in Quantico, VA. Its basically the assessment of a catabolic blitz that would closely mimic certain periods of military combat characterized by the deprivation of sleep and food under a massive energy expenditure. The low protein amounts were purposely chosen to reflect the protein content in MREs (meals ready to eat) currently available to the military, which typically provide less than 0.9g/kg/day. Body composition was assessed by DEXA. An actigraph as well as doubly-labeled water was used to objectively assess physical activity. All food was prepackaged and provided by the lab.
Study limitations
Since this intervention has the characteristics of a matter-of-fact case observation, the only real limitation was the absence of a genuinely adequate or high-protein group. Ideally, this group would consume at least in the neighborhood of 2.0g/day, which is within the range considered not just protective, but capable of improving anabolism and other training adaptations. 2 Perhaps this wasnt necessarily the point of the study, but it might certainly help in the campaign for better-designed MREs. Another minor limitation was the short length of the study, but the extreme rigorousness of the protocol might understandably be self-limiting. For example, one of the participants in the original sample didnt complete the trial due to injury. Comment/application
Here are the body composition changes from the two levels of insufficient protein intake over 8 days in a severe deficit:
Variable 0.8g/kg 0.5g/kg
Pre Post Pre Post Total mass (kg) 83.0 79.0 81.6 79.5 Fat-free mass (kg) 69.2 67.5 69.1 67.8 Fat mass (kg) 13.9 12.5 12.5 11.0 Bodyfat % 16.6 15.3 15.1 13.3 Given that both groups consumed the same amount of total calories (1552.5 kcal) with the only difference being protein intake (82g/day or 38g/day), these results are intriguing indeed. Although the differences in body composition change didnt rech statistical significance, the lower protein group lost a touch less lean mass (0.4 kg), and also lost a smidge more fat mass (0.1 kg). Comparing those numbers at their absolute value, the lower protein group actually had a more favorable outcome. Thats pretty weird. This indicates that below a certain level of insufficient protein intake, there appears to be no further detriment, much like it might be in the opposite context. That is to say, above a certain level sufficient protein intake, theres no further benefit.
Another interesting finding was that there was very little difference in the effect of the two protein treatments on bioavailable IGF-I, since presumably the higher protein treatment would have had at least a little preventive effect, but it didnt. The authors presume that the energy deficit of 2149.6 kcal/day was too massive to allow for any preventive effects of the increased protein intake compared to the low intake.
One thing that the higher protein intake did effect was sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG). SHBG levels increased 23% above baseline levels in the higher protein group, but increased 66% above baseline in the lower protein group. The significance here is that SHBG controls the majority of the pool of testosterone in circulation. Thus, when SHBG is suppressed, more testosterone is available for use by the body. Inspite of the blunting of SHBG by the higher protein treatment, no significant differences were seen in free testosterone levels between the groups. Once again, there seems to be a threshold of nutrient or calorie-mediated sufficiency that simply was not met.
A disturbing fact mentioned by the authors was the protein amounts in several of the MRE menus available to the military personnel. Specifically, 7 of the MRE menus contained an average of 32 g protein while seven other menus contained an average of 53 g protein. This means that the population with the most critical need for utmost physical performance is subsisting in the dark ages of the RDA and below. Thats a sad state of current affairs, but it provides an excellent opportunity for protein supplement and prepackaged food manufacturers to spearhead a market in desperate need of re-designing their MREs for the troops. My guess is that trials like this will serve as a step in the right direction. GET THEM BOYS SOME DAMN PROTEIN & CALORIES! AlanAragonsResearchReviewJune,2008[BacktoContents] Page9
Effect of Preexercise Meals With Different Glycemic Indices and Loads on Metabolic Responses and Endurance Running Chen YJ, et al. IJ SNEM. 2008:(18):281-300. [IJ SNEM]
PURPOSE: To examine the effect of ingesting 3 isocaloric meals (roughly 630 kcals each) with different glycemic indices (GI) and glycemic loads (GL) 2 hr before exercise on metabolic responses and endurance running performance. METHODS: Eight male runners completed 3 trials in a randomized order, separated by at least 7 days. Carbohydrate (CHO) content (%), GI, and GL were, respectively, 66%, 79, and 82 for the high- GI/high-GL meal (H-H); 66%, 40, and 42 for the low-GI/low- GL meal (L-L); and 36%, 78, and 44 for the high-GI/low-GL meal (H-L). Each trial consisted of a 1-hr run at 70% VO 2max , followed by a 10-km performance run. RESULTS: Low-GL diets (H-L and L-L) were found to induce smaller metabolic changes during the postprandial period and during exercise, which were characterized by a lower CHO oxidation in the 2 trials (p <.05) and a concomitant, higher glycerol and free-fatty- acid concentration in the H-L trial (p <.05). There was no difference, however, in time to complete the preloaded 10-km performance run between trials. CONCLUSION: This suggests that the GL of the preexercise meal has an important role in determining subsequent metabolic responses. SPONSORSHIP: None listed.
Study strengths
To control dietary intake prior to each main trial, the participants completed 3-day weighed food records that were analyzed via nutritional software. The treatment variations were thoroughly executed (no permutation was left out). The procedure was relatively cut-and-dried with little room to mess things up. This study is the first one yet to directly examine the effect of glycemic load (GL) of the pre-exercise meal on endurance exercise performance.
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tudy limitations Sample size was small (8 subjects), and they were described as healthy volunteers. This means that they werent necessarily trained athletes. Its generally more meaningful in these types of trials to use highly trained subjects, since newbies tend to be more responsive to variations in protocol. One of the unknown yet critical aspects of this trial was an absence of muscle glycogen status measurements preceding the tests. Other missing data were glucose kinetics during exercise. Thus, its impossible to be certain whether or not variations in glycogen status might have influenced the outcomes in this study.
Comment/Application
Historically, various carbohydrate manipulations have been made in attempts to maximize endurance capacity, as well as exercise performance. Glycemic index (GI), has thus far the longest history of research in this vein. As the authors of the present study point out, the majority of research shows that pre- exercise meal GI manipulation doesnt make a difference in performance. Untapped ground, however, is the effect of GL. First off, lets clear up some definitions. GI is a measure of a fixed amount of carbohydrates ability to raise blood glucose, expressed as the glucose area under the curve (AUC) in the post-ingestion period typically spanning a couple of hours. GL is a more recent classification system that takes into account the amount of carbohydrate per serving. GL takes GI a step further by indicating a foods carbohydrate concentration in addition to the glycemic response of the carbohydrates it contains. However, the bottom-line clinical value of GL, much like GI, is highly questionable. A prime example of the insignificance of GI and GL is their effect on body composition. In perhaps the most tightly controlled trial on this subject, Das et al compared effects of 2 macronutrient patterns with different GL on adherence to calorie restriction, weight and fat loss, and related variables. 3 No differences in the changes in energy intake, body weight, body fat, and resting metabolic rate were seen between groups.
Back to the present study... The 3 experimental whole-food meals were consumed 2 hours prior to the exercise trials. The high-GI/high-GL and low-GI/low-GL both had 66% carbohydrate, 15% protein, and 20% fat. The high-GI/low-GL had 36% carbohydrate, 15% protein, and 49% fat, a breakdown achieved mainly by increasing the corn oil and reducing the portion of carbohydrate. Unsurprisingly, stomach distress was reported in the later stage of the 10 km performance trial in the high-GI/low-GL group. Gastric disturbance has been seen in other research when medium-chain triacylglycerol was used pre- and during exercise. 4 Its likely that the delayed gastric emptying via the high fat content was the culprit. Nevertheless, no performance differences were seen in the present study. An unexpected finding to the authors was a lack of difference in ubstrate oxidation. To quote the text, s
This might be the most interesting finding of the current study: Despite the big difference in micronutrients in the two equally low-GL meals (L-L and H-L), achieved by changing either the GI or the amount of the CHO by replacing CHO with fat, they oth produced similar fat oxidation during exercise. b
The authors dont speculate over a possible mechanism for this, but instead mention previous research by that showed similar effects. 5 This effect reminds me of work by Febbraio et al, who saw no difference in fat oxidation during exercise between fasted and carbohydrate-fed subjects. 6
An interesting issue raised by the authors of the present trial is the controversial nature of GL. Currently, GL is not a recognized index by any major professional or governmental entity in the world. It might remain this way, since GL is based partially on GI, which has its own set of problems. A memorable point made by Pi-Sunyer in a nearly decade-old review is that a great number of factors can affect the reproducibility (and thus reliability) of GI values. 7 An abbreviated list of factors include ripeness of fruit, physical form of food, variability within food classes, processing, preparation, and previous meal influence. As I mentioned previously, the manipulation of pre-exercise GI has an inconsistent track record, with most of the data in favor of abandoning the idea that it makes any difference. This trial is yet another one to add to the list, except you can also include the possibility that GL might not matter either.
High rates of muscle glycogen resynthesis after exhaustive exercise when carbohydrate is co-ingested with caffeine.
Pedersen DJ , et al. J Appl Physiol. 2008 May 8. [Epub ahead of rint] [ p Medline]
PURPOSE: To determine the effects of the co-ingestion of caffeine with carbohydrate on rates of muscle glycogen resynthesis during recovery from exhaustive exercise. METHODS: 7 trained subjects completed 2 experimental trials in a randomized, double-blind crossover design. Prior to testing, subjects performed exhaustive cycling and consumed a low- carbohydrate diet. The following morning subjects reported to the lab and rode until volitional fatigue. Upon completion, subjects consumed either carbohydrate (CHO; 4g/kg) or carbohydrate +caffeine (CAFF, 8mg/kg) during 4 h of passive recovery. Muscle and blood samples were taken throughout recovery. RESULTS: Muscle glycogen levels were similar at exhaustion and increased by a similar amount after 1 h of recovery. After 4 h of recovery CAFF resulted in higher glycogen accumulation (313 vs. 234 mmol/kg d.w). The overall rate of resynthesis for the 4 h recovery period was 66% higher in CAFF compared to CHO (57.7 vs. 38.0 mmol/kg). Phosphorylation of CAMKThr286 was similar post-exercise and after 1 h of recovery but after 4 h CAMKThr286 phosphorylation was higher in CAFF than CHO. Phosphorylation of AMPKThr172 and AktSer473 was similar for both treatments at all time points. CONCLUSION: In trained subjects, coingestion of large amounts of caffeine with carbohydrate has an additive effect on rates on post-exercise muscle glycogen accumulation compared to carbohydrate alone. SPONSORSHIP: GlaxoSmithKline (U.K.)
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tudy strengths Subjects were trained, so this removes the beginner/newbie effect of anything working beyond nothing. Diet and exercise records were used to standardize food intake and physical activity for 48 hours prior to testing. All diets were constructed by a dietitian, and were individualized to the body mass of each subject. All food and drinks were pre-packaged and supplied by the lab. This trial gets minor innovation points for being the first to test post-glycogen depletion caffeine dosing. Finally, something Im beginning to appreciate is when authors explicitly report what they feel are the limitations of the research they conducted. This is coming up next, along with some other limitations I spot.
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tudy limitations As mentioned by the authors, this trial lacked the measurement of glycogen synthase (GS) levels. However, this is a minor limitation since measuring the actual concentration of resynthesized glycogen makes GS measurement somewhat trivial and redundant. Furthermore, GS might not be the most accurate indicator of glycogenic potential in the first place. In research by Thong et al, a caffeine-induced suppression of GS and glucose disposal did not impede the rate of glycogen resynthesis in the leg after exercise 8
C
omment/Application One thing I found to be an odd recurring theme throughout this paper was the mentioning of caffeine having a negative effect on glucose metabolism. This is qualified somewhat by mentioning that this occurs in the resting state rather than the trained state. The potential extrapolation here is that caffeine poses some sort of threat to those with compromised glucose metabolisms and should be avoided. However, heres the catch: caffeine has been seen to acutely impair insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance, but chronic studies show a decreased risk for diabetes in caffeinated coffee drinkers. A recent trial by Battram et al found a potential explanation for this disparity. They found that chronic coffee intake did not result in the same impairment of glucose tolerance as isolated caffeine. It was speculated that the additional biological compounds in coffee (chlorogens and quinides) in large part neutralize any adverse effect on resting glucose metabolism that isolated caffeine might cause. 9 10
Back to our study... The subjects were endurance-trained cyclists and triathletes. Miraculously, they werent habitual caffeine users (most recreational and competitive endurance athletes I know live on the stuff). The non-use of caffeine-containing foods/products by the subjects is both a good and a bad thing; good in the sense that we get to isolate the effect of a novel substance, but bad in the sense that we dont get to see whether or not these effects are diminished in regular users who comprise a large proportion of the endurance athlete population.
Carbohydrate dosing was a total of 4g/kg by the end of the 4- hour recovery period. This dosing scheme towards the conservative side, since a maximal rate of glycogen resynthesis has been fairly well established in the neighborhood of 1.0- 1.85g/kg/hr The carbohydrate consumed was in the form of sports bars, gels, and sports drinks. Interestingly, a record-setting rate of glycogen resynthesis was achieved without the use of special carbohydrate sources such as waxy maize starch. 11
Caffeine dosing was 8mg/kg immediately post-depletion, and then a 2 time 2 hours afterward. This dose is higher than that used in similar research, which averages roughly a single dose of 5mg/kg. As mentioned by the authors, questions remain as to how comparatively effective a lower dose would be. All said, the present study generated the highest overall rate of glycogen synthesis (60 mmol/kg) thus seen in orally administered conditions in humans, with the second highest range being roughly 40-45 mmol/kg. Several signalling proteins were measured in attempt to pinpoint a possible mechanism for the increased rate of glycogenesis, and only the phosphorylation of CAMK nd Thr286 was higher as result of the caffeine treatment. However, additional biopsies would be necessary to determine whether this can be linked to increased glucose transport signalling. Future research on post-depletion coffee intake (versus isolated caffeine) would very interesting to see.
Effects of resistance vs. aerobic training combined with an 800 calorie liquid diet on lean body mass and resting metabolic rate.
Bryner RW, et al. J Am Coll Nutr. 1999 Apr;18(2):115-21. [Medline]
PURPOSE: To examine the effect of intensive, high volume resistance training combined with a very-low-calorie diet (VLCD) on these parameters. METHODS: Twenty subjects (17 women, three men), mean age 38 years, were randomly assigned to either standard treatment control plus diet (C+D), or resistance exercise plus diet (R+D). Both groups consumed 800 kcal/day liquid formula diets for 12 weeks. C+D exercised 1 hour, 4 days/week by walking, biking or stair climbing. R+D performed resistance training 3 days/week at 10 stations increasing from two sets of 8 to 15 repetitions to four sets of 8 to 15 repetitions by 12 weeks. Groups were similar at baseline with respect to weight, body composition, aerobic capacity, and resting metabolic rate. RESULTS: Maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max) increased significantly but equally in both groups. Body weight decreased significantly more in C+D than R+D. The C+D group lost a significant amount of LBW (51 to 47 kg). No decrease in LBW was observed in R+D. In addition, R+D had an increase in RMR. The 24 hour RMR decreased in the C+D group. CONCLUSION: The addition of an intensive, high volume resistance training program resulted in preservation of LBW and RMR during weight loss with a LCD. SPONSORSHIP: None listed. V
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tudy strengths Hydrostatic weighing (hydrodensitiometry) was used to assess body composition. This is generally regarded as reliable and valid, with a small notch up being DEXA a method thats much more common in studies conducted within the past few years. It seems the standard of accuracy is steadily but surely being raised, since Im seeing hydrodensitiometry being used less and less in the literature. In my observations, however, hydrodensitiometry has been more reliable than bioimpedance analysis (BIA). Diet was strictly controlled by virtue of being liquid formulas provided by the lab. Meals were administered in bulk once per week at the meetings with an investigator, and compliance was questioned whenever less than 2 lbs per week was lost. Self-reported dietary compliance was reported by the nvestigators as excellent. i
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tudy limitations The aerobic training protocol was somewhat nebulous; it didnt have clearly-defined parameters as did the resistance training protocol. The aerobic group did 4 days per week of walking, biking, or stair climbing. Duration began at 20 minutes per day and increased 10 minutes per day every week, until each session was 50 to 60 minutes. This program was described as self-paced, and as such, specific intensity parameters were not met. As a finl nit-pick, the number of women exceeded the men by more than 5 to 1, opening up the possibility for the outcomes to have sex- specific bias. Comment/application
This is one of the most commonly cited trials in support of the idea that its in fact possible to gain muscle under a caloric deficit. And in this case, it was quite a severe caloric deficit, since the participants were training in addition to consuming a mere 800 calories per day. However, its critically important to remember that these subjects are unconditioned and overweight. These characteristics lend themselves to a simultaneous muscle gain and fat loss to a much higher magnitude than what would occur in lean, highly conditioned subjects who are more prone o muscle loss exclusively under the present conditions. t
The macronutrient breakdown of was 80 g protein, 98 g carbohydrate, and 10 g fat. At baseline, the bodyweight of the subjects in both groups averaged 97.7 kg, which set their protein intake at roughly 1.2g/kg. While this amount exceeds the RDA of 0.8g/kg, it still barely makes it into the range recommended for athletes and individuals involved in an exercise program, which according to whose philosophy in the literature you want to believe, is a range of 1.2-2.0g/kg. 12,13 Keep in mind, with this protein recommendation, its assumed that total calories are sufficient. In the present trial, subjects were severely hypocaloric, which astounds me that any of the groups held on to its lean mass. But according to the instruments used, this indeed was the case. The aerobic group lost 4 kg lean mass while the resistance groups loss was too small to reach statistical significance. By the trials end, the resistance group lost 1.2% more body fat than the aerobic group. Would DEXA eadings be different? We can only speculate. r
Perhaps the most clinically significant finding of this study was a 4% increase in resting metabolic rate (RMR) in the resistance group while the aerobic groups RMR dropped 13.4%. An interesting outcome is that the resistance group lost less total bodyweight due to the retention of lean mass and this happened despite having a similar energy output as the aerobic group. Its tempting to assume that at least a subset of the resistance group expended more energy than the aerobic controls ue to the continual progression of load and training intensity. d
One of the most useful aspects of this study is that it gives us some reference data for judging the relative speed and effectiveness of a given crash fat/weight loss program compared to whats been observed under controlled conditions in research. Here are the 12-week stats:
Variable Aerobic Training Resistance Training
Pre Post Change Pre Post Change Total mass (kg) 93.8 75.7 -18.1 97.7 83.3 -14.4 Lean mass (kg) 51.4 47.3 -4.1 51.6 50.8 -0.8 Fat mass (kg) 40.8 28.0 -12.8 44.9 30.4 -14.5 Body fat % 44.5 37.1 -7.4 46.2 37.6 -8.6 This trial doesnt necessarily have a moral to the story, mainly because the protocol was too extreme to apply to most free- living non-medically supervised populations. If theres anything solid to glean from this data, its that resistance/strength training rather than aerobic training should comprise the bulk of the training in a severe caloric deficit.
Layne is a natural pro bodybuilder who (amazingly enough) is interested in the science behind bodybuilding. Hes currently working on his PhD at the University of Illinois, specializing in skeletal muscle protein metabolism. I specifically sought him out for this interview because for one thing, I knew that hed be kind enough to take the time to do it (he doesnt have a big ego yet), and secondly, Layne is one of those guys that many of us would model our work ethic after if we had enough nerve. Hes one heck of an overachiever who has accomplished quite a bit for being only in his mid-20s. Perhaps most importantly, Layne recognizes the value of science and research, and is destined to be cited many times over by secondary sources like myself.
AA: How did you get interested in bodybuilding, and who are your main mentors/influences?
LN: I started lifting in high school because, quite frankly, I was picked on by my peers and didn't get much attention from girls. Over the years I grew to love lifting for the sake of pushing myself and trying to ascend to the next level. Once I got to college, I decided it was time to take it to the next level & compete. I always read magazines like FLEX and looked up to the guys in there, but somehow I never could relate them to myself. Then I started reading about natural bodybuilding and guys like Dave Goodin and Dr. J oe Klemczewski. J oe is as close to a guru of natural bodybuilding as their is and he really went out of his way to take me under his wing when I was getting into competitive bodybuilding and that made a big difference for me. Now Joe I'm proud to call J oe a friend of mine. AA: What are your proudest personal or career accomplishments?
In terms of competing I am probably most proud of my very first contest win at the 2001 INBF Mid America Muscle Classic. I won the teen class and the men's novice tall class. Although I later turned pro at a different show; my first show really stuck with me, I can never get that feeling out of my head and my heart of the way it felt to hoist that trophy for the first time, and the first sensation I ever got from being onstage. Nothing compares to it. Overall though, I am most proud of the way I've been able to integrate competitive bodybuilding into my daily life. I enjoy bodybuilding but I don't let it prevent me from enjoying my life like I see it do to so many others.
AA: What are the biggest precontest training and dieting mistakes you've made in the past?
Not giving oneself enough time to get lean. I see too many people who are not honest with themselves about their bodyfat level and think they can get shredded in 12 weeks when it's obvious they have around 40 lbs to lose.
Going on extreme diets. Super high protein (>400g) with the notion that protein cannot be stored as fat, or going super super super low carb with the belief that all carbs are evil. Honestly, any type of extreme diet is usually not a good idea.
Cutting water. This could possibly be #1. People think that water is what causes you to retain water. This is nonsense, the more water you drink, the more your body expels. Your body regulates water balance by the MINUTE. The notion that you can cut water out days in advance and trick your body is nonsense. People cut water totally out and then they wonder why they can't fill out or get a pump on contest day and always look better the day after the show. You can carb up all you want, but if you don't drink water, the muscle cells will simply not fill out, period. Additionally, depriving the body of water will reduce the amount of carbs that the muscle cells can store as there will not be enough solute to retain them in the muscle cells. The reason you always hear competitors say I looked better the next day is because they drink a bunch of water after their show is done and finally fill out. All my clients tell me they look like crap the day after the show... that's because they kept water in on contest day and filled out & peaked properly.
AA: Give us a workday in the life of Layne Norton.
7:00am-7:15- wake up and grab a shower while starting breakfast 7:15-8:15- eat breakfast while answering emails 8:15-8:30- walk dog 8:30-8:45- prep food & pack bags for lab/school 8:45-9:15- catch bus to campus 9:15-4:30pm- work in lab 4:30-5:00- catch bus back to home 5:00-6:00- eat preworkout meal 6:00-8:00- workout 8:00-8:30 fix dinner & shower 8:30-9:30-eat dinner with Isabel and catch a show on TV 9:30-11:30- answer emails and work on anything I brought home from lab 11:30-12:00am walk dog & prepare meals for following day 12:00- sleep
AA: What are your biggest rants about any aspect of the fitness & bodybuilding industry?
It's such an extreme industry filed with people who fly off one handle or the other on extremes. Moreso than any industry it is filled with 'guru's' most of which couldn't find their ass if their finger was stuck up it, yet people blindly follow them around without thinking for themselves.
AA: What are the biggest challenges you personally face in the field of scientific research?
Timing is always difficult. Many of the assays I run can take up to several days including incubation periods, so making sure I time everything properly can be difficult. Research in general is very difficult. Sometimes you will work on an experiment or working up data for an experiment for literally months only to find out the experiment didn't work or their was something flawed with it and you have to go back and re-do it or start from scratch. There is no "E" for effort. Either you get results or you don't.
AA: What's your take on precontest cardio in terms of intensity, frequency & duration?
Like everything else it really depends on the individual. For people who specifically have difficulty losing fat from their legs or abdominal region I really recommend more high intensity cardio. High intensity cardio will activate the sympathetic nervous system to a greater extent than steady state cardio and will help target the receptors largely responsible for initiating lipolysis in adipose. Additionally, high intensity cardio will also increase mitochondrial density and activity of the area being worked. Mitochondria are the organelles of the cell responsible for energy production and this includes fat oxidation. So increasing the number and activity of the mitochondria will give an individual a greater capacity to oxidize fat. That said I still think steady state cardio is good to use as well, since doing more than 3-4 high intensity sessions per week can make weight training difficult due to soreness and stiffness from high intensity sessions.
AA: Can give us your typical offseason day's diet & supplement intake as well as your typical precontest diet & supplement intake? You can leave out the drug protocol (just kidding).
My diet during the offseason is a cyclical diet: 4-8 weeks in a 500 kcal surplus followed by 4-8 weeks in a 500 kcal deficit. Typically during bulking phases I will eat around 225g protein, 400-500g carbohydrates, and 60-70g fat depending upon what bodypart I am working on a particular day and how much energy I expend. During the cutting phases I usually consume 250g protein, 200-225g carbohydrates, and 50-60g fat. My precontest diet will look similar to that, though I reduce calories when fat loss progress slows.
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upplentation in the offseason includes: 5g of BCAA (Xtend) between meals and 10g post workout (total of 25-30g Xtend/day) 5g creatine monohydrate post workout 3-4g beta-alanine per day Citrulline malate (this is in Xtend so I do not add extra) 3 fish oil caps per day 300mg lipoic acid post workout 1000mg glucosamine per day Multivitamin
D
uring cutting phases I will add: Sesamin: 3 caps/day Scivation Dialene 4: 3 caps 3x/day
AA: Any general or specific words of wisdom to those considering competitive bodybuilding?
Be patient. Everyone wants to gain 10 lbs of shredded muscle in 2 weeks but it just takes time to put on quality muscle. Be consistent with your diet and training and things will fall into place. Even if you only gain 5-10 lbs of muscle in a year, that is good progress, it may not sound like much but think of it this way; go to the supermarket and look at 5 lbs of beef. THAT'S A WHOLE LOT OF TISSUE! Think about slapping that on yourself... that's a lot of muscle. Always remember that it is very hard work and that no one really cares about excuses in the end. Everyone has their own challenges when competing, no one wants to hear a sob story, get it done or don't get it done. J ust remember, if you want to win, you need to ask yourself: am I working harder than the person I'll be standing next to onstage?
AA: Any personal or career goals you're currently pursuing that youd like to share?
Right now I'm one week out from marrying the love of my life, my longtime girlfriend Isabel. Then we take a cruise for our honeymoon. I've never been on one so I'm really excited. The week after we get back I'm presenting at the ISSN (International Society of Sports Nutrition) symposium as a guest speaker so I'm excited about that. Additionally, my first DVD, Layne Norton Unleashed will be released shortly after that and I really think that the people who buy it will get a good combination of science based advice as well as 'in the trenches' type scenes that every hardcore lifter can relate to. Should be a busy summer, but I'm really looking forward to it!
Thanks Alan. -Layne
AA: Nah man, thank YOU. Congrats on getting married, and beware of unforeseeable honeymoon injuries.
[Editors note: Laynes personal website is www.biolayne.com.]
Its safe to say that the above picture of The Squat Girl is legendary on the internet; its one of the most recognizable, iconic shots online. Little did I know that it would end up in AARR as a legitimate example of the hard work of my interviewee rather than merely a gratuitous distraction (eat your heart out T-Nation)!
Enter Pauline Nordin. She has achieved a level of physical development and refinement that most of our subculture would donate a nut or two to get. Initially, I assumed Pauline must be pretty well-informed ever since she contacted me about re- printing an article of mine. What I came to find out was that shes not only an avid student of the fitness game, but also highly accomplished professional in several arenas. Shes a professional figure competitor and AST-sponsored athlete whos been on several major magazine covers. She also has national TV exposure, gaining bona fide celebrity status in her original home country of Sweden (shes now a Californian). Im pleased to have had the chance to pick her brain, so lets get to it.
AA: Hello Pauline, Im excited that you agreed to let me interrogate you for my readership. What are your biggest career accomplishments, as well as your biggest mistakes or regrets?
Thank you Alan. My biggest career accomplishments are not as a competitor but as a model and TV personality. I was the Biggest Loser Shows Swedish trainer which was a great career move, and I have made the cover of Ironman Magazine and lately got 18 pages featured in the HARDBODZ Magazine. As an athlete I am proud I obtained pro status and went from Sweden to America to compete as a pro.
AA: I'm sure many of my readers would be curious to know what your typical workday looks like. That's okay if it's boring, at least our curiosity will be satisfied.
Wake up at 4 am, drive to Hollywood where I have three clients. 7 am cardio. Drive home in traffic. Computer work (I work as a journalist too) or photo shoots (as a creative director and some times as technical advisor), in the afternoon clients, then me training. Then home, prep for next day. Eat. Sleep. Repeat.
AA: When prepping for a show, how many days a week do you weight train, and how many days a week do you do cardio? How much time do you spend on each activity?
I weight train year round 5 days a week. I do cardio year round 10-28 minutes a day for 5-9 sessions per week. This does not change.
AA: How do your off-season and pre-contest training regimes differ? Do you have any unique pre-contest training philosophies that others might benefit from trying?
They dont change at all. I do the same thing year round. I try to take some days off at times but its hard. I always have one full day off when I almost cannot make it out of my house. I recuperate very fast and have a patient work horse body wise! It can take a lot of punishment...
AA: Much ado has been made over bodybuilding-type bodypart split training versus functional or movement plane- type training. The two camps seem to love to bash each other. What have you found works best for you regarding training splits?
Since I train too much in general I always work on some weaknesses that I find out about throughout my training. Sometimes I feel a knee is starting to tell me something so I then incorporate more coordination work or pay more attention to unilateral training. I always prehab with strengthening lower trapezius, I do hand stands, I work rotator cuff and work on my medial gluteus mind/muscle connection so I stop or prevent any injuries. I make sure I dont train upper body two days in a row and I have one day dedicated to hamstrings, deadlifts. I am very meticulous and dont do many sets or reps. Pretty much do 1-6 reps on most exercises and only leg press, hamstring leg curl and calf raise are machines I use.
AA: I know that you stay in great shape year-round. So, my hunch is that your offseason and pre-contest diet are not drastically different, although I could be wrong on that. Could you give us a sample of your off-season day's eating as well as a pre-contest day's meal schedule?
It does not change at all. I never cheat or eat too many calories. Well, thats a lie, I have a cheat day about once every six months... I can count them on one hand since I moved to the US on March 31 st , 2006. I dont have a set diet, but I always have at least 5 lbs of broccoli coleslaw a day, I eat pink salmon in a pouch and lots of egg whites. I dont eat any starches what so ever. I supplement with fish oil and since I am endorsed by AST sports science I use most of their products. For instance, the whey protein VP2.
AA: What are your thoughts on sodium and water manipulation in the final days before a show? I feel like this is where many competitors screw everything up thinking it's gonna make all the difference. Is there any strategy you've found works consistently well for you?
This is what I do change before a photo shoot or a contest. I always eat lots of sodium and drink lots of water. Before a shoot I just stop drinking the very same day and I cut out all additional sodium from mustard and spices the day before the shoot/contest. Thats all. I also dont have the veggies the day before since it makes my stomach too full!
AA: What supplements do you feel have helped you get contest-ready? I personally feel that they mainly serve as a motivational/placebo tool whose actual effects on their own are miniscule. You may have a different opinion on this, and I'd love to hear about specific compounds (if any) that you find useful.
I am a BCAA addict. I superdose it. I use about 40 grams a day. Other than that glutaminaholic and time nutrients around my training. Pretty much I fast throughout the day like in taking mini meals and then I eat about 60% of my calories for the day in the two hours post workout (weights).
AA: This is a touchy subject for some people, but in your observations, how common is drug use amongst figure competitors, and do you have any personal philosophies or opinions about drug use in figure competition?
I am a 100% drug-free athlete myself and always will be. Yes, there are many competitors that go the druggie road, but I dont see a reason why. There is no money in figure in general and if you screw up your looks it wont be nice to see after a few years. I think most people are impatient and want to build a pro body in one or two years. That does not happen if you stay natural.... It took me many years before I finally got it in a way I think is good-looking.
Having achieved a world-class physique, are there any gems of advice you'd like to give those who have dumpster-class physique but are intent on changing that? Yes work hard, be very meticulous and patient. It takes time!!!!!
AA: What are some of your goals - career, or other - that you'd like to share with the readers? Any up-coming projects you'd like to let us in on?
I want to get back on TV but in America this time. I also want to keep on working as a model. I want to write books about fitness and keep working my production company Conforce Inc. I am a multi tasker and right now I am also working on a coffee shop book! I need different project in order to not wear out.
What do you say to guys who try to hit on you at the gym besides, I'm taken bro, go choke on a dumbbell.
I am pretty unapproachable. I dont talk that much and usually people find me too serious. I am at the gym either working or working out. So, I send out those signals I am not there to get hit on.
AA: Ah, oh well. Thanks very much Pauline, all the best to you.
[Editors note: check out this video in order to get a feel for what she really means by an absence of dating signals while shes in the midst of a workout. Paulines personal website is www.paulinefitness.com. Heres a link to the page containing the details of her online personal diet & training consulting. ]
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Over this past weekend, I lectured at the annual J P Fitness Summit in Little Rock, AR. I covered the nutrition section, and Steve Cotter did an amazing job teaching the class about his approach to training with kettlebells. The unique thing about the J P Fitness Summit is that as intensely interested as everyone is in training, theyre just as interested in, um, lets call it recovery. I had a hell of a good time with a great bunch of folks, and it all culminated in my Youtube debut: a cheesy karaoke duet. Enjoy this clip but be warned that its NOT for the faint of heart or weak of spirit. 12. Tipton KD, Wolfe RR. Protein and amino acids for athletes. J Sports Sci. 2004 J an;22(1):65-79. [Medline] 13. Campbell B, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2007 Sep 26;4:8. [Medline]
Thanks once again for getting your wits filled with another AARR issue. If you have any questions, comments, suggestions, bones of contention, cheers, jeers, any feedback at all, send it over to aarrsupport@gmail.com. All suggestions are taken very seriously. I want to make sure this publication continues to stand alone in its excellence.
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