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2.2 Power Electronics

Introduction

Power electronics is the technology of converting electric power from one form to
another using power semiconductor devices based circuitry. It incorporates concepts
from analog circuits, electronic devices, control systems, power systems, magnetics,
and electric machines.

The converter enables either the following:
DC-DC: conversion
AC-DC: rectification
DC-AC: inversion
AC-AC: cycloconversion

In the power converter, the power semiconductor devices function as switches, which
operate statically, that is, without moving contacts. The time durations, as well as the
turn ON and turn OFF operations of these switches are controlled in such a way that
an electrical power source at the input terminals of the converter appears in a different
form at its output terminals.

Here high conversion efficiency q is essential!

High efficiency leads to low power loss within converter. Efficiency is a good measure
of converter performance. Hence, a goal of current converter technology is to
construct converters of small size and weight, which process substantial power at high
efficiency.







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Components used in power electronics circuitry are:



Rapid development of power semiconductor devices led to significant improvement in,
o Speed
o Power capability
o Efficiency

Hence increase the range of applications
o DC Servo control
o AC motor control
o Sophisticated power supplies (switching-mode, uninterruptible)
o High power DC transmission

Often power loss in power semiconductor device (when viewed as an ideal switch) is
based on the following:


Thus an ideal power semiconductor device is characterized by zero resistance during
ON-state, infinite resistance during OFF-state, zero transient time from ON to OFF
and vice-versa. Practical power semiconductor device has limited voltage and current
handling capability, an ON-resistance greater zero and finite switching times.



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Power Electronics Devices

o Power Bipolar Transistors (Bits)
o Power Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)
o Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
o Thyristors
o Gate Turn-Off Thyristors (GTOs)
o Power Diodes



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Alternatively power semiconductor devices can be classified into three groups
according to their degree of controllability.
o Power Diodes - ON and OFF states controlled by the power circuit.
o Thyristors - Latched ON by a control signal but must be turned OFF by the
power circuit.
o Controllable Switches - Turned ON and OFF by control signals.

The controllable switches include
i) Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
ii) Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)
iii) Gate Turn-OFF Thyristors (GTOs)
iv) Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)


POWER DIODES
The circuit symbol for the diode and its steady state v-i characteristics are as shown.



When the diode is forward biased, it begins to conduct with only a small forward
voltage across it, which is on the order of 1V. When the diode is reverse biased, only
a negligibly small leakage current flows through the device until the reverse break-
down voltage is reached.

In normal operation, the reverse-bias voltage should not reach the breakdown rating.
In view of the very small leakage currents in the blocking (reverse-bias) state and the
small voltage in the conducting (forward-bias) state as compared to the operating
voltage and currents of the circuit in which the diode is used, the i-v characteristics for
the diode can be idealized, as shown.

This idealized characteristic can be used for analyzing the converter topology but
should not be used for the actual design, when, for example, heat sink requirements
for the device are being estimated.
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THYRISTORS
The circuit symbol for the thyristor and its i-v characteristics are shown.



The main current flows from the anode to the cathode. In its OFF-state, the thyristor
can block a forward polarity voltage and not conduct, as is shown by the off-state
portion of the i-v characteristic.

The thyristor can be triggered into the ON state by applying a pulse of positive gate
current for a short duration provided that the device is in its forward-blocking state.
The resulting i-v relationship is shown by the ON-state portion of the characteristics
shown. The forward voltage drop in the on state is only a few volts (typically 1-3V
depending on the device blocking voltage rating).












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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS (BJT)
The circuit symbol for an NPN BJT and its steady-state i-v characteristics are shown.


As shown in the i-v characteristics, a sufficiently large base current (dependent on the
collector current) results in the device being fully ON. This requires that the control
circuit provide a base current that is sufficiently large so that

FE
h
C
I
B
I >


where h
FE
is the dc current gain of the device.

BJTs are current-controlled devices, and base current must be supplied continuously
to keep them in the ON state: The dc current gain h
FE
is usually only 5-10 in high-
power transistors. BJTs are available in voltage ratings up to 1400V and current
ratings of a few hundred amperes.

o BJT has been replaced by MOSFET in low-voltage (<500V) applications
o BJT is being replaced by IGBT in applications at voltages above 500V






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METAL-OXIDE-SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (MOSFETs)

The circuit symbol of an n-channel MOSFET is shown above. It is a voltage controlled
device. The device is fully ON and approximates a closed switch when the gate-
source voltage is below the threshold value, V
GS(th)
. The idealized characteristics of
the device operating as a switch are shown above.

MOSFETs require the continuous application of a gate-source voltage of appropriate
magnitude in order to be in the ON state. The switching times are very short, being in
the range of a few tens of nanoseconds to a few hundred nanoseconds depending on
the device type.

INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS
The circuit symbol for an IGBT and its i-v characteristics are as shown.
+
-
i
D
Gate(G)
Source(S)
V
DS
V
GD
+
-
+
-
Drain(D)
V
GS
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The IGBT's have some of the advantages of the MOSFET, and the BJT combined.
Similar to the MOSFET, the IGBT has a high impedance gate, which requires only a
small amount of energy to switch the device. Like the BJT, the IGBT has a small on-
state voltage even in devices with large blocking voltage ratings (for example, V
ON
is
2-3V in a 1000-V device).




















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AC to DC converters (Rectifiers)

Rectifier converts AC (from mains or other AC source) to DC power by using power
diodes or by controlling the firing angles of thyristors/controllable switches.

Basic Block Diagram




AC




Input can be single or multi-phase (e.g. 3-phase)
Output can be made fixed or variable

Applications: DC welder, DC motor drive, Battery Charger, DC power supply

Single Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers
Provide a fixed DC output voltage for a given AC supply where diodes are used only.

Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit
The simplest rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier. It converts an ac voltage into a
pulsating DC voltage using one half cycle of the applied ac voltage. It uses one diode
which conducts only during one half cycle.

For the half-wave rectifier circuit with resistive load shown below, as long as the input
AC voltage source is greater than zero, the diode behaves as a short circuit (i.e. the
diode forward-biased), and the voltage across the resistor is the same as the input.
When the input voltage is less than zero, the diode behaves as an open circuit (i.e.
the diode reverse-biased) and there is no voltage across the resistor.







DC
output
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Analysis
For an input voltage, t sin
m
V ) t (
in
V e = e or simply u = u sin
m
V ) (
in
V ,


The output voltage for one cycle is

t s u s t
t s u s u
= u
2 0
0 sin
m
V
) (
o
V

The input voltage V
in
, output voltage V
O
, input current i
S
, and diode voltage V
D
are as
follows:


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Then the average output voltage V
o,avg
is given by:
t
=
t
u
t
u
=
e
=
} }
m
V
2
d
0
sin
m
V
T
dt
2 / T
0
t sin
m
V
avg , o
V


Where T (sec) is the period of the input voltage waveform and 2t is the equivalent
duration in electrical angle (rad).

Also, the rms output voltage V
O, rms
is given by:
t
u
t
u
=
e
=
e
=
} }
}
2
d
0
2
sin
2
m
V
T
dt
2 / T
0
t
2
sin
2
m
V
T
dt
2
)
2 / T
0
t sin
m
V (
rms , o
V
i.e.
2
m
V
rms , o
V =

The circuits DC(average) and rms output currents are
R
DC , o
V
R
avg , o
V
DC , o
I = = and
R
rms , o
V
rms , o
I = respectively.

The DC power output is given by:
DC , o
I x
DC , o
V
DC , o
P =




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Full-Wave (Bridge) Rectifier Circuit

Full-wave (bridge) rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating DC voltage using
both half cycles of the applied ac voltage. It uses two pair of diodes of which one
conducts during one half cycle while the other conducts during the other half cycle of
the applied ac voltage.

For the full-wave rectifier circuit with resistive load shown below, the output current is
always in the same direction through the load.




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DC to DC converters

Introduction
DC power is usually available to a system in the form of a system power supply or
battery. This power may be in the form of 5V, 28V, 48V or other DC voltages. DC-DC
converters are widely used to transform and distribute DC power in systems and
instruments.

DC to DC converter
o Provides link between fixed DC source and load requiring controllable DC
voltage
o Its control achieved by activating switching devices placed between DC
source and load

LOAD voltage control by -- vary mark-space ratio (duty cycle) at constant frequency or
vary switching frequency with constant on-period

Its block diagram




Applications:
o Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), motor control, battery chargers


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Switching regulator (Chopper) is the basis of all DC-DC converters.










Chopper classification, class A, B, C, D and E Choppers

Class A Chopper
When switch S is opened, the current continues to flow through inductance L and
free-wheeling diode D.



- The transistor is
operated in switched-
mode:
Switch closed
Fully on (saturated)
Switch opened
Fully off (cut-off)
When switch is open,
no current flow in it

When switch is closed,
no voltage drop across
it
- Since P = V*I , no
losses occurs in the
switch
Power is 100%
transferred from source
to load
Power losses is ZERO
(for
ideal switch)
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Class B Chopper
Here V
emf
is the back emf of a DC motor. When switch S is closed, the current
through inductance L rises. When switch S is opened again the inductor current flows
through the diode D and returns energy to the supply voltage V
B
.





Class C Chopper
Class C chopper combines class A and class B circuits allowing operation with
positive supply voltage and bi-directional current.

Class D Chopper
Class D chopper provides a unidirectional current and bipolar operation.




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Class E Chopper
Usually switches S1 and S4 are ON simultaneously and switches S2 and S3 are also
ON simultaneously, thus allowing the load to be connected to +V
B
, 0 and -V
B
.