Networking concepts

Introduction

A network is any collection of entities that exchange information or goods. The nervous system
of an animal is a network that facilitates the movement of information to and from the brain and
the other parts of the body. A railway system is a network, since it facilitates the movement of
goods and at one point in time, information between destinations. The phone lines are also a
network. They allow people to communicate and transfer information all over the world. A
computer network is no different than any of the before-mentioned networks. A computer
network exchanges information to and from computers and has a system to direct the information
to the correct computer. The Internet as it is known today is a huge network composed of
millions and millions of smaller networks called LANs or Intranets. Two or more computers
connected to, or can communicate with, each other in some way. Such computers are also called
nodes or stations and run software that initiates and manages their interaction in sharing files and
other resources. A network is created when two or more computers are connected to share
information and resources. A computer network is a collection of computers, which are in some
way connected such that they can exchange data between themselves and other computers on the
network. It might involve physical wire, infrared or radio frequency communication, and can be
usually used to share files, devices and connections to other computers. The Internet is an
example of a computer network.

A network can be defined as a group of computers and other devices connected in some
ways so as to be able to exchange data.
Networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the
purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and
computer software.
A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware
devices that are linked together through communication channels to facilitate
communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of users. Networks are
commonly categorized based on their characteristics.
A network is a group of systems that are connected to allow sharing of resources, such as
files or printers or sharing of services, such as an internet connection.
Each of the devices on the network can be thought of as a node; each node has a unique
address.
Addresses are numeric quantities that are easy for computers to work with, but not for
humans to remember.
Example: 204.160.241.98
Some networks also provide names that humans can more easily remember than
numbers.
Example: www.javasoft.com, corresponding to the above numeric address.


Types of Networks

There are two principle kinds of networks: Wide Area Networks (WANs) and Local Area
Networks (LANs) and Metropolitan Area Network (MANs).


WANs :-

When the network spans a larger area it is classified as a wide area network (WAN). Because of
the extensive distances over which WANs communicate, they use long-distance
telecommunications networks for their connections, which increases the costs of the network.
The Internet is just a giant WAN.

Cover cities, countries, and continents.
Based on packet switching technology
Examples of WAN technology: Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Integrated
Services Digital Network (ISDN)



LANs :-

If the network is contained within a relatively small area, such as a classroom, school, or single
building it is commonly referred to as a local area network (LAN). This type of network has the
lowest cost and least overall capability. Because the pieces of equipment in a LAN are in
relatively close proximity, LANs are inexpensive to install. Despite their decreased capability,
however, their closeness and resultant low costs typically result in the use of the fastest
technology on a LAN. Thus, this network classification usually has the highest speed
components and fastest communications equipment before the other network classifications see
such equipment using the same speeds. This is because it takes less overall investment to get the
smaller network running the faster equipment. LANs, therefore, are commonly considered the
building blocks for creating larger networks.

Examples of LAN technology: Ethernet, Token Ring, and Fibber Distributed Data Interconnect
(FDDI).
-Ethernet LANs: based on a bus topology and broadcast communication
-Token ring LANs: based on ring topology
-FDDI LANs: use optical fibbers and an improved token ring mechanism based
on two rings flowing in opposite directions.



MANs :-


As the computers get further apart, a LAN becomes more difficult to install, and additional
measures such as additional communications equipment may need to be employed. When the
network spans the distance of a typical metropolitan city, as shown in Figure 1.7, it can be
referred to as a metropolitan area network (MAN). Although this term is beginning to lose its
popular use, the concept of the network outgrowing its local confines and requiring additional
resources still applies. Much of the same technology, such as the fast networking components
and communications equipment used in LANs, can be used in MANs, but more are required, so
this classification is not quite as technologically advanced as are LANs. Although the speeds
achieved in a MAN are typically as high as in a LAN, it requires high-speed connections, such as
fiber optics. Increasing the distance and the technology levels increases the relative installation
and operation costs of MANs.



Component Roles Network

Another method used to classify networks focuses on the roles the networked computers play in
the networks operation, and more specifically on which computer controls that operation. There
are two basic types of role classifications for networkspeer-to-peer networks and server-based
networks. The difference between the two revolves around which computer is in charge of the
network. A third classification, client-based networks, has come into existence because of the
increased capabilities of the typical client computer.


Peer-to-Peer Networks


A peer is considered an equal. All computers on a peer-to-peer network can be considered
equals. That is to say, no one computer is in charge of the networks operation. Each computer
controls its own information and is capable of functioning as either a client or a server depending
on which is needed at the time. Peer-to-peer networks are popular as home networks and for use
in small companies because they are inexpensive and easy to install. Most operating systems (the
software that runs the basic computer functionality) come with peer-to-peer networking
capability built in. The only other cost involved with setting up a peer-to-peer network comes
into play if a computer does not have a network interface card, or NIC (the device that physically
connects your computer to your networks cabling), already installed. Typical initial peer-to-peer
networking involves no security measures. Rather, each peer simply shares its resources and
allows others open access to them. In fact, a peer-to-peer network becomes difficult to manage
when more and more security is added to the resources. This is because users control their own
security by adding password protection to each share they create. Shares are any resources users
control on their computers, such as document folders, printers, and other peripherals. Each
shared resource can actually have its own password. Someone wanting access to numerous
shared resources has to remember many passwords. Security on a peer-to- peer network can
quickly become complex and confusing. While peer-to-peer networks are inexpensive to set up,
they are extremely limited in scope. The accepted maximum number of peers that can operate on
a peer-to-peer network is ten. They are, therefore, not appropriatefor larger, more secure
networks.



Server-Based Networks


Unlike peer-to-peer networks that operate without central control and are difficult to secure, a
server-based network offers centralized control and is designed for secured operations. While
there are still both clients and servers on a server-based network, a dedicated server controls the
network. A dedicated server is one that, for all practical purposes, operates solely as a server. A
dedicated server on a server-based network services its network clients by storing data,
applications, and other resources, and then providing access to those resources when called for
by a client. When a client requests a resource such as a document, the server sends the whole
resource (the document) over the network to the client, where it is processed and later returned to
the server for continued storage. Dedicated servers can also control the entire networks security
from one central location or share that control with other specially configured servers. This
central network control also contributes to the economies of scale discussed under the
Facilitating Centralized Management section earlier in this chapter (using similar equipment
results in cheaper equipment prices and fewer training costs) and makes the server-based
network the dominant networking model used in networks today.



Client-Based Networks


Client-based networks are a further refinement to the concept of a serverbased network that
relieves the heavy burden on the networks capacity resulting from frequent server-performed
transactions. A client-based network takes better advantage of the servers powerful processors
and of the increasingly powerful computers used in typical workstations. A clientbased
network utilizes a client workstations power in processing some functions locally while
requesting additional processing from a server whenever it is needed for increased speed.
Client-based network servers process requests from clients and return just the results, rather than
sending the original resource to the client to be processed and returned after computations are
complete. Client-based networks, therefore, take advantage of the powerful processing
capabilities of both the client and the server, as shown in Figure 1.11. This type of arrangement
may include application servers (where entire computer programs are shared from the server)
and communications servers (where e-mail and other communications media are operated).



The Benefits of Networks


Computers operated independently from others are known as stand-alone computers.

Sneakernet was the term used for running data from one computer to another on disk.

Most computer networks develop to facilitate communication, initially to share output
and later to communicate through e-mail.

The ability to share resources is another main purpose for initiating networks.

Peripherals are additional components that attach to computers to expand their use.

Sharing peripherals, such as printers, often offered enough of a cost savings for
companies to invest in networks.

Large computers can be set up as storage locations where data is offloaded and access to
it is controlled by the person storing the data.

Installing an application on a network and then sharing its use cuts down on the storage
space required when multiple users need the same application.

Coworkers discussing each others work, or collaboration, assisted the widespread use of
computers.

Networks help centralize the management of software and maintenance of computers,
such as installing upgrades and backing up data.




Difference between the types of networks


Networks are frequently classified according to the geographical boundaries spanned.

A network contained within a relatively small area, such as a classroom, school, or single
building, is commonly referred to as a local area network.

A network that spans the distance of a typical metropolitan area is sometimes referred to
as a metropolitan area network.

A network covering a larger area than a single city is classified as a wide area network.

Another method used to classify networks focuses on which computer controls the
networks operation.

All computers on a peer-to-peer network can be considered equal.

Peer-to-peer networks are popular as home networks and for use in small companies
because they are inexpensive and easy to install.

Server-based networks offer central control and are designed for secured operations.

A dedicated server operates solely as a server by storing data, applications, and other
resources, and providing access to those resources when called for by a client.

Client-based network servers process requests from clients and return just the results.

Client-based networks take advantage of their own powerful processors as well as the
increasingly powerful computers used as typical workstations.




Network Topologies

This section will introduce you to a number of different network topologies, but this topic is a
lead-in to a bigger topic introduced later in the chapter: Network architecture. A network
architecture is made up of a topology, a cable type, and an access method. Before we can discuss
network architectures, we need to specify what the different types of topologies, cables, and
access methods are.

A network topology is the physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on a
network. There are a number of different network topologies, and a network may be built using
multiple topologies.

The different types of network layouts are:

a. Bus topology
b. Star topology
c. Mesh topology
d. Ring topology
e. Hybrid topology
f. Wireless topology


Bus Topologies

A bus topology uses one cable as a main trunk to connect all of the systems together a bus
topology is very easy to set up and requires no additional hardware such as a hub. The cable is
also called a trunk, a backbone, or a segment. With a bus topology, when a computer sends out a
signal, the signal travels the cable length in both directions from the sending computer. When the
signal reaches the end of the cable length, it bounces back and returns in the direction it came
from. This is known as signal bounce. Signal bounce is a problem, because if another signal is
sent on the cable length at the same time, the two signals will collide and be destroyed and then
must be retransmitted. For this reason, at each end of the cable there is a terminator. The
terminator is designed to absorb the signal when the signal reaches the end, preventing signal
bounce. If there is no termination, the entire network fails because of signal bounce, which also
means that if there is ever a break in the cable, you will have unterminated ends and the entire
network will go down.


Star Topologies

In a star topology, all computers are connected through one central device known as a hub or a
switch. Each workstation has a cable that goes from the network card to the hub device. One of
the major benefits of a star topology is that a break in the cable causes only the workstation that
is connected to the cable to go down, not the entire network, as with a bus topology. Star
topologies are very popular topologies in todays networking environments.


Mesh Topologies

A mesh topology is not very common in computer networking today, but you must understand
the concept for the exam. In a mesh topology, every workstation has a connection to every other
component of the network forming an intricate mesh.


Ring Topologies
In a ring topology, all computers are connected via a cable that loops in a ring or
circle. A ring topology is a circle that has no start and no end. Because there are no ends,
terminators are not necessary in a ring topology. Signals travel in one direction on a ring while
they are passed from one computer to the next, with each computer regenerating the signal so
that it may travel the distance required.

Network Media and Connectors

Cabling is the medium for the transmission of data between hosts on the LANs. LANs can be
connected together using a variety of cable types, such as unshielded twisted-pair, coax, or fibre.
There are three primary types of cable media that can be used to connect systems to a network
coaxial cable, twisted-pair cable, and fibre-optic cable. Transmission rates that can be supported
on each of these physical media are measured in millions of bits per second, or megabits per
second (Mbps).

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial, or coax, cable looks like the cable used to bring the cable TV signal to your television. One
strand (a solid-core copper wire) runs down the middle of the cable. Around that strand is a layer of
insulation, and covering that insulation is braided wire and metal foil, which shields against
electromagnetic interference. A final layer of insulation covers the braided wire. Because of the layers of
insulation, coaxial cable is more resistant to outside interference than other cabling, such as
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cables coaxial cable with the copper core and the layers of
insulation.

Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial cable is not as popular today as it was a few years ago; today the popularity contest has
been dominated by twisted-pair cabling. Twisted-pair cabling gets its name by having four pairs
of wires that are twisted to help reduce crosstalk or interference from outside electrical devices.
(Crosstalk is interference from adjacent
Wires.)

Fiber-Optic Cable
The third type of cabling that we want to discuss is fiber-optic cabling. Fiber-opticcabling is
unlike coax and twisted-pair, because both of those types have a copper wire that carries the
electrical signal. Fiber-optic cables use optical fibers that carry digital data signals in the form of
modulated pulses of light. An optical fiberconsists of an extremely thin cylinder of glass, called
the core, surrounded by a concentric layer of glass, known as the cladding.

Modem
A modem is a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over, for example,
telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information
transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves.

Router
A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least
two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network. Routers are
located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.

Bridges
A device that connects two local-area networks (LANs), or two segments of the same LAN that
use the same protocol, such as Ethernet or Token-Ring.

Hubs
Common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to connect
segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is
copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.

Protocol
An agreed-upon format for transmitting data between two devices. The protocol determines the
following:
the type of error checking to be used
data compression method, if any
how the sending device will indicate that it has finished sending a message
how the receiving device will indicate that it has received a message
There are a variety of standard protocols from which programmers can choose. Each has
particular advantages and disadvantages; for example, some are simpler than others, some are
more reliable, and some are faster.
From a user's point of view, the only interesting aspect about protocols is that your computer or
device must support the right ones if you want to communicate with other computers. The
protocol can be implemented either in hardware or in software.