CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Carbon is an element. It is a non-metal. All the things, plants, and animals, are made up
of carbon compounds (called organic compounds). A large number of things which we
use in our daily life are made of carbon compounds. Carbon compounds play a very
important role in our daily life.
Carbon Always Forms Covalent onds
!he electronic configuration of carbon is " (#), $ (%). It is not possible to remove %
electrons from a carbon atom to give it the inert gas electro arrangement. &ince carbon
atoms can achieve the inert gas electron arrangement only by the sharing of electrons,
therefore, carbon always forms covalent bonds.
Carbon is !etravalent
&ince one carbon atom re'uires % electrons to achieve the eight-electron inert gas
structure, therefore, the valency of carbon is %.
&elf Combination
!he most uni'ue properties of carbon is its ability to combine with itself, atom to atom, to
form long chains. !he properties of self combination of carbon atoms to long chains is
useful to us because it gives rise to an e(tremely large number of carbon compounds (or
organic compounds).
)ccurrence of Carbon
Carbon occurs in nature in *free state+ and in *combined state+.
,. Free &tate - diamond, graphite and fullerene.
#. Combined &tate - carbon dio(ide gas, carbonate, petroleum, coal, fats, protein,
etc..
Allotropes of Carbon
!he various physical forms in which an element can e(ist can called allotropes of the
element.
!he three allotropes of carbon are.
,. /iamond
#. 0raphite, and
1. uc2misterfullerine
/iamond and 0raphite
/iamond is a colorless transparent substance having e(traordinary brilliance. If we burn
diamond in o(ygen then carbon dio(ide gas is formed and nothing is left behind. !his
shows that diamond is made up of carbon only.
0raphite is a grayish-blac2 opa'ue substance. If we burn graphite in o(ygen, then only
carbon dio(ide gas is formed and nothing is left behind. !his shows that graphite is made
up of carbon only.
/iamond and graphite, have entirely different physical properties. !he difference arises
because of the different arrangements of carbon atoms in them.
SUHAIL SIR 9810 678 227 Page ,
&tructure of /iamond
3ach carbon atom in the diamond is lin2ed to four other carbon atoms by strong covalent
bonds. !he rigid structure of diamond ma2es it a very substance. /iamond are non-
conductor of electricity.
&tructure of 0raphite
3ach carbon atom in graphite layer 4oined to three other carbon atoms by strong carbon
atoms. /ue to sheet li2e structure, graphite is a soft substance. 0raphite is a good
conductor of electricity due to the presence of free electrons.
5ses of /iamond
,. /iamonds are used in cutting instrument li2e glass cutters and roc2 drilling
e'uipment.
#. /iamonds are used for ma2ing 4ewelry.
/iamonds can be made artificially by sub4ecting pure carbon to very high pressure
and temperature.
5ses of 0raphite
,. 6owered graphite is used as a lubricant for the fast moving parts of machinery. It
can be used for lubricating those machine parts which operate at very high
temperatures.
#. 0raphite is used for ma2ing carbon electrodes or graphite electrodes in dry cells
and electric arcs.
1. 0raphite is used for ma2ing the cores of our pencils called *pencil leads+ and
blac2 paints.
uc2minsterfullerene
uc2minsterfullerene is an allotrope of carbon containing cluster of 78 carbon atoms
4oined together to form spherical molecules. It is a dar2 solid at room temperature.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
!he compounds of carbon are 2nown as organic compounds. Carbon compounds (or
organic compounds) are covalent compounds having low melting points and boiling
points. 9ost of the carbon compounds are non-conductor of electricity. )rganic
compounds occur in all living things li2e plants and animals.
!hough o(ides of carbon li2e carbon mono(ide and carbon dio(ides are also carbon
compounds but they are not considered to be organic compounds.
:eason for large number of organic compounds
,. )ne reason for the e(istence of a large number of organic compounds or carbon
compounds is that carbon atoms can lin2 with one another by means of covalent
bonds to form long chains of carbon atom.
#. Another reason for the e(istence of a large number of organic compounds or
carbon compounds is that the valency of carbon is %.
SUHAIL SIR 9810 678 227 Page #
;</:)CA:)=&
A compound made up of hydrogen and carbon only is called hydrocarbon. !he most
important natural source of hydrocarbons is petroleum.
!ypes of hydrocarbons
,. &aturated hydrocarbons (Al2anes)
A hydrocarbon in which one carbon atoms are connected by only single bonds is
called a saturated hydrocarbon. !he general formula of saturated hydrocarbons or
al2anes is Cn;#n># where n is the number of carbon atoms in one molecule of
al2ane.
#. 5nsaturated ;ydrocarbons (Al2enes and Al2ynes)
A hydrocarbon in which the two carbon atoms are connected by a *double bond+
pr a *triple bond+ is called an unsaturated hydrocarbon.
(i) Al2enes
An unsaturated hydrocarbon in which two carbon atoms are connected by a
double bond is called an al2ene. !he general formula of an al2ene is Cn;#n where
n is the number of carbon atoms in its one molecule.
(ii) Al2ynes
An unsaturated hydrocarbon in which the two carbon atoms are connected by a
triple bond is called an al2yne. !he general formula of al2ynes is Cn;#n-# where n
is the number of carbon atoms in one molecules of the al2ynes.
Al2yl 0roups
!he group formed by the removal of one hydrogen atom form an al2ane molecule is
called al2yl group.
C<C$IC ;</:)CA:)=&
,. A saturated cyclic hydrocarbon is *cyclohe(ane+
!he formula of cyclohe(ane is C7;,#. A molecule of cyclohe(ane contains 7
carbon atoms arranged in a he(agonal ring with carbon atom having # hydrogen
atoms attached to it. !he cycloal2ane having 1 carbon atoms in the ring is called
cyclopropane (C1;7). !he cycloal2ane with % carbon atoms in ring is called
cyclobutane (C%;?).
#. An unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbon is *ben@ene+
!he formula of ben@ene is C7;7 . A carbon atom has 1 carbon-carbon double
bonds and 1 carbon-carbon single bonds arranged in he(agonal ring. It has also 7
carbon-hydrogen single bonds.
=A9I=0 )F ;</:)CA:)=&
,. !he number of carbon atom in hydrocarbon is indicated by using the following
stems.
)ne carbon atomsA*9eth+
!wo carbon atomsA*3th+
!hree carbon atomsA*6rop+
Four carbon atomsA*ut+
Four carbon atomsA*ut+
SUHAIL SIR 9810 678 227 Page 1
Five carbon atomsA*6ent+
&i( carbon atomsA*;e(+
&even carbon atomsA*;ept+
3ight carbon atomsA*)ct+
=ine carbon atomsA*=on+
!en carbon atomsA*/ec+
#. A saturated hydrocarbon containing single bonds is indicated by writing the word
*ane+ after the stem.
1. An unsaturated hydrocarbon containing a double bond is indicated by writing the
word *ene+ after the stem.
%. An unsaturated hydrocarbon containing a triple bond is indicated by writing the
word *yne+ after the stem.
I56AC =omenclature for branched-Chain &aturated ;ydrocarbons
,. !he longest chain of carbon atoms in the structure of the compound is found
first. !he compound is then named as a derivative of the al2ane hydrocarbon
which corresponds to the longest chain of carbon atoms.
#. !he al2yl groups present as sight chains are considered as constituents and
named separately as methyl (C;1-) or ethyl (C#;B-) groups.
1. !he carbon atoms of the longest carbon chain are numbered in such a way
that the al2yl groups get the lowest possible number.
%. !he position of al2yl group is indicated by writing the number of carbon atom
to which it is attached.
B. !he I56AC name of the compound is obtained by writing the *position and
name of al2yl group+ 4ust before the name of *parent hydrocarbon+.
I&)93:&
!he organic compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures are
2nown as isomers. Isomerism is possible only with hydrocarbons having % or more
carbon atoms. =o isomerism is possible in methane, ethane and propane. !wo isomers of
the compound butane (C%;,8) are possible. !hree isomers of the compound pentane
(CB;,#) are possible.
;)9)$)0)5& &3:I3&
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds having similar structures and
similar chemical properties in which the successive compounds differ by C;# group.
Characteristics of a ;omologous &eries
,. All the members of a homologous series can be represented by the same general
formula.
#. Any two ad4acent homologous differ by , carbon atom and # hydrogen atoms in
their molecular formula.
1. !he difference in the molecular masses of any two ad4acent homologous is ,%u.
%. All the compounds of a homologous series show similar chemical properties.
B. !he members of a homologous series show a gradual change in their physical
properties with increase in molecular formula.
SUHAIL SIR 9810 678 227 Page %
F5=C!I)=A$ 0:)56&
An *atom+ or *a group of atoms+ which ma2es a carbon compound reactive and
decides its properties (or function) is called a functional group.
,. ;alo group. -C (C can be Cl, r or I)
!he halo group can be, -ClD bromo, -rD or iodo, -I, depending upon whether a
chlorine, bromine or iodine atom is lin2ed to a carbon atom of the organic
compound. ;alo group is also 2nown as halogeno group.
#. Alcohol 0roup. -);
!he alcohol group (-);) is 2nown as alcoholic group or hydro(yl group. !he
compounds containing alcohol group are 2nown as alcohols. 3(ample -
methanol C;1);, ethanol C#;B);.
1. Aldehyde 0roup. -C;)
In aldehyde group the ; atom is attached by single bond and the ) atom is
attached with double bond with carbon atom. !he compounds containing
aldehyde group are 2nown as aldehydes. 3(amples - methane ;C;), ethane
C;1C;).
%. "etone 0roup. -C)-
!he group is 2nown as 2etonic group. !he compounds containing 2etonic
group are 2nown as 2etones. 3(amples are. propanone, C;1C)C;1, and
butanone, C;1C)C;#C;1
B. Carbo(ylic Acid 0roup. -C));
!he carbo(ylic acid group is 2nown as carbo(ylic group or organic group. !he
organic compound containing carbo(ylic acid group is 2nown as carbo(ylic
acid or organic acid.
7. Al2ene 0roup.
!he al2ene group is a carbon-carbon double bond. 3(amples. ethane, propene.
E. Al2yne 0roup.
!he al2yne group is a carbon-carbon triple bond. 3(amples. ethyne, propyne.
All organic compounds having same functional group show similar chemical properties.
;A$)A$"A=3&
Fhen one hydrogen atom is replaced by a halogen atom, haloal2ane is formed.
:eplace one ; by Cl
C;% C;1Cl
9ethane Cloromethane
!he general formula of haloal2ane is Cn;#n>,-C (where C represents Cl, r, or I).
A$C);)$&
!he hydro(yl group attached to a carbon atom is 2nown as alcohol group.
:eplace by ; by );
C;% C;1-);
9ethane 9ethanol
!he general formula of alcohols is Cn;#n>,-);.
In the naming of alcohols by I56AC method, the last *e+ of the parent *al2ane+ is replaced
by *ol+ to indicate the presence of ); group.
SUHAIL SIR 9810 678 227 Page B
A$/3;/3&
Aldehydes are the carbon compounds containing an aldehyde group attached to a carbon
atom. !he general formula of aldehydes is Cn;#n).
!he I56AC method , the last *e+ is replaced by *al+ to indicated the aldehyde group.
"3!)=3&
!he simplest 2etone contains three carbon atoms in it. !he general formula of 2etone is
Cn;#n). C1;7) is written as C;1C)C;1.
In naming the 2etones by the I56AC method, the last *e+ of the parent al2ane is replaced
by *one+ to indicate the presence of 2etone group.
CA:)C<$IC ACI/&
!he general formula of carbo(ylic acid is :-C)); where : is al2yle group. Formic acid
;C)); is the simplest carbo(ylic acid.
!he I56AC name of an organic acid is obtained by replacing the last *e+ of the parent
al2ane by *oic+ and adding the word *acid+ to the name thus obtained.
COAL AND PETROLEUM
Fhen a fuel is burned, the energy is released mainly as heat. 9ost of the fuels are
obtained by coal, 6etroleum and natural gas.
Coal is comple( mi(ture of compounds of carbon, hydrogen and o(ygen and some free
carbon. &mall amounts of nitrogen and sulphur compounds are also present in coal.
C;39IA$ 6:)63:!I3& )F CA:)= C)96)5=/&
,. Combustion (or urning)
!he process of burning of a carbon compound in air to give carbon dio(ide, water, heat
and light, is 2nown as combustion. Al2anes burn in air to produce a lot of heat due to
which al2anes are e(cellent fuels.
C;% > #)# C)# > #;#) > ;eat > $ight
!he saturated hydrocarbons, carbon and its composition are used as fuels because they in
air releasing a lot of heat energy.
!he saturated hydrocarbons burn in air with a blue, non sooty flame. If however, the
supply of air for burning is reduced, then incomplete combustion of even saturated
hydrocarbons ta2e place and they burn producing sooty flame.
!he unsaturated hydrocarbons burn in air with a yellow, sooty flame. If unsaturated
hydrocarbons are burned in pure o(ygen, then they will burn completely producing a
sooty flame.
#. &ubstitution :eaction
!he reaction in which one hydrogen atoms of hydrocarbon are replaced by some other
atoms, is called a substitution reaction. &ubstitution reactions are a characteristic property
of saturated hydrocarbons or al2anes.
&aturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reaction with chlorine in presence of
sunlight.
C;% > Cl# C;1Cl > ;Cl
1. Addition :eaction
SUHAIL SIR 9810 678 227 Page 7
Addition reactions (li2e the addition of hydrogen, chlorine or bromine) are characteristic
properties of unsaturated hydrocarbons. Addition reactions are given by all the al2enes
and al2ynes.
3thene reacts with hydrogen when heated in presence of nic2el to form ethane.
C;#GC;# > ;# C;1-C;1
!he addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated hydrocarbon is called hydrogenation.
&ome Important Carbon Compounds
3!;A=)$
!he common name of ethanol is ethyl alcohol. 3thanol is a neutral compound. It has no
effect on any litmus solution.
Chemical properties
,. Combustion
3thanol burns in air to form carbon dio(ide and water vapour, and releasing lot of heat
and light.
C#;B); > 1)# #C)# > 1;#) > heat > light
#. )(idation
Fhen ethanol is heated with al2aline potassium permanganate solution it o(idi@ed to
ethanoic acid.
C;1C;#); > #H)I C;1C)); > ;#)
1. :eaction with sodium metal
3thanol reacts with sodium to form sodium etho(ide and hydrogen gas.
#C#;B); > #=a #C#;B)
-
=a
>
%. /ehydration
Fhen ethanol is heated with e(cess of concentrated sulphuric acid it gets dehydrated to
form ethane.
C;1-C;#); C;#GC;# > ;#)
B. :eaction with 3thanoic Acid
3thanol reacts with ethanoic acid on warming in presence of concentrated sulphuric acid
to form ester, ethyl ethanoate.
C;1C)); > C#;B); C;1C))C#;B > ;#)
3!;A=)IC ACI/
!he common name of ethanoic acid is acetic acid.
Chemical 6roperties
,. Action on $itmus
3thnoic acid is acidic in nature. It turns blue litmus paper to red.
#. :eaction with Carbonate
3thanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate to form sodium ethanoid and carbon dio(ide
C;1C)); > =a;C)1 C;1C))=a > C)# > ;#)
1. :eaction with ;ydrogencaronate
3thanonic acid reacts with sodium hydrogencarbonate to form carbon dio(ide
C;1C)); > =a;C)1 C;1C))=a > C)# > ;#)
B. :eaction with sodium hydro(ide
3thanoic acid reacts with bases to form salts and water.
C;1C)); > =a); C;1C))=a > ;#)
SUHAIL SIR 9810 678 227 Page E
&)A6&
A soap is the sodium salt of a long chain carbo(ylic acid which has cleansing properties
in water. 3(amples of the soaps are. sodium stearate (C,E;1BC))
-
=a
>
) and sodium
palmitate (C,B;1,C))
-
=a
>
).
&tructure of &oap 9olecule.-
A soap molecule is made up of two parts. a long hydrocarbon part and a short ionic part
containing -C))
-
=a
>
group.
!he hydrocarbon part of the soap molecule is soluble in oil or grease, so it can attach to
the oil and grease particles present on dirty clothes. !he ionic part of soap molecule is
soluble in water, so it can attach to the water particles. A *spherical aggregate of soap
molecule+ is called a *micelle+. 9icelle formation ta2es place when soap is added to
water because the hydrocarbon chains of soap molecules are hydrophobic (water
repelling) which are insoluble in water, but the ionic ends of soap molecules are
hydrophilic (water attracting) and hence soluble in water.
/3!3:03=!&
/etergents are also called *soap-less soaps+ because through they act li2e a soap in having
the cleansing properties, they do not contain the *soap+ li2e sodium stearate, etc.
A detergent is the sodium salt of a long chain ben@ene sulphonic acid which has cleansing
properties in water. 3(amples are. C;1-(C;#),,-C7;%-&)1
-
=a
>
(sodium n-dodecyl ben@ene
sulphonate), and C;1-(C;#),8-C;#-&)%
-
=a
>
(sodium n-dodecyl sulphate). !he cleansing
action of a detergent is similar to that of a salt.
SUHAIL SIR 9810 678 227 Page ?