Orion Electronics Ltd. GPS Technical Reference Guide

ORION ELECTRONICS LIMITED
global leader of gps tracking solutions

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T E C H N I C A L R E F E R E N C E G U I D E r e v 1 . 3
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O R I O N E L E C T R O N I C S L I M I T E D
Special Thanks and Acknowledgements
This technical reference guide was a substantial undertaking and could not have been completed without
the support of many exceptional people. The information that is included in this handbook has been
derived from several sources, and it is only with the valuable input of these many specialized individuals,
that the information presented here is as valid and accurate as it resulted in being. We sincerely thank all
those who have provided content over the years, and to those who continue to provide new information
on emerging technologies.
Above all else, thank-you, the readers and loyal patrons of Orion Electronics for making us strive to
serve you beter everyday. None of this would have been possible if not for your ongoing support of our
products and services. We always welcome your feedback and look forward to improving this manual to
serve you beter in future years!
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO GPS
Chapter 1 - Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Global Positioning System (GPS) ............................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Law Enforcement Uses of GPS ................................................................................................................... 9
1.3 GPS - One More Tool in the Belt ..............................................................................................................10
1.4 Starting a New Case Using GPS ...............................................................................................................11
1.5 Assisted GPS (AGPS) ....................................................................................................................................13
1.6 Enhanced GPS ...............................................................................................................................................15
1.7 Differential GPS .............................................................................................................................................16
1.8 Errors in GPS ...................................................................................................................................................17
Improving GPS Accuracy ...........................................................................................................................18
1.9 GPS Has Its Day in Court ............................................................................................................................20
CHAPTER 2 GPS TRACKING FOR LAW ENFORCEMENT
Chapter 2 - Introduction ........................................................................................................................................22
2.1 Data Logging / Memory Tracking ...........................................................................................................23
2.2 Near Real Time Tracking .............................................................................................................................24
2.3 Real Time / Live Tracking ............................................................................................................................25
2.4 Multi / Team Tracking .................................................................................................................................. 26
CHAPTER 3 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
3.1 Wireless RF
Spread Spectrum Unlicensed Radio ..................................................................................................31
Radio Frequency Direction Finding - (RF) Tracking ..........................................................................32
Long Range RF (Loran) ................................................................................................................35
Short Range RF (Zigbee & Bluetooth) ...................................................................................37
Paging Overview ..........................................................................................................................................40
Cellular Intercept Receiver Tracking ......................................................................................................42
3.2 Introduction to Digital Communication ..............................................................................................43
3.3 Wireless Data Networks .............................................................................................................................44
Circuit Switched Communication ..........................................................................................................45
Packet Switched Communication ..........................................................................................................46
Analog Cellular - AMPS...............................................................................................................................47
Digital Cellular
CDMA ................................................................................................................................................48
GPRS ..................................................................................................................................................49
CDMA 2000 .....................................................................................................................................50
W-CDMA ..........................................................................................................................................51
GSM ............................................................................................................................................52
TDMA/ D-AMPS .............................................................................................................................53
Digital Data over AMPS
CDPD .................................................................................................................................................54
Low Speed Packet Radio
DataTAC ............................................................................................................................................55
Mobitex ............................................................................................................................................56
High Speed Packet Radio
iDEN ...................................................................................................................................................58
Data Over Low-Orbitting Satellite ..........................................................................................................59
3.4 Wireless Communications Summary ....................................................................................................61
3.5 Coverage Maps Examples .........................................................................................................................62
3.6 International Standards and Roaming .................................................................................................63
CHAPTER 4 GPS ACCESSORIES
4.1 Antenna Overview .......................................................................................................................................67
GPS Antennas ................................................................................................................................................69
4.2 Camera Surveillance Overview ...............................................................................................................70
4.3 Microphone Overview ................................................................................................................................71
4.4 Batteries ...........................................................................................................................................................72
CHAPTER 5 INSTALLATION TIPS & TOOLS
Chapter 5 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................78
5.1 Installation Preparation ..............................................................................................................................79
5.2 Covert GPS Tracking Installation .............................................................................................................80
5.3 GPS Installation Equipment Checklist ..................................................................................................81
5.4 Legal Aspects of Covert GPS Tracking ..................................................................................................83
5.5 GPS Covert Tracking Unit Installation Tips ..........................................................................................84
5.6 Security Systems ...........................................................................................................................................85
5.7 Example of GPS Digital Switching Setup .............................................................................................86
5.8 Homemade GPS Battery Calculator .......................................................................................................87
5.9 Modem Overview & AT Command Sets ...............................................................................................89
CHAPTER 6 INTRODUCTION TO ORION EQUIPMENT
6.1 Product Requirements Flowchart ..........................................................................................................93
6.2 Orion Product Features Matrix ................................................................................................................94
CHAPTER 7 WARNINGS & SAFETY CONCERNS
7.1 Battery Disposal ............................................................................................................................................99
7.2 Radio Frequency Communications and Your Health .......................................................................99
7.3 How to Solder Safely ................................................................................................................................ 100
7.4 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) ................................................................................................................ 101
APPENDICES
A Basic Electronics and Denitions ......................................................................................................... 104
B Basic Electronic Formulas ....................................................................................................................... 108
C Basic Battery Reference ........................................................................................................................... 109
D Basic Antenna Reference ........................................................................................................................ 110
E Metric Prexes ............................................................................................................................................. 111
F At Command Reference Chart .............................................................................................................. 112
G Installation Tool Sources ......................................................................................................................... 113
H Cellular Network Providers (US & CDN) ............................................................................................. 114
I Cellular Network System / Band Frequency Chart ......................................................................... 115
GLOSSARY
Glossary of Acronyms and Terms ..................................................................................................................... 118
REFERENCE INFORMATION
References and Useful Websites ....................................................................................................................... 134
ORION ELECTRONICS LTD CONTACT INFORMATION
Address, Website, Contact Names .................................................................................................................... 142
Chapt er 1
I nt r oduct i on t o GPS
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
This chapter will discuss a wealth of information covering GPS technologies and how they
can be applied to serve the Law Enforcement community. Each section will review the details
of some of the more common forms of GPS, and how these particular systems works.
An Introduction to GPS
Each satellite is equipped with an accurate clock,
allowing it to broadcast signals coupled with its location
and a precise time message. The signals from the
satellites travel through the atmosphere at the speed of
light, so the time that it takes for the message to reach
the receiver can be used, together with the speed of
light, to determine the distance that the satellite is from
the receiver. To measure precise latitude, longitude, and
altitude, the receiver measures the time it took for the
signals from four separate satellites to get to it.

For a GPS receiver to nd your location, it has to
determine two things:
The location of at least three,
preferably four, satellites above
you. (With only 3 satellites, the
receiver will be able to give
you your location, but not your
altitude.)
The distance between you and each
of those satellites triangulation.
How Accurate Is It?
Using a commercially available GPS
receiver, the system can tell you your
location anywhere on or above the
Earth to within approximately 300 feet.
Even greater accuracy, usually within
less than three feet, can be obtained
with corrections calculated by a GPS
1.1 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)
What is GPS?
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a system that is able to show you your exact position on the
Earth at anytime, and in any weather. It is funded and controlled by the United States Department of
Defense (DOD). GPS satellites, 24 in all, orbit at 11,000 nautical miles above the Earth. Five ground
stations distributed worldwide, continuously monitor these satellites. The satellites transmit signals
that can be detected by anyone with a GPS receiver. Using the receiver, you can determine your
location with great precision (Figure 1).
Figure 1
3 GPS segments: the space segment, the user segment and the control segment
receiver at a known xed location. This is what is known
as Differential GPS, and will be discussed in greater
detail, later in this chapter.
Remember that all reports on accuracy depend on a
variety of factors. If you are doing a covert installation,
you are rarely going to get ideal reception of the GPS
signals. This will decrease your accuracy. Be wary of
people telling you that they get accuracy of 3 feet with
their commercial grade receivers. Three hundred feet
might sound like a lot but if you installed the system
on a car, nding that car in a 300 foot circle should be
pretty easy.
The application of GPS generally falls into one of the
following ve real-world categories:
Location - determining a basic position
Navigation - getting from one location to another
Tracking - monitoring the movement of objects and
people
Mapping - creating maps of the world
Timing - bringing precise timing to the world
The GPS system was designed by and is controlled by the
United States Department of Defense and can be used by
anyone, free of charge. Russia operates an independent
system called GLONASS (global navigation system),
although with only 12 active satellites as of 2004 the
system is of limited usefulness. The GPS system is
divided into three segments: space, control, and user.
Space
The space segment is comprised of the GPS satellite
constellation.
Control
The control segment is comprised of ground stations
around the world that are responsible for monitoring
the ight paths of the GPS satellites, synchronizing
the satellites onboard atomic clocks, and uploading
almanac data for transmission by the satellites.
User
The user segment is comprised of GPS receivers used
for both military and civilian applications. A GPS
receiver (GPSR) decodes time signal transmissions from
multiple satellites and calculates its position through
trilateration.
Each satellite circles the Earth twice every day at an
altitude of 20,200 kilometers (12,600 miles). The
satellites carry atomic clocks and constantly broadcast
the precise time according to their own clock, along
with administrative information including the orbital
elements of their own motion, as determined by a set of
ground-based observatories.
1. The basis of GPS is triangulation from satellites.
2. To triangulate, a GPS receiver measures distance
using the travel time of radio signals.
3. To measure travel time, GPS needs very accurate
timing which it achieves with some tricks.
4. Along with distance, you need to know exactly
where the satellites are in space. High orbits and
careful monitoring are the secret.
5. Finally you must correct for any delays the signal
experiences as it travels through the atmosphere. By
very, very accurately measuring our distance from
three satellites we can triangulate our position
anywhere on earth.
By ranging from three satellites we can narrow our
position to just two points in space. To conrm the
true GPS location, we can make a fourth measurement.
But usually one of the two points is a ridiculous answer
(either too far from Earth or moving at an impossible
velocity) and can be rejected without a measurement.
Getting Perfect Timing
Accurate timing is the key to measuring distance to
satellites. Satellites are accurate because they have
atomic clocks on board. If measuring the travel time of
a radio signal is the key to GPS, then our stop watches
had better be darn good, because if their timing is off
by just a thousandth of a second, at the speed of light,
that translates into almost 200 miles of error! Receiver
clocks dont have to be too accurate because an extra
satellite range measurement can remove errors.
The Pseudo Random Code (PRC) is a fundamental
part of GPS. Physically its just a very complicated
digital code, or in other words, a complicated sequence
of on and off pulses. The signal is so complicated
that it almost looks like random electrical noise. Hence
the name Pseudo-Random.
Since each satellite has its own unique Pseudo-Random
Code, this complexity also guarantees that the receiver
wont accidentally pick up another satellites signal. So
all the satellites can use the same frequency without
jamming each other. And it makes it more difcult for
a hostile force to jam the system. In fact, the Pseudo
Random Code gives the DoD a way to control access to
the system.
Getting to Know GPS How GPS Works in 5 Logical Steps
Now that we have seen how GPS technology works, and
what methods we can use it in, lets examine a few of
the GPS specic features that pertain to law enforcement
ofcials, in particular.
Auto Call Out
Almost all real-time, as well as some near-real time
units can perform these functions. Auto call outs are
used to monitor a targets activity without 24 hour live
monitoring. Most units will notify users of motion,
boundary, input, as well as low battery voltage variations.
Different manufacturers offer different call out options
so check with them for specic details.
Motion This specication noties the user as soon as
the vehicle begins to move, or stops moving.
Boundary The unit can be programmed to page the
user on entry or exit of a geographical area, as determined
by the user. A notication will be sent if the target should
enter or exit this pre-determined boundary.
Input This setting is an internal switch that will notify
the user of a sensor being tripped. For example, if a
switch has been put in place to monitor the activity of
a targets car trunk, a notication will be sent each and
every time that trunk is opened.
Low Battery This convenient feature allows the user
to set their own battery threshold. Based on this pre-
determined level of battery life, the device will page and
notify the user once this level has been reached. This is
a great tool to warn investigators in advance when the
battery is getting low and will soon need replacing.
Ofce Tracking
This tracking method permits observing real or near real
time events from the safety of the ofce via a modem and
land line telephone. Because of the ability to download
remotely in real or near real time tracking, ofce tracking
can be applied in either of these cases, thus freeing up
the time of the ofcer.
Mobile Tracking
Taking a laptop (with the appropriate installed software),
a cellular phone (either analog or digital), and obtaining
a wireless modem, the user can track in real time from
their own vehicle at a safe distance. Self-tracking is
also a common feature used in mobile tracking whereby
the user can view the exact location of themselves, as
well as the target, on a street level map. This allows
the agent to determine their proximity to the target at all
times, and allows them to follow without being noticed.
This feature, only possible in real time units, is ideal for
use with cases where the suspect is considered dangerous
or may need to be intercepted and apprehended at any
point. With mobile tracking, the user can pursue the
target through dense trafc, poor weather conditions, and
unfamiliar surroundings, while still being able to visually
observe the target once it reaches its destination.
Figure 2
GPS satellite orbiting the earth
1.2 LAW ENFORCEMENT USES OF GPS
The goal of most any investigation is to try to get
information about a crime that has happened, an ongoing
crime, or a crime that is about to happen. Investigators
use a variety of tools to get this information; informants,
under-cover agents, electronic surveillance devices and
plain old legwork. GPS technology is just one more tool
in the arsenal of the modern day technical investigator.
The most important part of a GPS system is its ability
to get precise positional information. Combine this with
an ability to store this information in memory for later
retrieval, or transmit it in real time, and you have a
really useful tool. It can be used for deducing a persons
whereabouts at a given time, or for tying someone to a
location.
Figure 4
Track across the country or even across the world!
Example: If you have a drug runners car tagged with a
GPS system and you see them visit a certain house on a
regular basis, you can start a visual surveillance to nd
out whats in that house. Hopefully its that big cocaine
importer youve been tasked with nding.
The two best things about a GPS tracking system are
its scope and its precision. Look at the maps below. In
Figure 21, you have a street level track through Kansas
City - perfect for identifying where the person went
and when. On Figure 22, you have a track stretching
from Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada to Baton Rouge,
Louisiana, USA.
Figure 3
Urban tracking on street level maps
1.3 GPS - ONE MORE TOOL IN THE BELT
Figure 5
GPS Track Data with
Satellite Imagery
1. Make sure that the units memory has been properly
downloaded and stored from any previous cases,
so that it may be cleared in preparation for a new
case.

2. Make sure that the unit has been supplied with a
fresh set of batteries, as even new batteries, kept in
storage will deteriorate over time.
3. Power up the unit and allow it to acquire a current
GPS almanac, before installing it for a new case. If
the device has not been used for a period of time
or the location of the device has changed greatly
between the last time it was taking xes and now,
then the device may need to re-acquire its GPS
almanac. The denition of the GPS almanac is as
follows:
Information transmitted by each satellite on the
orbits and state (health) of every satellite in the
GPS constellation. Almanac data allows the GPS
receiver to rapidly acquire satellites shortly after it
is turned on.
Be advised that this process may take up to 20
minutes, making it vital that this step is performed
before installing the unit on a target. Once a unit is
installed, its gone and missing this step could easily
make or break the case.
4. Perform a brief examination of the unit to ensure
it is functioning properly. This should include
checking the units settings using any applicable
test boxes. This guarantees that the unit is able to
accept incoming calls (where applicable), and is
taking xes correctly.
1.4 STARTING A NEW CASE USING GPS
Acquisition / Almanac
Some very important steps should be taken into account before considering any stored GPS tracking
device for a new case. Please be aware that before installing any GPS unit that has been stored for any
number of weeks, users should:
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is the international
standard time reference, based on the time of day in
London, England. As you know, the time on the East
Coast is different from that on the West, and as you cross
from one Time Zone to the next you change your watch.
GPS satellites report current time in Greenwich Mean
Time (a.k.a, Universal Time or zulu time). Satellites
and Tracking Systems use GMT, because it is the same
all over the world.
You can input a local offset (or difference) from GMT
so that the unit will display your local time. Your local
Figure 6
Global Time Zone Map
time is behind or ahead of GMT depending on where
you are in relation to Greenwich, England. Although all
GPS data is collected and stored in GMT (or Greenwich
Mean Time), data downloaded is often associated with
a GMT offset so that it can be viewed in local time. Be
sure to set a correct GMT offset, if required, to view
your downloaded data in your local time. It will also
be worthwhile to note the daylight savings time, where
applicable, for the same reason.
A global Time Zone Map is provided below to assist you
in determining the appropriate value for local offset in
your area.
1.5 AGPS - ASSISTED GPS
Assisted Global Positioning System
Assisted GPS is becoming a commonplace term. Simply
put, assisted GPS (AGPS) describes a system where
outside sources, such as an assistance server and reference
network, help a GPS receiver (as found in more and
more of todays cellular phones) map out the position
of the GPS receiver. Although GPS provides excellent
position accuracy, position xes require lines of sight to
the satellites. In urban areas, when the user is located in
urban canyons, under heavy tree cover, or even indoors,
Assisted GPS is a technology that can be used to triangulate
the position. It is becoming more popular and is commonly
associated with Location Based Services.
There are at least three components to assisted GPS. The
rst is determining an approximate location of the receiver
using some mechanism other than the GPS system. An
example of this might be a database which uses the cell
tower id to look up the geographical co-ordinates of the cell
tower (assuming the GPS receiver is in this case part of a
cell phone). The second is using that approximate location
to determine where the receiver should be looking for
GPS satellites. This requires a combination of observation
and sophisticated calculations on the part of the network.
The third component is using network resources to move
the work of calculation from the GPS receiver, into the
network, allowing the receiver to be simpler, cheaper, and
less power-hungry.
An assistance server communicates with the GPS receiver
via a wireless link. With assistance from the network, the
receiver can operate more quickly and efciently than
it would unassisted, because a set of tasks that it would
normally handle is shared with the assistance server. The
resulting AGPS system, consisting of the integrated GPS
receiver and network components, boosts performance
beyond that of the same receiver in a stand-alone mode.
Cellular telephones with embedded GPS engines will be
a reality for many in the near future. The development of
these phones is being fuelled, in part, by the U.S. Federal
Communications Commissions E-911 mandate requiring
the position of a cell phone to be available to emergency
call dispatchers.
There are three basic types of data that the assistance server
provides to the GPS receiver: precise GPS satellite orbit
and clock information; initial position and time estimate;
and for AGPS-only receivers, satellite selection, range, and
range-rate information. The assistance server is also able
to compute position solutions, leaving the GPS receiver
with the sole job of collecting range measurements.
Figure 7
Assisted GPS
Localization Based Systems
LBS are Localization Based Systems. One can nd several
types:
Cell ID The precision of this method is 200 meters
in urban areas, 2 km in suburban areas and 3-4 km in
rural zones.
Enhanced Cell ID With this method one can get a
precision similar to Cell ID, but for rural areas, with
circular sectors of 550 meters.
TOA Time Of Arrival
AOA Angle Of Arrival
E-OTD This is similar to TOA, but the position is
estimated by the mobile phone, not by the base station.
The precision of this method depends on the number
of available LMUs in the networks, varying from 50
to 200m.
Assisted-GPS requires a worldwide tracking network for
obtaining the navigation messages of all satellites and
data processing hubs, along with a server which feeds
data to a Serving Mobile Location Center (SMLC) or
Mobile Position Center (MPC) operated by a network
service provider. Data is sent to individual cell phones
using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and the Short
Messaging Service (SMS).
AGPS architectures increase the capability of a stand-alone
receiver to conserve battery power, acquire and track more
satellites, thereby improving observation geometry, and
increase sensitivity over a conventional GPS architecture.
These enhanced capabilities come from knowledge of the
satellite position and velocity, the initial receiver position,
and time supplied by the assistance server.
Assisted GPS & Time-to-First-Fix
Time-to-rst-x (TTFF) is reduced as a result of the
fewer frequency bins which must be searched to acquire
the signal. TTFF is further reduced because the receiver
no longer has the task of decoding the navigation data
bits, a task that takes tens of seconds. Instead, the
assistance server provides the satellite orbit and clock
parameter values to the receiver. Shorter TTFF results
in reduced power consumption because the system does
not have to wait for the GPS receiver to decode the
navigation data for each visible satellite. See Figure 8
for a visual comparison between TTFF for assisted and
unassisted GPS.
Increased receiver sensitivity is directly related to
the TTFF and the number of frequency bins which
must be searched to nd a satellite signal. Because
the receiver has fewer frequency bins to search in an
AGPS architecture, it can dwell in each bin for longer
periods of time. This additional dwell time increases
the sensitivity of the receiver, so that it can use signal
strengths below the conventional thresholds to make
range measurements. In addition, when the higher
sensitivity is required, the navigation data bits would
be difcult if not impossible to decode. Therefore, this
technique allows the use of satellite data which would
have otherwise been unavailable.
Although discussions of TTFF and navigation data
bits are compelling to engineers, the real reason for
implementing AGPS is customer satisfaction when
using location or E-911 services. With AGPS, the
position can be computed more quickly, on the order
of a few seconds. If the position solution took minutes,
as is common with warm starts in conventional GPS
receivers, the consumer might become frustrated while
waiting and wonder whether there was anything wrong
with the phone. The typical cell phone consumer has
grown accustomed to applications which work in a few
seconds. Location services should behave the same
way to gain customer acceptance beyond those already
familiar with, and accustomed to, the performance of
GPS receivers.
AGPS assistance data will be transmitted by cellular
network operators using CDMA packet data (1X) or
GPRS. Assistance is possible since the cellular operator
can determine, roughly, where the mobile phone is
by using techniques such as cell site identication, or
triangulation of cellular voice or data signals.
Figure 8
Assisted GPS vs Unassisted GPS
The words Code-Phase and Carrier-Phase may
sound like electronic mumbo-jumbo but, in fact, they
just refer to the particular signal that we use for timing
measurements. Using the GPS carrier frequency can
signicantly improve the accuracy of GPS.
Remember that a GPS receiver determines the travel time
of a signal from a satellite by comparing the pseudo
random code its generating, with an identical code in
the signal from the satellite. The receiver slides its code
later and later in time until it syncs up with the satellites
code. The amount it has to slide the code is equal to the
signals travel time.
Thats the problem with code-phase GPS. Its comparing
pseudo random codes that have a cycle width of almost
a microsecond. And at the speed of light a microsecond
is almost 300 meters of error!
So the trick with carrier-phase GPS is to use code-
phase techniques to get close. Resolving this carrier
phase ambiguity for just a few cycles is a much more
tractable problem and as the computers inside the
receivers get smarter and smarter its becoming possible
to make this kind of measurement without all the ritual
that surveyors go through.
Enhanced GPS (or Super Sensitive GPS) are terms
used to describe a new generation of GPS receivers.
These receivers are much more sensitive than older
types, and are often able to determine their position
in very tough areas. The E-GPS seeks to capture the
best-quality signals from either satellites or cellular
base stations, whichever has a preferred position x at
that precise time. Enhanced GPS receivers dont need
to use information from any external source, however,
enhanced GPS receivers can be more reliable with the
help of assistance data.
What does this mean? When considering a GPS system,
the use of Assisted GPS or Enhanced GPS is a plus. Any
tool that can allow you to get positional information in
areas where traditional GPS cant perform is a good
thing.
1.6 E-GPS ENHANCED GPS
The Evolution of GPS Enhanced GPS
Figure 9
Diagram of DBS E-GPS, also known as DE-GPS
Using a conventional GPS receiver
in dense urban areas, a large portion
of the sky is frequently obstructed
by buildings, making it impossible
to see a sufcient number of
GPS satellites. The DE-GPS
technique allows a GPS receiver to
use the signal from a DBS satellite
when it is in a bad spot. To do so,
the DE-GPS receiver must obtain
assistance information from a
remote server. This assistance
information enables the DE-GPS
receiver to calculate the range
information from the non-GPS
satellites for the location x.
Sensitivity Comparison Chart for Various
Enhanced GPS Receivers
u-Blox LEA-LA u-Blox TIM-LH Fastrax iTrax03
Tracking
Sensitivity
-149dBm -158dBm -152dBm
Acquisition -140dBm -142dBm
Differential GPS Systems
Differential GPS (DGPS) is the blanket term for a
number of different systems that have evolved to
overcome the inaccuracies caused by SA and the physics
involved in sending radio signals through the earths
atmosphere. Differential GPS, a way to correct the
various inaccuracies in the GPS system thereby pushing
its accuracy even farther. Differential GPS or DGPS
can yield measurements good to a couple of meters
in moving applications and even better in stationary
situations.
Thats the idea behind Differential GPS. We have one
receiver measure the timing errors and then provide
correction information to the other receivers that
are roving around. Instead of using timing signals
to calculate its position, it uses its known position to
calculate timing. It gures out what the travel time of
the GPS signals should be, and compares it with what
they actually are. The difference is an error correction
factor.
These systems are separated into two classications:
Real-Time Differential and Post Processed
Differential.
Real-Time Diferential is correction where signals are
received from the differential provider, and used by
the receiver at the same time as signals from the GPS
satellite are received to calculate a much more precise
position instantaneously.
Post Processing is Differential correction that takes
place after the fact: the GPS data collected in the eld is
saved, and the Differential correction is added at a later
date.
The roving receivers get the complete list of errors and
apply the corrections for the particular satellites theyre
using. Many new GPS receivers are being designed to
accept corrections, and some are even equipped with
built-in radio receivers.
Theres another permutation of DGPS, called Inverted
DGPS that can save money in certain tracking
applications. With an inverted DGPS system, vehicles
would be equipped with standard GPS receivers and
a transmitter and would transmit their standard GPS
positions back to the tracking ofce. Then at the tracking
ofce, the corrections would be applied to the received
positions.
Wide Area Augmentation System, or WAAS is
basically a continental DGPS system. The FAA set up a
monitoring system with an incredibly fast response time.
In fact, they gured they could park a geosynchronous
satellite somewhere over the U.S. that would instantly
alert aircraft when there was a problem. Then they
reasoned that they could transmit this information right
on a GPS channel so aircraft could receive it on their
GPS receivers and would prevent the need for any
additional radios. The ramications of this go well
beyond aviation, because the system guarantees that
DGPS corrections will be raining out of the sky for
everyone to use.
To complete the system, the FAA is planning on
eventually establishing Local Area Augmentation
Systems near runways. These would work like WAAS,
but on a smaller scale.
1.7 DIFFERENTIAL GPS
1.8 ERRORS IN GPS
The US Air Force has injected each GPS satellite into
a very precise orbit, according to the GPS master plan.
The basic orbits are quite exact but just to make things
perfect the GPS satellites are constantly monitored by the
Department of Defense. They use very precise radar to
check each satellites exact altitude, position and speed.
The errors theyre checking for are called ephemeris
errors because they affect the satellites orbit or
ephemeris. These errors are caused by gravitational
pulls from the moon and sun and by the pressure of solar
radiation on the satellites. The errors are usually very
slight but if you want great accuracy they must be taken
into account.
There are a couple of ways to minimize this kind of
error. For one thing we can predict what a typical delay
might be on a typical day. This is called modeling and
it helps but, of course, atmospheric conditions are rarely
exactly typical. Another way to get a handle on these
atmosphere-induced errors is to compare the relative
speeds of two different signals. This dual frequency
measurement is very sophisticated and is only possible
with advanced receivers. Trouble for the GPS signal
doesnt end when it gets down to the ground. The signal
may bounce off various local obstructions before it gets
to our receiver. This is called multipath error and is
similar to the ghosting you might see on a TV. Good
receivers use sophisticated signal rejection techniques
to minimize this problem.
Sources of GPS Errors
Satellite clock drift (1.5 m) (1usec = 300m)
Orbit estimation errors (2.5 m)
Atmospheric and relativistic effects (5.5 m)
Receiver noise (0.3 m)
Multipath interference (0.6 m)
Intentional randomization to reduce civilian
grade accuracy (30m)
Ephemeris data errors: 1 meter
Tropospheric delays: 1 meter.
Unmodeled ionosphere delays: 10 meters.
Blunders can result in errors of hundred of
kilometers.
For standard GPS (without Differential correction), the
expected accuracy of a handheld GPS receiver is +/-
15 meters. Horizontal Dilution of Precision (HDOP)
is caused by satellite geometry. If the GPS receiver is
using satellites in the same area of the sky as opposed
to being distributed across the horizon, the location
of the receiver becomes increasingly uncertain. Good
geometric position of the satellites is ideal.
GPS errors are a combination of noise, bias, blunders.
Noise errors are the combined effect of Pseudo Random
Number (PRN) code noise (around 1 meter) and noise
within the receiver noise (around 1 meter). Bias errors
result from Selective Availability and other factors. SA
is the intentional degradation of the SPS signals by a
time varying bias. For more information on Selective
Availability, please refer to the next page.
Diferential GPS: A way of collecting Global
Positioning Systems data with increased accuracy.
Using this technique, data from a receiver at a known
location is used to correct the data from a receiver at
an unknown location. Using a network of xed ground
based reference stations. These stations broadcast the
difference between the measured satellite pseudo ranges
and actual (internally computed) pseudo ranges, and
receiver stations may similarly correct their pseudorange
estimates. Differential GPS can eliminate almost all
error.
Clocks: Both GPS satellites and receivers are prone
to timing errors. These errors can be calculated and
eliminated once the receiver is tracking four satellites.
Ionosphere: The Ionosphere is one of the leading
causes of GPS error. The speed of light varies due
to atmospheric conditions. By comparing the phase
difference between the L1 and L2 signals, the error caused
by the ionosphere can be calculated and eliminated.
Special dual frequency receivers are required to make
use of both L1 and L2.
Wide-Area Augmentation System (WAAS): This uses
a series of ground reference stations to calculate GPS
correction messages, which are uploaded to a series
of additional satellites in geosynchronous orbit for
transmission to GPS receivers. The correction message
includes information on ionospheric delays, individual
satellite clock drift, and so on. The current WAAS
system only works for North America, and due to the
satellite location the system, is most suited for use in the
eastern and western coastal regions. GPS receivers may
also use WAAS satellites for navigation, similarly to the
other GPS satellites.
Local-Area Augmentation System (LAAS): This is
similar to WAAS, in that similar correction data are used.
But in this case, the correction data are transmitted from
a local source, typically at an airport or another location
where accurate positioning is needed. These correction
data are typically useful for only about a thirty to fty
kilometer radius around the transmitter.
Wide Area GPS Enhancement (WAGE): is an attempt
to improve GPS accuracy by providing more accurate
satellite clock and ephemeris (orbital) data to specially-
equipped receivers.
Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP): is another
approach for a precise GPS-based positioning sytem. In
this approach, accurate determinination of range signal
can be resolved to an accuracy of less than 10 centimeters.
This is done by resolving the number of cycles in which
the signal is transmitted and received by the receiver.
This can be accomplished by using a combination of
differential GPS (DGPS) correction data, transmitting
GPS signal phase information and ambiguity resolution
techniques via statistical tests - possibly with processing
in real-time (real-time kinematic positioning, RTK).
Selective Availability: In the past, the civilian signal
was degraded, and a more accurate Precise Positioning
Service was available only to the United States military,
its allies and other, mostly government users. On May
1, 2000, however, then US President Bill Clinton
announced that this Selective Availability would
be turned off, and so now all users enjoy nearly the
same level of access, allowing a precision of position
determination of less than 20 meters. For military
purposes Selective Deniability may still be used to, in
effect, render civilian GPS units useless in a particular
geographic area, while still allowing military units to
have full functionality.
Multipath: The antenna receives not only direct GPS
signals, but also multipath signals: reections of the radio
signals off the ground and/or surrounding structures
(buildings, canyon walls, etc). Allow your GPS receiver
to see the sky for optimal performance.
Improving GPS Accuracy
100 meters Accuracy of the original GPS system,
which was subject to accuracy degradation
under the government-imposed Selective
Availability (SA) program.
15 meters Typical GPS position accuracy without SA.
3-5 meters Typical differential GPS (DGPS) position
accuracy.
< 3 meters Typical WAAS position accuracy.
Table 1
Comparison of GPS Correction Methods
What is WAAS?
The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is a
form of differential GPS (DGPS) giving enhanced
position accuracy. Systems such as WAAS are known
as satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS). This
system of satellites and ground stations provide GPS
signal corrections, resulting in up to ve times better
position accuracy. WAAS corrects for GPS signal errors
caused by ionospheric disturbances, timing, and satellite
orbit errors, and it provides vital integrity information
regarding the health of each GPS satellite. A WAAS-
capable receiver can give you a position accuracy of
better than three meters, 95% of the time. Users do not
have to purchase additional receiving equipment or pay
service fees to utilize WAAS. As long as you own a
WAAS-enabled GPS receiver, and use it within the reach
of this system, you can reap the benets of this system.
How it Works
WAAS consists of approximately 25 ground reference
stations positioned across the United States that monitor
GPS satellite data. Two master stations, located on either
coast, collect data from the reference stations and create
a GPS correction message. This correction accounts
for GPS satellite orbit and clock drift plus signal
delays caused by the atmosphere and ionosphere. The
corrected differential message is then broadcast through
two satellites with a xed position over the equator (in
geostationary orbit). The goal of WAAS was to obtain at
least a 7-meter horizontal and vertical
accuracy, but has been conrmed at 1
- 2 meters horizontal and 2 -3 meters
vertical throughout the majority of
the continental U.S. and portions of
Alaska.
The Origins of WAAS
The Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) and the Department of
Transportation (DOT) developed the
WAAS program to be a GPS-based navigation and
landing system that provides precision guidance to
aircraft at thousands of airports and airstrips where there
is currently no precision landing capability. Currently,
GPS alone does not meet the FAAs navigation
requirements for accuracy, integrity, and availability.
WAAS was designed to improve the accuracy and
ensure the integrity of information coming from GPS
satellites.
Who benets from WAAS?
Anyone with a WAAS-Enabled GPS receiver may
receive the enhanced positional information provided
by WAAS. Currently, WAAS satellite coverage is only
available in North America. In some instances however,
WAAS signals may be obscurred even if GPS reception
is possible. In that case, the GPS signals will not be
corrected. WAAS signal reception is ideal for open
land and marine applications. WAAS provides extended
coverage both inland and offshore compared to the land-
based DGPS (differential GPS) system.
Other governments are developing similar satellite-
based differential systems. Japan developed the Multi-
Functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS),
while Europe has the Euro Geostationary Navigation
Overlay Service (EGNOS). Eventually, GPS users
around the world will have access to precise position
data using these and other compatible systems.
A Closer Look at The Wide Area Augmentation System
Figure 10
Diagram of Wide Area Augmentation System
The days when GPS technology was new and unheard
of are long gone. Today, most car manufacturers offer
a GPS navigation system in one or more models, and
commercial GPS devices are readily available. This
increase in public awareness has also resulted in GPS
based technology being introduced into courts of law
across North America. Introducing GPS technology
can be a difcult process as defense lawyers raise
questions about the legality of installation, credibility of
information, and what exactly GPS data tells the courts.
Described below are a few hints taken from Orions
experience with testifying in various court cases on the
use of GPS based surveillance systems.
What does it tell us?
Although modern covert GPS systems are much more
accurate than they used to be, there still can be some
apparent errors such as spikes between xes or tracks
that are not quite on the road, etc. The error inherent
in GPS location systems, combined with the often less
then ideal location of the GPS antennas may introduce
small errors into the GPS record. If asked about the
accuracy of the GPS records, emphasize the general
accuracy, but state the possibility of error and discuss
the fact that it is not one record in particular that is
important, but rather the story that the GPS data tells,
as a whole. Static during a TV movie doesnt change
the plot. For example: repeated visits back to a murder
site, or regular visits to a known drug suppliers house
could be indications of wrongdoing, especially when
combined with your other evidence.
If some of your GPS data is backed up by visual
surveillance, use that to give credibility to the rest. If
you have the ability to get satellite overview images
of the area, use them in court. They are much more
impressive to Jury members, who may not be as
convinced by traditional maps.
Motion Sensor: Make sure that they know that the
motion on the print out comes from a separate motion
detector, and therefore it might say motion when the
vehicle is stationary. Same thing for speed because
it is calculated it might say 1mph or so, even when the
vehicle is stationary. This is normal, and not evidence of
problems in the technology.
Legality of installation: Hopefully before you ever
get to court, you will have closely examined the laws
regarding the installation of surveillance equipment to
your target. The laws regarding installation of parasitic
and non-parasitic devices can vary widely from region
to region. The best approach is to check with your local
legal experts and ensure you follow all the rules and
regulations. You dont want to be in a situation where
your entire case gets thrown out because you failed to
procure the appropriate warrants.
Conclusion: GPS is a popular, and if used correctly, an
incredibly useful tool for most any investigation. While
most of us prefer not to have GPS data discussed in a
court of law, the chances are it may happen. If it does
happen, dont forget the three items discussed earlier:
1. GPS data is a generally accurate description of the
general movements of the target
2. Errors do occur but do not invalidate all the recorded
information, and nally
3. Make sure all your installations comply with your
local laws.
1.9 GPS HAS ITS DAY IN COURT
Chapt er 2
Law
Enf or cement
Tr acki ng &
Technol ogy Usage
This chapter discusses the various methods in which GPS can be used to benet law
Enforcement. Now that we know what GPS is and how it works, we will further explore the
applications of this technology for Law Enforcement agencies.
The information downloaded will typically include a
history of the targets location, time, date and speed.
Units from different manufacturers might also have
additional information stored so be sure to ask them
if you are looking for specic data functions for your
tracking device.
One of the most exciting innovations of the past several
years has been the miniaturization of short-range
communication modules. This has allowed the creation
of Data Loggers with a short-range communication
system to retrieve data remotely. This process is most
often referred to as a Walk - by Download because
you can walk by the target and get your data without
needing to retrieve the unit - meaning
less chance of blowing the case by
being spotted.
Memory tracking, with or
without a short range
download, is a great tool for
all kinds of investigations
including arson, break
and enter, parole and
restraining order
violations, background
surveillance and other
low prole cases.
GPS tracking hit the law enforcement scene about 8
years ago. GPS devices at that time were clunky, short
on features, and usually required 2 computers to use.
Now there are almost as many uses and varieties as you
can imagine. This section will outline a few of the more
common types of GPS tracking. Keep in mind that
technology is always progressing and new techniques
are always appearing.
Data logging, or memory tracking, is the foundation of
GPS tracking systems. The name says it all. A GPS unit
is placed on a target and proceeds to store positional
information in memory. When the investigator wants
to get the stored information, they simply remove the
tracking device, and download the information for
analysis.
Figure 11 Install, retrieve, download and analyze
Strengths
Usually have good battery life
Historical positions of targets movements stored in
memory
Easy installation
Cost effective usually cheapest form of GPS
tracking
Low maintenance
No additional cost after purchase
Weaknesses
Need to access the target twice once to install and
once more to remove
If you lose the target vehicle, you lose your data
and your tracking unit
No way to access information before removing the
unit
Retrieve
unit
manually
Figure 12
Short range communication
allows remote access to your data
2.1 DATA LOGGING / MEMORY TRACKING
This type of tracking was born from a desire to have the
remote communication and memory storage advantages
of the real time tracker, and the long battery life of the
data logger. Near real time tracking units operate as
data loggers most of the time. They have the added
advantage of having a communication system that
allows them to make calls in certain situations.
For example, you could program the unit to call you
every time it stops moving and download all the
records it took since it last contacted you. That way, the
investigator can look at his / her computer and easily see
where the suspect has stopped and when.
Strengths
Serves as a reliable data logger
Allows the investigator to receive live updates when
pre-determined switches are triggered
Frees up investigators time to simultaneously work
on other cases, thus saving money
Lower battery consumption than pure real time
tracking units
Weaknesses
May not always be able to communicate with unit
for live updates if not currently within an applicable
communication network
May not always be able to call in the unit to
get immediate live updates - unit may only be
programmed to call in once every day or only when
specic events have occurred
2.2 NEAR REAL TIME TRACKING
Figure 13
An example of how near
real time tracking can be
set up
Receive a call or page
from the unit
The investigator downloads
and processes the data
An ofcer is dispatched,
if required
Step 1 Dial Target
Step 2 Phone System Contacts Nearest Cell Tower
Step 3 Tower Contacts Remote Unit
Step 4 Remote Unit Talks to the Computer
Strengths
Real time information on your target
Historical positions of targets movements stored in
memory
Can provide tracking anywhere in the world,
depending on communication
Improved safety for surveillance ofcers
Decreased risk of blown surveillances
Frees up ofcers time to work on other cases
Weaknesses
Usually harder to install than Data Loggers
Battery life in most units is relatively short
More expensive systems
Reliance on communication infrastructure; no cell
signal, no tracking!
Added expense of communication bills
Live, or Real Time tracking, is one of the most popular
uses of GPS equipment there is. By making use of an
on-board communication system, the investigator is
able to watch a targets movements as they occur. While
not a replacement of actual visual surveillance, real
time tracking can certainly supplement your physical
surveillance efforts.
In addition to providing you with constant updates, the
majority of systems on the market also continually store
the information in memory. This means you can watch
events in real time and rest assured all the data is being
stored for later analysis.
Real time systems have also been the back upon which
new features have ridden. Some examples include audio,
video and switching capabilities. Imagine sitting in your
ofce watching your suspect drive on street level maps,
listening to what the occupants are saying, while also
taking pictures of those same occupants.
Many real time units use cell phones as the link to
provide the best coverage across North America,
allowing the investigator the freedom to sit back
anywhere in the world, and track the remote unit live
while it drives around North America. Think of using a
real time tracking system anytime you need to have real
time information on your suspect.
2.3 REAL TIME / LIVE TRACKING
Figure 14
Sample set up for live GPS tracking
With new digital cellular systems also comes a new
method of transmitting data, commonly called IP
(Internet Protocol) based communication. This new
mode transmits data via the Internet. The transmitted
data is broken up into little packages of information, and
then reassembled on the receiving end. The result is a
communication method that is opening new doors for
those involved in covert tracking!
GPS technology has reached a stage where most people
are very comfortable with the concept of covert remote
tracking. Law enforcement agencies are now starting
to push the limits, looking for ways to harness this
tremendous technology in bigger and better ways.
IP-based GPS units do not need permanent cellular
connections. With just your tracking software and
access to the internet, you can now view your targets
movements from the safety of your ofce, from your
surveillance vehicle, or even from your home!
Cellular communication has undergone a dramatic
change over the last few years. From the days when
analog was the only choice, new and more advanced
technologies dot the market. Whether its GSM or
CDMA, Investigators in North America have tremendous
choices at their ngertips.
2.4 MULTI / TEAM TRACKING
Why IP Based Technology?
Figure 15
Retrieve data from multiple vehicles
through IP based tracking.
From One to Many
The majority of investigations today have multiple
parties interested in the data from a covertly installed
GPS device. Traditional communication methods have
restricted connection to a unit to one user. Using the
Marathon Server, multiple users can be connected to
the same unit simultaneously. Imagine sitting at your
desk tracking the unit and calling your team members to
connect at the same time to watch important events, and
logging in via their map enabled handheld devices to
receive real time position updates. The most important
aspect of any case is the information collected. And now
with IP based tracking, information from one can be
distributed to many.
From Many to One
With a renewed focus on public safety and large scale
investigations, the need to track multiple targets, and
multiple types of targets simultaneously has never been
greater. It is in these types of investigations that IP based
systems really shine. As discussed, IP based systems
operate using the internet for communication. This
means that the GPS units dont need permanent cellular
connections. The number of IP based connections is a
function of the software, and your internet connection
capacity. Some systems are even capable of handling
hundreds of simultaneous connections. This translates
into a ready made system able to track multiple units
simultaneously on 1 computer screen. Perfect for
command and control or situational awareness operations
centers. Make sure your information from many, gets to
one.
As the use of GPS based technology spreads, were
nding new ways to apply it for the benet of our friends
in law enforcement. Using a combination of multi-
tracking capable software (such as Orions SkyTrack
Software), and IP-capable tracking units, users now have
the ability to track multiple units at the same time, on
one computer screen. With a renewed focus on public
safety, and large scale investigations, the need to team
track or track multiple targets simultaneously has never
been greater. It is in these types of investigations that IP
based systems really shine. The perfect solution to keep
command and control centers updated on everyones
location! The benets of total team tracking solutions
can be applied to a wide array of law enforcement
applications.
Most surveillance operations involve tracking a subject
with a combination of technical and physical assets.
For example, a suspects vehicle will have a covert
GPS system installed, and a team of surveillance agents
following along to observe the activities of that subject.
These operations can be dangerous for the surveillance
agents and for the case itself. If just one of the
surveillance agents is burned, the entire case could be
blown! By installing a covert GPS system in the target
vehicle, and a non-covert GPS system in each of the
surveillance team vehicles, operators can now watch the
movements of everyone involved, in real time.
With this system in place surveillance teams can allow
the traditional surveillance box to grow a little bigger,
reducing the likelihood of being detected by the target.
Remote operators can track the movements of all
participants and warn investigators if the target displays
counter surveillance techniques. Team Tracking
operators can help the team recover lost targets, and
tell agents when to move in if the target stops. When
tracking in areas that are not familiar to the surveillance
team, operators can provide directions to get agents in
or out of critical position. They can also provide other
information about the surrounding areas. Many of these
benets can also be delivered to personnel protection
teams using Team Tracking technology.
The use of IP based communication means that
information derived from GPS units can be distributed
to many different users, and information from multiple
units can be funneled to one user. While GPS equipment
will never solve all the problems encountered in an
investigation, the use of IP based systems can increase
the safety and effectiveness of surveillance and special
operations teams.
Excellent Coverage: Continuing to grow in its
popularity, the reach of this new technology has spanned
the far corners of North America. IP based technology
ranges from GPRS on the GSM network, to 1XRTT on
the CDMA network, and is expected to become the most
popular technology among cellular networks to date.
Multi-tracking: When using a combination of Multi-
Tracking enabled software, and IP-capable tracking
units, users now have the ability to track multiple
units at the same time, on one computer screen. With
a renewed focus on public safety, and large scale
investigations, the need to team track or track multiple
targets simultaneously has never been greater. It is
in these types of investigations that IP based systems
really shine. The perfect solution to keep command and
control centers updated on everyones location!
Enhanced Data Security: All Orion IP-based Guardians
have incorporated a new enhanced security option that
will allow up to 5 users to log into the tracking software
to view the targets movements, but only the assigned
administrator will have the ability to alter any of the
units settings. This gives multiple agents the freedom
to log on and retrieve information on their targets
whereabouts, without compromising any of the units
previously programmed settings or data.
More Economic: IP based tracking solutions can offer
users a much more cost effective airtime package. Based
only on data sent, users can pay only for the services
they need, and are no longer being forced into buying
large bundle packages.
How can Multi / Team Tracking Benet Law Enforcement?
Dynamic IP
A dynamic IP address changes, at the point of login,
each time you connect to your Internet Service Provider
(ISP). This allows ISPs to keep a pool of addresses
available to subscribers. If you disconnect from the ISP,
your address is returned to the pool, becoming available
to the next computer that connects.
Static IP
Each computer on the Internet has an address, an example
of such is 194.69.121.3 The IP address distinguishes
between each and every computer on the Internet. This IP
address usually changes every time you make an Internet
connection, so if you come ofine and then connect a
little later your IP address will have changed. A static IP
address is xed, much like a telephone number.
If your ISP gives you a static address, you will always use
the same address. Servers usually have static addresses,
so they can always be found at the same location.
You would need a Static IP Address if you wish to turn
your computer into some sort of server. If you have
decided to store downloadable documents or software
on your server, a Static IP is the solution.
Comparing Dynamic and Static IP
Excellent Coverage
Fast Connection Times
Allows Multiple Agents to Track Multiple Targets
Increased Officer Safety
Affordable Airtime Packages
Enhanced Data Security

Chapt er 3
Wi r el ess
Communi cat i ons
This chapter discusses some of the more popular wireless communications that GPS can be
used in conjunction with. It will review a variety of the most commonly used wireless data
technologies, what the fundamentals are for each, and highlight some of their advantages
and disadvantages, in relevance for the Law Enforcement Community.
3.1 WIRELESS RADIO FREQUENCY (RF)
Spread Spectrum - Unlicensed Radio
Another popular solution to the licensing problem is
the ISM (Industrial, Scientic, & Medical) bands. As
long as radios meet the FCC requirements for the use
of these bands, they are open to anyone. Ordinary
radios are limited to 100 mW of radiated power in these
bands. However, Spread Spectrum radios are allowed
a maximum of 1 Watt, because the radiated energy is
spread across a larger spectrum, and is lower at any one
frequency. In addition to all the other good reasons for
using spread spectrum radios, the rules that allow them
to transmit at ten times the power means that they are a
natural choice in the unlicensed bands.
The term Spread Spectrum (SS) describes a
communications technique, typically using the
frequency band of 902 to 928 MHz, whereby a radio
frequency signal is modulated (spread) a second time
so as to generate an expanded bandwidth wideband
signal. Sophisticated hopping sequences and forward
error correction reduces interference from unwanted
sources. These radio enhancements provide very low
bit-error rates and greater range of use. Spread Spectrum
is usually used for data transmission. The two most
popular types of Spread Spectrum modes are Frequency
Hopping and Direct Sequence.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
Frequency Hopping SS involves the application of
a pseudorandom code, which causes the transmitter
to periodically hop or jump to a new frequency,
transmit information on the frequency for a dened
period of time, then hop to the next frequency and
repeat the process. In order for the receiver to recover
the transmitted information, it must hop to the same
frequencies as the transmitter. Thus, the pseudorandom
code and some synchronization information must be
known at the receivers end of the link. Frequency
Hopping Spread Spectrum usually uses narrow-band
transmit and receive techniques, thus providing long
distance communications with excellent noise immunity
and interference rejection capabilities.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Direct Sequence SS also involves the application of
pseudorandom codes known to both ends of the link, but
the codes are used to cause a xed frequency transmitter
to spread its power more or less evenly across a wide
band of RF spectrum. Pseudorandom codes are selected
to give the spread signal a noise-like character, which
when detected by a conventional receiving device,
looks very much like random noise. The receiver must
be wide enough to recover all of this bandwidth in
order to recover the transmitted signal, and then, using
the same pseudorandom code as the transmitter, de-
spread the signal to its original data component. Direct
Sequence systems also have good immunity to noise and
interference when used with highly directional parabolic
antennas in relatively short-range applications.
In the past, customers needing wireless communication systems would be required to obtain an FCC
license. In some localities, licenses are becoming di cult, or even impossible to obtain. A popular solution
to the licensing problem is provided by the emergence of Spread Spectrum (SS) technology. This new
digital technology provides most of the capabilities and performance of a licensed radio system with a
license-free approach. For long distance data communications in a control or data gathering application,
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) radios provide a robust solution.
How do they Work?
RF systems operate with 2 separate pieces; a transmitter
and a receiver. As you can guess, the transmitters job
is to transmit a signal, and the receivers is to receive
it. Not too hard to do really. What makes RF tracking
receivers great is their ability to tell what direction the
signal is coming from.
The receiver is able to do this by using what is called a
Directional Antenna Array. The rst thing the receiver
does is lock onto the frequency that your unit is
transmitting on. Refer at Figure 31 to see how it works.
The signal hits antenna #1 rst, then #3 and #2 almost at
the same time, and nished off with #4, indicating that
the signal came from the left. Its able to gure this out
by timing when the signal hits the individual antennas.
This information is then translated into a graphical
display (as seen in gure 32), so we can get a visual
indication of where the signal is coming from. Most new
systems have a 360-degree display though older models
just show left or right. After you have a rough idea of
direction you can watch the signal strength and follow
the signal all the way to the target.
What are they used for?
RF Tracking systems have been used for a wide variety
of cases. While GPS technology has taken over some of
the workload, RF beacons are still the ideal technology
for some applications.
Sample Applications
Package tracking RF systems dont need to See
the Sky
Tracking situations where extremely small size is
the pivotal factor.
Now that weve covered the way that RF tracking
systems work, lets talk about another way of tracking
thats not as widely known. The past several years have
seen a tremendous rise in the number of cellular phones.
What used to be the hallmark of the rich businessperson
has now become just another tool in everybodys hands.
As a result, cell phones have also become very popular
with the criminal element, thinking that wiretaps would
be unable to access their conversations. Enter the
combination of Cellular Intercept Receivers (CIR) and
Radio Frequency (RF) Direction Finder.
Radio Frequency Direction Finding
RF Tracking
Figure 16
Directional antenna array
Figure 17
Sample 360
o
display
RF Tracking a term many investigators have surely heard being tossed around. Since the end of World
War II, and up until the early 1990s, Radio Frequency Direction Finding (RF Tracking) was the tracking
equipment of choice. In fact, its still used extensively for certain tracking cases. Most of the James Bond
movies exaggerated the capabilities of the system, but had the basic premise right.
1 2
3 4
Radio Signal
Antenna Array
Radio Frequency 101
What is RF?
RF = Radio Frequency
Electromagnetic (EM) carrier waves upon which
audio, video, or data signals can be superimposed
for transmission. Generally considered from approx.
300kHz to 1Thz.
Wavelength and Frequency
Higher frequency = Shorter wavelength
One wavelength = The time it takes for one complete
cycle of the EM wave. Expressed in Hertz (hz). Equals
the number of wave cycles per second. One complete
cycle is considered 360 degrees of the wave
Typical RF Link Components
Transmitter + Antenna
Intervening Terrain
Fresnel Zone
Receiver + Antenna
Transmitter + Receiver = Transceiver
A device that has the capacity to both receive and
transmit data in a two way link is called a transceiver.
Transmitters
The key transmitter specication is its output power
Usually expressed in dBm (decibels, or D B - Ms)
or mW (milliwatts). More transmission power means
longer range but less battery life.
Receivers
The key receiver specication is its sensitivity. The
lower a receivers sensitivity, the weaker the incoming
signal it can detect. Usually expressed in dBm and will
be a negative number ie: -106dBm. It is hard to compare
receivers since different manufacturers use different
criteria to benchmark their products. Some manufactures
try to trick and will express their sensitivity in dBW
Add 30 to convert dBW to dBm.ie: -136dBW = -
106dBm
Antennas
Antennas come in many shapes and sizes. Antennas
have gain dependent on the antenna type and are
usually expressed in dBi. No matter what antenna you
use, the installation is still the most important factor in
performance.
Carrier Frequency
The frequency or number of cycles per second of the RF
energy carrying the data. The data is encoded onto the
carrier frequency by modulating it. There are many types
of modulation. Frequency and Amplitude modulation are
the most common types. Different carrier frequencies
behave differently when they interact with the physical
world.
Frequency Bands
All transmitters must operate within frequency and power
guidelines, unless the user is exempt from regulations.
Some bands are reserved for specic uses ie: Cellular
service, while some bands are not ie: ISM.
Industrial/Scientifc/Medical (ISM)
433.05 - 434.79Mhz (US), 804 - 866Mhz (Europe), 902
- 928 (NA), 2.4 - 2.4835GHz, 5.725 - 5.850 GHz (US)
Limited to 1W or less transmitter output power. 900Mhz,
2.4Ghz and 5.8Ghz bands licensed for Spread Spectrum
use.
2.4Ghz Good
Only world wide licensed band.
Widest bandwidth means fastest possible data
transfer rate.
Faster data transfer means less on time for the
transmitter and results in power savings
Very small antennas are possible
Allows the use of spread spectrum to increase
connection rate and resistance to interference
Will radiate through small openings
2.4Ghz Bad
Poor obstruction penetration
Short wave length = Shorter range compared to
lower frequencies
Does not diffuse as well as lower frequencies
900Mhz Good
Good obstruction penetration
Good data transfer rate
Reasonably sized antennas
Good bandwidth will allow spread spectrum
usage
Better range then 2.4Ghz systems
900Mhz Bad
North America only, 850Mhz in Europe
Compromised frequency
Radio Frequency 101 cont
433Mhz Good
Longer wavelength = Longer range
Good obstruction penetration
433Mhz Bad
Large antennas
Narrow bandwidth means low data rates, fewer
channels, less ability to avoid interference
USA only
Large Freznel Zone may cause reduced ground
to ground range
Other: VHF
220Mhz
150-180Mhz
Commonly used in beacon systems
Very long ranges, very large antennas, very narrow
bandwidths
Very congested frequencies
The Usual Problems
Not getting the advertised range
Dead zones
Picket Fence coverage
Unpredictable behaviour
Real World Issues
The theoretical range and the realistic urban range are
usually an order of magnitude apart. Advertised ranges
are almost always Free Space. As RF energy strikes
an object four things happen.
Absorption
Reection
Refraction
Diffraction
Absorption
All material has a certain RF permeability and this
usually differs for different frequencies. The lower
the permeability, the more RF energy is lost when it
passes through the object. Metal, mirrored glass have
very poor RF permeability. Concrete and earth are also
not good. Plastic, Gyproc, glass, wood all have good
permeability.
Refection
As the RF energy reects from an object, it changes
phase, and contributes to multi-path effects. Multiple
reections off many objects interfering with each other
causes destructive/constructive interference zones.
Interference Patterns
When two waves that are out of phase with each other,
they can either add to each other or subtract from each
other depending on their relative phase. Two waves 180
degrees out of phase of equal amplitude will cancel each
other completely.
Refraction
The portion of the wave that is not absorbed or reected
is refracted when it passes through an obstruction. A
refracted wave suffers a phase shift and is bent the
same way light bends when it passes through water.
Difraction
Diffraction is the bending of the carrier wave that occurs
when it passes through an opening or over an object that
is less the one wave length in size. Longer wave lengths
are more likely to be diffracted. Diffracted waves suffer
a phase shift which is not always a bad thing. It allows
an area that might normally be in an RF shadow to
have coverage.
So What does All That Mean?
At any one point a receiver can be detecting a signal
that has the same source and data encoded onto it, but
has multiple phases, amplitudes and timing. All of that
makes decoding the modulation a challenge. If either the
transmitter or the receiver are in motion, the affects are
magnied. As the cumulative reected signal strengths
begin to approach your primary signal strength, errors
will occur.
There is Hope
Good hardware and rmware ltering can increase
the odds of extracting the wheat from the chaff.
Techniques like spread spectrum also make your data
link more robust, and what may be most important
Antenna selection and placement!
Conclusions
Predicting how well an RF system will perform in any
given environment is extremely difcult. There are
no easy answers or quick xes. Indoors and parking
garages will always present a challenge but good antenna
placement and patience are your best allies.
LONG RANGE RADIO FREQUENCY
Long Range Navigation (LORAN)
Category: Long Range Radio Transmission
Technology: Loran, which stands for LOng RAnge Navigation, is a grid of radio waves in many areas of the globe that
allows accurate position plotting. A system of long range navigation whereby latitude and longitude are determined
from the time displacement of radio signals from two or more xed transmitters. Loran utilizes timing differences
between multiple low-frequency transmissions to provide accurate latitude/longitude position information to within
50. Loran transmitting stations around the globe continually transmit 100-110 kHz radio signals.
Loran is the transmission of precisely spaced pulses from
which users can derive information of position, velocity,
time, and/or data. The low frequency system operates at
100 kHz in a band reserved for marine radionavigation.
The most widely recognized format is Loran-C. Using
a Loran-C receiver, a user gets location information by
measuring the very small difference in arrival times of
the pulses for each transmitting / receiving station pair.
Each measurement is a time difference, mathematically,
a hyperbola. Position is the intersection of two
hyperbolas.
Enhanced Loran or eLoran is the next generation Loran
system that incorporates the latest receiver, antenna,
and transmission system technology to enable Loran to
serve as a backup and complement to global navigation
satellite systems (GNSS) for navigation and timing.
This new technology provides substantially enhanced
performance beyond what was possible with Loran-C,
eLorans predecessor. For example, it is now possible to
obtain absolute accuracies of 8-20 meters using eLoran
for harbor entrance and approach. Similarly, eLoran can
function as an independent, highly accurate source of
universal time coordinated (UTC). It is expected that
there will be a global evolution towards eLoran, and
users can anticipate integrated eLoran/GNSS receivers
in the near future for a variety of applications. Users of
Loran-C can continue to utilize their equipment, but will
not receive the performance benets of eLoran.
The International Loran Association (ILA) advocates
the use of enhanced or eLoran as a back-up for and
complement to global navigation satellite systems
(GNSS) in multiple navigation and timing applications
as well as the integration of eLoran and GNSS systems
to improve the safety and security of individuals and
nations.
Strengths
Characterized by dissimilar failure modes to GNSS
Provision of an area navigation capability (RNAV)
Precise time and frequency service
Capable of meeting harbor/harbor minimums
Most cost effective per square kilometer
Weaknesses
Limited coverage - mostly coastal
Accuracy variable, affected by geographic situation
Easy to jam or disturb
Figure 18
Loran Coverage Map
The Future Need for Loran
Signicant adoption of Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS) services by government, industry,
and private users creates a dependency. A loss of
service whether accidental or otherwise can have
economic and political consequences. In the United
States, ubiquitous GPS usage classies the system as
critical infrastructure. Numerous reports and studies
assessed the vulnerabilities associated with short- or
long-term outages. Recommendations to minimize
safety, environmental, or economic impacts include the
retention or provision of alternate services that provide
position, velocity, and time.
Loran is, for the largest user communities, the only
viable alternative system. Technological improvements
in transmitter performance, system control, and end-user
signal processing equipment / antennas offer improved
system accuracy, availability, and integrity.
SHORT RANGE RADIO FREQUENCY
Zigbee
Category: Short Range Wireless Technology
Technology: Short range, low power, low data rate, Wireless Personal Area Networking (LR-WPAN) technology
designed for wireless automation and other lower data tasks, such as smart home automation and remote
monitoring.
Law Enforcement Potential: Tracking packages or people of interest through buildings, or within building
comlpexes, where traditional cellular links are not always available.
ZIGBEE QUICK FACTS
Air Interface DSSS
Protocol Stack 28 kb
Devices/Network 2^16
Link Rate 250 kbps
Range ~30 meters (w/o power
amp)
DSSS Stats 11 chips/ symbol
62.5 K symbols/s
4 Bits/ symbol
Peak Info Rate ~128 Kbit/second
Strengths
Relatively Low Equipment Costs
Low Power
Small Size
Potential to be used where cellular fails
Reliable
Relatively easy to deploy
Can be used on a global scale
Weaknesses
Low bandwidth (usually under 250 Kbps) limits the
number of applications used
Limited range
Limited applications for Law Enforcement
Zigbee enables the broad-based deployment of reliable
wireless networks with low complexity, low cost
solutions, while still providing the ability to run for
years on inexpensive primary batteries for a typical
monitoring application.
ZigBee networks consist of multiple trafc types with
their own unique characteristics, including periodic
data, intermittent data, and repetitive low latency data.
Periodic Data usually dened by the application
such as a wireless sensor or meter. Data typically
is handled using a beaconing system whereby the
sensor wakes up at a set time and checks for the
beacon, exchanges data, and goes to sleep.
Intermittent Data either application or external
stimulus dened such as a wireless light switch.
Data can be handled in a beaconless system or
disconnected. In disconnected operation, the device
will only attach to the network when communications
is required, saving signicant energy.
Repetitive Low Latency Data uses time slot
allocations such as a security system. These
applications may use the guaranteed time slot (GTS)
capability. GTS is a method of QoS that allows each
device a specic duration of time as dened by the
PAN coordinator in the Superframe to do whatever
it requires without contention or latency.
Figure 19
Zigbee Network Structure
Zigbee cont
ZigBee has been designed for the 868 MHz band in
Europe, the 915 MHz band in N America, Australia,
etc; and the 2.4 GHz band is now recognized to be a
global band accepted in almost all countries.
Data rates of 250 kbps (@2.4 GHz), 40 kbps (@
915 MHz), and 20 kbps (@868 MHz)
Optimized for low duty-cycle applications (<0.1%)
Yields high throughput and low latency for low duty
cycle devices like sensors and controls
Range: 50m typical (5-500m based on
environment)
ZigBee Typical Traf c Types Addressed
Periodic data
Application dened rate (e.g., sensors)
Intermittent data
Application/external stimulus dened rate (e.g.,
light switch)
Repetitive low latency data
Allocation of time slots (e.g., mouse)
Market Name GPRS/GSM Wi-Fi Bluetooth ZigBee
Standard 1xRTT/CDMA 802.11b 802.15.1 802.15.4
Application
Focus
Wide Area
Voice & Data
Web,
Email,
Video
Cable
Replacement
Monitoring &
Control
System
Resources
16MB+ 1MB+ 250KB+ 4KB - 32KB
Network Size 1 32 7 255 / 65,000
Bandwidth
(KB/s)
64 - 128+ 11,000+ 720 20 - 250
Transmission
Range
(meters)
1,000+ 1 - 100 1 - 10+ 1 - 100+
Success
Metrics
Reach, Quality Speed,
Flexibility
Cost,
Convenience
Reliability,
Power, Cost
Wi rel ess Networki ng Standards Compari son Chart
Table 2
Wireless Standards Comparison Chart
Category: Low Bandwidth Wireless Technology
Technology: Technology specication created for short-
range wireless connection (up to 10 meters) which
enables devices to exchange information. It permits
seamless wireless short-range communications of data
and voice between both mobile and stationary devices.
The rst generation of Bluetooth permits exchange of
data up to a rate of 1 Mbps per second, even in areas
with much electromagnetic disturbance.
What is Bluetooth?
Developed by Ericsson Inc., Intel Corp., Nokia Corp.
and Toshiba, Bluetooth is the name given to a short-
range, radio technology making transmission of signals
over short distances between telephones, computers
and other devices, without the use of wires. Bluetooth
is an industrial specication for wireless personal area
networks (PANs) and would replace cable or infrared
connections for such devices. It uses the 2.4 Ghz
spectrum, has an effective range of about 30 feet and a
throughput speed of 11 megabits per second.
It is intended to be used for both voice and data
communications.
What are the basic Bluetooth data rate specs?
Bluetooth supports both voice and data. The voice
channels operate at 64 kbit/s. The Bluetooth 1.0 data rates
include an asymmetric data rate (one way) of 721 kbit/s
(while permitting 57.6 kbit/s in the return direction); and
a symmetric data rate of 432.6 kbit/s. Bluetooth 2.0 has
been designed to be backward compatible with existing
Bluetooth devices, and will offer data transmission rates
up to 12 Mbps.
Short Range Radio Frequency
Strengths
Its wireless. Eliminate messy and confusing cables
at home, the ofce, or when traveling.
Well dened technology with industry wide support
Uses radio signals so can pass through walls and
does not require line of sight.
Lower power consumption.
2.5 GHz radio frequency ensures worldwide
operation.
No thinking required. The devices nd one another
and connect without any user input at all.
Weaknesses
Designed for only short-range communications
certied to no more than 100 meters (with hub
broadcaster.)
Data transfer speeds are not as fast as other wireless
technologies
New type of technology and must be accepted
unequivocally by all vendors and manufacturers in
order to guarantee compatibility among the array of
products.
Slightly more expensive that other competing
wireless technologies
Bluetooth
Figure 20
Bluetooth Compatible
Trimble 5800 GPS Receiver
QUICK BLUETOOTH FACTS
Air Interface FHSS
FHSS Stats 1600 hops / second
1 M Symbol / second
1 bit/symbol
Protocol Stack 250 kb
Devices/Network 8
Link Rate 1 Mbps
Range ~10 meters (w/o power amp)
Peak Info Rate ~108-723 kbit/second
A pager is a very simple radio that listens to just one
station all of the time. Paging systems use radio waves
to transmit or broadcast one-way messages. A radio
transmitter broadcasts signals over a specic frequency.
All of the pagers for that particular network have a built-
in receiver that is tuned to the same frequency broadcast
from the transmitter. The pagers listen to the signal
from the transmitter constantly as long as the pager is
turned on. Regional and national paging networks set
up towers, like those used for cell phones, to cover large
areas. On-site paging systems like the ones used by
restaurants use a small desktop transmitter.
Each pager has a specic identication sequence called
a Channel Access Protocol (CAP) code. The pager
listens for its unique CAP code. When it hears the code,
it alerts the user and may provide additional information,
depending on the pager type.
A variety of paging systems have been available over
the last couple of decades, including ones that delivered
single tones (effectively one bit of information), analog
voice messages; numeric messages (most common
today); and most recently, alphanumeric messages. The
most recent innovations in paging include two-way
paging networks, as shown in Figure 18. One-way
systems are not completely reliable, since there is no
acknowledgment from the receiver. Paging companies
design their systems for ninety percent or greater
reliability. Two-way networks offer higher reliability
and message storage while the pager is off or out of
coverage.
Paging Overview
Although paging is not a huge focus in our manual, it deserves a quick overview because paging networks
allow certain types of data to be delivered in a very e cient and cost-eective manner. Pagers have many
uses, not least of which is the ordinary user who wants to be reachable at all times, whether for personal
reasons or work.
Figure 17
Beeper
Figure 22
Two-way paging network
Figure 19
Numeric pager
What type of pager should I get?
Pagers are the foot soldiers of the wireless revolution.
Early models were small, simple electronic devices
that received brief numeric messages only - usually
telephone numbers. Todays pagers are still small,
but they have evolved into highly sophisticated
communication systems, adopting many of the features
of wireless phones and Personal Digital Assistants
(PDA). With the right paging service, many pagers
substitute as answering and fax machines; able to
receive and transmit e-mail and other text messages and
even get news updates, stock reports, and more. Like
wireless phones, the paging service determines the type
and features of the pager. Its usually best to sign up with
a service rst, before buying a pager.
Here are the ve basic pager categories:
1. Beeper - The rst and simplest form of paging,
beepers provide a basic alert to the user. Theyre
called beepers because the original version made a
beeping noise, but current pagers in this category
vary in the type of alert. Some use audio signals,
others light up and some vibrate. Many of them
provide a combination of alerts.
2. Voice/Tone - These pagers provide the ability to
listen to a recorded voice message when you are
alerted that you have a page.
3. Numeric - These pagers provide the ability to send
a numeric message, such as a phone number, along
with the page alert.
4. Alphanumeric - These pagers provide the ability
to send a text message along with the page alert.
Some pagers come with iptop screens, so you can
receive long, scrolled text messages ranging from
750 to 16,000 characters in length.
5. Two-way - These pagers provide the ability to send
as well as receive numeric and text messages. An
example of a two-way alphanumeric pager is the
RIM Blackberry Pager.
What features should I look for?
Almost all pagers share certain standard features: a
display; a time/date stamp; enough memory to save
at least a few messages for later review or when you
cant be reached, and a way of alerting the wearer to
an incoming message generally through a beep, but
sometimes with a ashing indicator or vibration. Make
sure the pager has a sufcient memory backup for your
needs. It should at least be able to store messages when
youre out of reach, your battery is dead, or when the
pager is turned off. It should also then be able to deliver
them automatically when youre back in range. Many
of the newer, high-tech features, such as e-mail, fax, and
voice messaging are service-related features, as long as
your pager is PC compatible.
Paging systems are characterized by:
Small device size most pagers are smaller than
other kinds of wireless modems.
Long-range capabilities most pagers have strong
frequency rates.
Long battery life one AAA battery may provide
weeks of service.
Limited capacity 500 characters is usually the
maximum practical message size.
High latency messages could potentially take
minutes or longer to be delivered.
Figure 23
RIM 957 Blackberry
alphanumeric pager
Strengths
Allows tracking of many different types of phone
(depends on CIR)
Locate the actual user of the cell phone
Undetectable by suspect
Good accuracy close the suspect
Can also intercept audio conversations on AMPS
Weaknesses
Practice needed for effective use
Limited range
Susceptible to multi-path and false signals
Hard to determine which tower is in use
Works only when cellular phone is transmitting
Not effective with CDMA network
Cellular Phone Intercepts
Cellular intercepts are very complicated scanners that
are capable of keeping track of all the trafc on cellular
phone transmission towers. If an investigator has the
ESN (Electronic Serial Number) or the telephone
number of a cellular phone, they can be used when a
particular phone registers on the cellular tower. Once
the intercept has found the phone on the system, it can
determine the frequency the phone is transmitting, and
pass the information along to a Direction Finding system
similar to the ones discussed in the RF tracking section.
Once the transmission frequency is established, the
suspects cellular phone is, for all intents and purposes, a
transmitting beacon that can be tracked.
Key Term: MultiPath
MultiPath is a phenomenon that occurs when a radio
signal hits something it cant penetrate such as a brick
building or a water tower. The signal bounces off the
object and keeps going in a different direction. Every
time the signal bounces, it gets a bit weaker since the
object absorbs a little part of the signal.
Key Term: Line of Sight
Range of a tracking transmitter of any type is often
expressed in line of sight terms. That means that
there is nothing between you and the transmitter that
could block the signal or cause it to bounce. The range
(or distance away at which you can still pick up the
signal) gets smaller as the line of sight becomes more
congested. A transmitter that can be picked up 2 miles
away in clear line of sight may only have a range of a
few hundred yards in a dense urban core.
Cellular Intercept Receiver Tracking
Figure 21 Cellular phone intercept
Now that weve covered the way that RF tracking systems work, lets talk about another way of tracking
thats not as widely known. The past several years have seen a tremendous rise in the number of cellular
phones. What used to be the hallmark of the rich businessperson has now become just another tool in
everybodys hands. As a result, cell phones have also become very popular with the criminal element,
thinking that wiretaps would be unable to access their conversations. Enter the combination of Cellular
Intercept Receivers (CIR) and Radio Frequency (RF) Direction Finders.
Suspect on phone
Cellular tower
Transmission frequency from tower
For many years, we have become reliant on using AMPS
(Analog) technology for law enforcement tracking
requirements. This was the rst cellular protocol
offered in North America and it uses the 800MHz radio
frequency. As the cell phone industry grew, the FCC
& CRTC would not grant any additional bandwidth to
handle the overwhelming popularity. They stated that
the cell providers would have to come up with another
method/technology to support their users. Enter the
Digital protocols.
Today, the two main Digital options are CDMA and
GSM. To my knowledge, CDMA has the largest footprint
of coverage, but GSM is growing rapidly. With CDMA,
however, there are two bandwidths allocated: 800MHz
and 1.9GHZ. This is where you hear the terms Dual
Mode, Dual Band, Tri-Mode and PCS Cell Phones.
Dual Mode means AMPS and Digital (either 800 or 1.9),
Dual Band means 800 and 1.9 Digital only, Tri Mode
means AMPS, 800 and 1.9 Digital, and PCS means
1.9GHz only. GSM was rst launched in Europe and
is now the standard protocol there. In North America,
there are two frequencies allocated to GSM - the 800
Mhz and 1.9GHz bands, while in Europe it utilizes both
the 900 and 1800Mhz bands. So, when traveling from
Europe to USA, users must manually change the band
settings in the phone.
There is another protocol (D-AMPS or TDMA), but
due to more effective technologies, this system is now
being phased out. Therefore it is important that users
know which system their network providers use as their
Digital Protocol (CDMA or GSM), and also what type
of data they offer.
3.2 INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Welcome to the Digital age of Communications! There can be a lot of confusion when companies come
calling with new Digital products. It is, however, an important topic to understand, especially when
using equipment the way we do.
Wireless data networks, however, have historically
been short-range, wireless data communications that
were principally the domain of large companies with
specialized needs. For example, large organizations
that needed to stay in touch with their mobile sales
force, or delivery services that needed to keep track of
their vehicles and packages used data communication
to accomplish these kinds of tasks. This situation
is steadily changing, however, and wireless data
communications are becoming as commonplace as its
wired counterpart.
The gure below presents the various wireless data
technologies, which are essentially divided into two
categories according to their mobility characteristics.
For wide-area mobility there are mainly two available
technologies: data transmission over cellular networks,
whether analog or digital, and data transmission over
mobile data networks. As shown in the illustration below,
the main difference between these two technologies is the
data transport mode. Cellular networks, being primarily
voice oriented, utilize circuit-switching technology
and, therefore, are optimized to synchronized styles of
data trafc conditions, whereas mobile data networks
employ packet switching technology and are ideal for
uncoordinated data trafc transmission.
3.3 WIRELESS DATA NETWORKS
Wireless technology is a broad category which encompasses many services, from Wireless Application
Protocol (WAP) allowing users to access the world wide web from their cell phones or personal data
assistants, to wireless networking allowing a group of computers to be connected together through radio
frequency signals.
Figure 24
Various wireless data technologies
Wi rel ess Data Opti ons
Low Speed
Wide-Area
High Speed
Local-Area
Mobi l i ty - Servi ce
Characteri sti cs
Technol ogy
Transport
Data Over
Analog
Cellular
Data Over
Digital
Cellular
Mobile
Data
Cordless
Wireless
LANs
Circuit Mode
(isochronous)
Packet Mode
(asynchronous)
A1-A2
A1 A2 B1 C1 C2 B2
C1-C2
B1-B2
Intermediate
offices
End
offices
End
users
Circuit Switched Communication
Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching is used when a call is made between
two parties and the connection is maintained for the
entire duration of the call. Because you are connecting
two points in both directions, the connection is called
a circuit. Circuit switching can be analog or digital.
Circuit switching was originally developed for the
analog-based telephone system in order to guarantee
steady, consistent service for two people engaged in a
phone conversation. Over the years, Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM), or analog circuit switching, has
given way to Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), also
known as digital circuit switching.
If the connection is between two phones in the same
area, the local switch creates a connection between
the circuits from each phone. This is pictured as
connection A1-A2 in Figure 3. If the connection is
between phones in two different areas, a circuit is set up
through an intermediate exchange, as shown by circuit
C1-C2. Long-distance circuits are made through remote
switching ofces, as shown by circuit B1-B2.
A networking technology is one that provides a temporary, but dedicated connection between two
stations no mater how many switching devices the data is routed through. Circuit switching is a very
basic concept that has been used by telephone networks for over 100 years.
Figure 25
An example of circuit switch technology
Strengths
Fixed bandwidth, guaranteed capacity (no
congestion)
Low variance end-to-end delay (delay is almost
constant)
Weaknesses
Connection set-up and tear-down introduces extra
overhead (thus initial delay)
User pay for circuit, even when not sending data
Other users cant use the circuit even if it is free of
trafc when specic events have occurred
Packet Switched Communication
Packet Switching
What happens is this: the sending computer chops data
into these small packets, with an address on each one
telling the network where to send them. Thus all packets
in a single message do not have to travel the same path.
They can be dynamically routed over the network,
as lines become available or unavailable. When the
receiving computer gets the packets, it reassembles
them into the original data. Refer to Table 1 for an
example of how an e-mail message might be packetized.
Packet switching is very efcient. It minimizes the time
that a connection is maintained between two systems,
which reduces the load on the network. It also frees up
the two computers communicating with each other so
that they can accept information from other computers
as well. Since the Internet is based on packet switching
technology, this system is gradually taking over from
circuit switched technology.
While circuit switching keeps the connection open and constant, packet switching opens the connection
just long enough to send a small chunk of data, called a packet, from one system to another.
Strengths
Packet switching uses resources more efciently
Very little set up or tear down time
It is more exible (ie. doesnt care too much whats
been sent, as long as it can be packetized)

Weaknesses
While customers may be able to specify the quality
of service required, a guarantee of delay may not
always be available
Algorithms are more complicated
Difcult to bill customers
Table 3
An example of packet switch technology
Email example of Packet Technology
Header Senders IP address 96 bits
Receivers IP address
Protocol
Packet Number
Payload Data 896 bits
Trailer Data to show end of packet 32 bits
Error correction
Category: Connection-Oriented Cellular
Communications
Technology: AMPS uses the 800 MHz frequency band
and was originally designed for voice transmission.
Technologies have recently been developed to allow for
data over these same voice channels.
AMPS coverage is still available throughout North
America, however, cellular operators have been
neglecting, or even downgrading their AMPS service
Strengths
Coverage - Wherever a cell phone can go for cellular
voice communications, wireless Circuit Switched
Cellular (CSC) data can go too.
Network Stability AMPS cellular is a proven
technology that is widely adopted, now for data
as well as voice. New modem technologies (e.g.
protocols) have also been developed specically for
transmitting data over the CSC network, resulting in
improvements in reliability and performance.
Payment Structure - Since CSC data connections
are almost identical to the typical cellular voice
connections, billing procedures are more familiar
for the end user. CSC data transfer is billed by the
connection time, similar to a cellular phone. Since
these rates have also become more economical with
increased subscriber bases, a variety of rate plans are
now available.
Equipment Selection - Over the years, numerous
AMPS cellular devices have become available for
both voice and data, providing a complete selection
for the end user.
Weaknesses
Cost - Since a connection or circuit is established
when transferring data over an AMPS cellular
network, charges are based on connection time. This
means if the wireless application transfers short
bursts of data, the cost of the connection time can
outweigh the time of the actual data transmission.
Delay - Since CSC involves a connected cellular
circuit, dial-up delays are introduced. These delays
are not only realized when the data connection is to
be made, but also when the monthly bill based on
connection time is received.
Security AMPS Cellular does not provide any data
encryption, meaning an appropriately modied radio
scanner can intercept voice transmissions.
Analog Cellular - AMPS
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS)
Circuit-Switched Cellular
in favour of digital technologies such as GSM &
CDMA. AMPS service is guaranteed in the US only
until 2008, after which it will likely be phased out as
a cellular solution.
Digital Cellular - CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Category: Digital Cellular System
Technology: CDMA allows multiple users to share the
same radio spectrum more efciently. There seems
to be a consensus that the improvement over analog
(AMPS) is approximately 6X. Instead of dividing
RF spectrum into narrow channels, CDMA spreads
many conversations over a broad spectrum. To separate
a particular call from the other calls using the same
spectrum at the same time, a unique digital code called a
Pseudo-Random Code Sequence (PRCS) is assigned
to each user. As a digital, multiple access technology that
can provide greater capacity and quality on a wireless
network, CDMA can be used with cellular networks
or personal communications services (PCS) networks.
Refer to Figure 4 for a visual explanation of how CDMA
packetized messages are sent and received.
Strengths
Increased Capacity Due to a combination of
voice coder technology and improved resistance
to interference, CDMA offers increased voice
capacity. It can accommodate more users per MHz
of bandwidth than any other technology.
Data Services CDMA provides for two-way Short
Message Service (SMS). This is often called text
messaging.
Low Power - Since CDMA was designed so each
mobile phone transmits just enough power to
maintain a good connection, CDMA phones have
much a better battery life than AMPS phones.
Security - CDMA offers two levels of security.
To the network operator it includes encryption to
prevent fraudulent cloning of phones. To the user,
the complexity of the pseudo random code sequence
makes casual eavesdropping very difcult.
Easy Addition of New Functions - The
implementation of CDMA allows many new
features, including the different forms of supported
data to be added largely as software upgrades to the
switch. It is one of CDMAs claims that it requires
very little additional equipment to add
new services.
Rural Coverage - CDMA coverage in many rural
areas is as good as AMPS, and it continues to
improve.
Weaknesses
Not a Worldwide Cellular Solution
Channel Pollution - CDMA has Soft Capacity,
meaning that another user can always be added
to a CDMA channel, but once a certain point is
surpassed, the channel begins to be polluted, such
that it becomes difcult to retrieve an
error-free data stream for any of the participants.
The ultimate capacity of a system is therefore
dependent upon where this line is drawn. This is a
problem in predominantly high trafc urban areas.
Figure 26
CDMA network
Digital Cellular - GPRS
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
Technology: GPRS is a packet-switched overlay on the
GSM voice network. It is a relatively new, non-voice,
value added service that allows information to be
sent and received across a mobile telephone network.
GPRS allows for what has become known as always
on data connection for GSM mobile phones, allowing
for faster WAP browsing, web surng and email.
Strengths
Speed - Theoretical maximum speeds are about
three times as fast as the data transmission speeds
possible over todays xed telecommunications
networks, and ten times as fast as current circuit
switched data services on GSM networks.
Connectivity to the Internet - General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS) permits continuous data
connectivity over wireless GSM networks. Any
service available on the Internet will be accessible
through a mobile device. Most of the common
Internet services like email, e-commerce, and
information lookup will all be available to a GPRS
enabled mobile device.
Cost - Packet data over the cellular network allows
for a greater number of users to share the limited
frequencies available for data and voice trafc.
Therefore, the cost of the infrastructure per user
is defrayed, leading to a cheaper service offering
than if the same service were offered over circuit
switched data connections. you no longer pay for
your online time per-minute, You pay only for the
amount of data you transfer.
Immediacy - GPRS facilitates instant connections
whereby information can be sent or received
immediately, as the need arises (subject to radio
coverage). No dial-up modem connection is
necessary. This is why GPRS users are sometimes
referred to be as being always connected.
New & Better Applications - GPRS facilitates
several new applications that have not previously
been available over GSM networks. GPRS will
fully enable the Internet applications you are used to
on your desktop from web browsing to chat over the
mobile network.
Weaknesses
Available Bandwidth - Common Internet
applications such as email will work well over GPRS,
but more advanced services such as streaming video/
audio, real-time video conferencing, and upcoming
voice over IP will only work to a certain degree over
GPRS. In general, the limits of GPRS bandwidth are
similar to the state of the Internet of the mid-1990s
before broadband technologies became wide spread.
If large amounts of data/graphics/sound/images need
to be downloaded from a server, using a 56K modem
is going to lead to some frustration. In the same way
waiting for a large email attachment to download
over the air to your laptop will be painful.
Figure 27
Diagram of GPRS network authentication system
MS
Network
Authentication
Center (AUC)
Home Network Visited Network
Over the Air
Authentification
Authentification
Information
Digital Cellular - CDMA 2000
Code Division Multiple Access 2000 (CDMA)
Technology: CDMA2000 is an evolution of the original
CDMA standard that allows for high-speed packet
(Internet) data, without changing the RF technology
used by CDMA (Figure 6). It comes in three avours:
1xRTT, 1xEVDO, and 1xEVDV.
1xRTT, the rst phase in the high-speed packet data
evolution of CDMA, provides Internet connection
speeds comparable to the fastest dial-up landline
modems (40-60kbps sustained). It is currently deployed
throughout North America.
1xEV-DO, the second phase of CDMA evolution, is
being rolled out in 2004 and 2005. It provides Internet
connection speeds comparable to lower end DSL and
cable modems (300-500kbps download, 40-60kbps
upload, predicted). 1xEV-DO is so named because it
is the CDMA EVolution that supports Data Only (its
also called Data Optimized, because removing the voice
capability allows it to be optimized for data). Verizon
Wireless now supports 1xEV-DO in many major US
cities.
1xEV-DV, is the nal phase of CDMA evolution
before network providers will change their CDMA RF
technology. It will provide Internet connection speeds
that are slightly faster than 1xEV-DO. 1xEV-DV is the
CDMA EVolution that will support Data and Voice
simultaneously.
Strengths
High Speed Cellular Internet Access with Broad
Coverage Area CDMA2000 1xRTT is slightly
faster than GPRS, and it offers a comparably large
service area across North America.
Backward Compatible with CDMAOne
CDMA2000 supports all cdmaOne (the original
CDMA deployment) features including circuit-
switched data, so applications can be developed that
make use of high-speed packet data in areas with
CDMA2000 coverage and circuit-switched data in
areas without CDMA2000 coverage.
Lower Power Consumption The packet data
link is powered down when it is idle so the power
consumption is reduced when no data is being
transferred. A circuit-switched connection stays
powered even when it is idle.
Internet Speeds Approach Requirements of
Multimedia Applications 1xEV-DO, with 300-
500kbps download, will enable more multimedia
applications such as streaming video to the mobile.
Simple Upgrade to Existing CDMA Networks
CDMA operators can upgrade to CDMA2000
relatively simply, therefore it will continue to
penetrate existing CDMA networks at a rapid pace.

Weaknesses
Slow Upload Speed Even with 1xEV-DO, the
upload speed is still only 40-60kbps. This cant quite
service the high-speed requirements of applications
such as video conferencing. Streaming video from a
1x covert unit is possible but will not be broadband
quality. It is much better than circuit-switched
CDMA, however, which only offers 14.4kbps!
Lack of Global Coverage CDMA/CDMA2000
does not offer the same global coverage that GSM/
GPRS provides.
Figure 28
CDMA2000 network
Digital Cellular - W-CDMA
Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (W- CDMA)
Technology: Wideband Code Division Multiple
Access, one of two 3G standards that makes use of a
wider spectrum than CDMA and therefore can transmit
and receive information for faster and more efciently.
Co-developed by NTT DoCoMo, it is being backed
by most European mobile operators and is expected
to compete with CDMA2000 to be the de facto 3G
standard. Typically dened with 5 MHz channels and
3.84 MHz carrier signals. Third-generation wireless
access protocol that uses a wider channel band (5 MHz)
to increase transmission bandwidth up to 384 Kbps in
mobile environments and up to 2 Mbps in xed settings.
Also builds on technologies familiar from the GSM
mobile telephony standard.
Designers are developing a third-generation channel-
access standard, specically in Europe, based on a
wideband version of CDMA called WCDMA.
W-CDMA is based upon two technologies:
1. Spread spectrum technology: this transmits
radio signals over a wider frequency band than
conventional 2G systems, allowing all users to share
a broad bandwidth. It is robust against disturbance
and noise and allows a common frequency to be
used across all cells, making frequency switching
unnecessary.
2. Multi rate technology: this selects the most suitable
communication speed and transmission channel
for data based upon its type and size, giving the
highest speeds and best quality in transmission.
The network includes over 1,600 base transceiver
stations (BTS), which are sited indoors to allow the
consumer more accessible connectivity in major
buildings, underground retail outlets and subway
stations across Japan. The new 3G network also uses
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), a cell switching
and asynchronous multiplexing technology that
manages packet switching (exibility, efciency for
intermittent trafc) and circuit switching (constant
transmission delay, guaranteed capacity) on the
same network using cell relay technology. This
means that the same network can handle various
trafc types to allow multimedia connectivity
(i.e., voice transmission, video, data, MPEG4 etc).
FOMA (Freedom Of Mobile multimedia Access)
is a revolutionary service based on W-CDMA
technology, which complies with IMT-2000 an
international standard for third-generation (3G)
mobile communications. FOMA is the worlds
rst 3G mobile service based on W-CDMA.
Strengths
Extremely Fast Downlink Speeds - FOMA,
for example, offers two high-speed packet-data
communication services: a packet communication
service with a maximum downlink speed of 384kbps
and, a circuit-switched service offering 64kbps
uploading / downloading for large-volume data.
Asynchronous Multiplexing - This allows for more
efcient use of bandwidth and interleaving of data
of varying priority and size; ATM can also operate
point-to-point connections or point-to-multi point
connections allowing exibility for services.
Excellent Voice Quality - Measured speach samples
have been rated as excellent.
Connection-Oriented Service - This allows for
routing through the ATM network over virtual
connections, sometimes called virtual circuits, using
simple connection identiers.

Weaknesses
Limited Coverage Areas
Call Handover Problems - calls get dropped when
leaving a WCDMA coverage area, as opposed to
getting handed off to a GSM network.
Lack of Quality of Service (QOS) Implementation
Less Environmentally Friendly
signicantly higher
radiation levels than
say CDMA2000.
More Expensive - a
new infrastructure
to support WCDMA
would result in higher
user fees.
Figure 29
3rd Generation CDMA
to:
PSTN
Operations and
Maintenance
Center
Mobile
Switching
Center
Mobile
Switching
Center
Base Station
Controller
BTS BTS BTS
Base Station
Controller
BTS BTS BTS
Base Station
Controller
BTS BTS BTS
Mobile
Station
Mobile
Station
Mobile
Station
Mobile
Station
Technology: The GSM network consists of three parts (Figure 30):
Strengths
Global Coverage - GSMs strongest feature is
its worldwide coverage. Through the use of
exchangeable SIM (Subscriber Identity Module)
cards, GSM equipment can be used in most parts of
the modern world.
Data Services - The Short Message Service (SMS)
is currently the most omnipresent data service
worldwide and is the most popular type of data
service used by the general public to date. GPRS
networks are currently rolling out in Europe and
North America and are, or will soon be, offering
public services.
Application Options and Roaming - GSM
offers many value-added service options that
subscribers can use anywhere, thanks to global
roaming capabilities. The introduction of Wireless
Application Protocol (WAP) browsers on GSM
handsets made it possible to access Internet-like
services from a mobile phone.
Security - Like any digital technology, voice
services are more secure than over an analog cellular
service. GSM offers encryption for voice and data
transmissions.
Weaknesses
Transmission Rate - The circuit switched speeds
of 14.4 Kbps are possible, but many carriers only
support 9.6 Kbps today. GSM is still one of the
leading data services widely available today for
digital cellular. Although the theoretical maximum
user data rate for GPRS networks is 115Kbps, it is
doubtful that cell phones within a normal population
usage pattern will ever be able to reach these rates.
Figure 30
GSM network components
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
Digital Cellular - GSM
Mobile Station (MS) This is the mobile equipment
carried by the user (e.g. terminal), which includes
the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), or the
transferable module that gives its host device GSM
access. The mobile equipment is identied by the
International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)
and the SIM card uses an International Mobile
Subscriber Identity (IMSI) that makes the user
known to the GSM network.
Base Station (BS) This controls the radio link to the
Mobile Station, and is the interface between the MS
and the xed network infrastructure. Base stations
cover areas, called cells, from as small as a few
hundred meters in diameter to as large as several
kilometers in diameter.
Network At the heart of the GSM network is
the Mobile Switching Center (MSC), which acts
similarly to a traditional switching center for the
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). It
handles all mobile user functionality including
registration, authentication, call routing, etc. The
network also contains transmission lines (e.g. ber
optics, copper pairs, microwave) to connect the
base stations to the MSC as well as elements for
billing, network management, and operations.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) / Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service (D-AMPS)
Technology: TDMA interleaves multiple digital signals onto a single, high-speed channel (Figure 31). For cellular,
TDMA triples the capacity of the original analog method (FDMA).
Digital Cellular TDMA / D-AMPS
Strengths
Increased Capacity - Using its multiple time
slot technique, TDMA can increase user capacity
over current analog cellular systems. The actual
improvement depends on many factors, but the
Universal Wireless Communications Consortium
(UWCC) trade organization claims a 10-fold
increase.
Adaptable for Data - As a digital technology, it
has the promise of providing data services with
more re-use of common voice network and device
components than analog cellular or digital CDPD.
Extended Battery Life - Since mobile TDMA
devices are only transmitting a portion of the time
(i.e. at specied time slots), batteries will last longer
than analog.
Improved Voice Quality - Improvements in voice
Coder-Decoder (CODEC) quality offer voice
services of higher quality Mean Opinion Score
(MOS) than analog.
Weaknesses
Bit Rate - Since TDMA (like all digital cellular
systems) is designed to carry digitized voice at
below 10kbps, it is not readily adaptable to carry
higher speed data. Only by displacing several voice
channels, can higher data rates be obtained (e.g. 3
voice channels need to be displaced to achieve 28.8
kbps).
Obvious Handoffs - TDMA systems still rely on
the switch system to determine when to perform a
handoff. When handoffs occur infrequently (such
as when stationary or in areas with few sites), they
really dont present a problem at all. However, when
they occur very frequently (while traveling in an
area with a huge number of sites) the sound of the
handoffs can become annoying.
Becoming Obsolete - TDMA is now being phased
out to make room for newer digital technologies.
This will make the task of nding network support
for TDMA hardware increasingly difcult.
Figure 31
TDMA network
Digital Data Over AMPS - CDPD
Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD)
Category: Digital Cellular Data System Used Over
Analog Cellular Networks
Technology: CDPD is a packet switched communications
network based on Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP), that normally operates as an overlay
on top of the existing Advanced Mobile Phone Services
(AMPS) infrastructure (Figure 32). It is, in fact, a
digital cellular system designed for data transport that
can operate independently on any cellular system that
uses 30 kHz channels (e.g. AMPS analog systems in
North America). It should be noted that most CDPD
carriers, however, have phased out, or are in the
process of phasing out their CDPD services.
Strengths
Transmission Rate CDPD is a wide area, wireless,
packet data network offering raw transmission rates
of 19,200 bps. Actual throughput is 10,000 bps on
the channel due to overhead for error control.
Transfer Mode Provides full-duplex
communications allowing a radio modem to talk and
listen at the same time. This allows CDPD to handle
real-time interactive applications that competing
packet networks like the Advanced National Radio
Data Service (ARDIS) cannot support due to their
half-duplex nature.
IP-based and Open Specication The CDPD
carrier, in effect, acts as an Internet Service Provider
(ISP). Since it is IP-based, it is easy to develop and
easy to integrate into existing applications. Anything
accessible over the Internet, can also be accessed by
a CDPD remote device. At the same time, CDPD is
a fully open specication, meaning that there are no
licenses or royalties to pay when developing for the
network.
Reliability and Security CDPD uses forward error
correction methods to reduce the effects of noise and
interference. In fact, there are usually less errors than
circuit-switched data. Authentication and encryption
are also incorporated into all packet transmissions.
CDPD carriers claim six levels of security.
Weaknesses
Cost - Charges range anywhere from approximately
$.08 to $.20 (US) per kilobyte. This is not expensive
for average emails and small data transfer
applications, but for transferring graphics such
as those found in a Web page, CDPD costs could
skyrocket. The only way to avoid high monthly
charges is by taking advantage of at rate
packages offered by some popular carriers. This
will drive the costs down by allowing unlimited data
access for a at rate per month.
Coverage Due to the lack of a National CDPD
carrier, coverage in the U.S. is limited. Most major
urban / metropolitan areas, may still have coverage
and roaming agreements between CDPD carriers
allow one single account to be used across the
CDPD footprint.
Power Consumption Battery power consumption
levels are not as low as compared to packet radio
consumption levels.
Becoming Obsolete - CDPD is now being phased
out to make room for newer digital technologies.
This will make the task of nding network support
for CDPD hardware increasingly difcult.
Figure 9
Data over analog network
Figure 32
Data Over Analog Network
DataTAC
Category: Low Speed Packet Radio
Technology: DataTAC technology is a secure, reliable,
wireless packet switching network specically designed
for wide-area wireless data communications (Figure 33).
DataTAC networks provide services such as Internet
Low Speed Packet Radio - DataTAC
access, two-way messaging, dispatching, information
retrieval, email, and electronic funds transfer/point of
sale as well as custom host applications.
Strengths
Quality of Service: The network provides error
detection and correction to ensure the integrity
of the data being sent and received, and includes
transmission acknowledgment.
Coverage: The DataTAC network reaches 17
countries around the world, covering 80 percent
of the population and 90 percent of commercial
businesses.
Speed: Set-up time is eliminated and network
connection is instantaneous. Also, packet switching
makes far more efcient use of channel capacity,
typically allowing 10 to 50 times more users over
a radio channel than a circuit switched network.
Unlike GSM/GPRS networks that are designed
primarily for voice transmissions, the DataTAC
network has been designed specically for the
transmission of data. This means that the latency
of the DataTAC network is considerably less when
compared with the GSM/GPRS systems. Private
DataTAC was the rst technology to combine
the industrys fastest data rates (as high as 19.2
Kbps) with a reliable wireless data protocol (RD-
LAP). That means quicker response times and
higher capacity to support both todays intensive
applications and tomorrows growth.
Weaknesses
Specialized Software: Due to the wireless-specic
DataTAC protocols and interfaces, specialized
software applications are generally required.
Connection: Communication is session-oriented
using a host/terminal approach, so hook-up delays
are to be expected.
Figure 33
DataTAC network
Two-Way Packet Data Network
Packet Radio
Backbone Network
Mobile
Devices
Land-line
Access
Network
Host
Low Speed Packet Radio - Mobitex
Mobitex
Category: Low Speed Packet Radio
Technology: Data-only, packet radio, cellular network
operating at around 7,200 bps. Mobitex base stations
provide communication between the wireless terminals,
which may be used in wearable, mobile or xed
applications. A Mobitex network can be congured
in many different ways, from a large public network
providing nationwide coverage, to a small, privately
owned network serving a single company or region.
A number of base stations (BAS) provide the basic
functionality for a Mobitex network and one or more
switches (MX) (Figure 34).
Each base station serves a single radio cell, which may
have a diameter of up to 30 km in certain applications.
Together, the radio base stations provide an area of
coverage and determine the capacity of the network.
Wireless devices communicate with the nearest base
station but are also able to roam freely between radio
cells and from base station to base station as the user
changes location.
The MX Switches route trafc to and from the base
stations and provides connections between wireless
devices and xed terminals. The Network Control
Centre (NCC) handles all operation and maintenance
tasks, including network conguration, alarm handling,
subscriber administration and billing information.
Figure 34
Mobitex system
Wearable Mobile Fixed
Applications
Base Stations
Switch Levels
Mobitex Backbone
Network Management Center
LAN / WAN Internet
Low Speed Packet Radio - Mobitex continued
Strengths
Narrowband The communications channels in a
Mobitex network have a bandwidth of 12.5 kHz,
meaning that it is a narrowband radio technology.
Today, with radio spectrum becoming an increasingly
scarce and expensive resource, a narrowband system
has a compelling cost advantage.
Dedicated Data Mobitex is a data-only network.
This means that it was designed from the start to
carry data trafc and that data transfers cannot be
blocked by voice calls. As many as 400 Mobitex
users can, in fact, share a single communications
channel without any deterioration in service, and it
has the capacity to support millions of subscribers in
total.
Packet Switched Mobitex is a highly dependable
service with a proven reliability factor greater than
99.99 percent, ensuring accurate transmission for
every message.
International Standard Mobitex is an open
standard available to all, and administered by the
Mobitex Operators Association (MOA). Since
all networks are based on exactly the same
specications, Mobitex applications will work on
any network anywhere in the world.
Security Mobitex provides a high level of security
that makes it virtually impossible to tap and
decipher wireless data. The security levels built into
the network are so high that some police forces and
emergency services use Mobitex unencrypted.
Prolonged Battery Life The Mobitex network
supports battery saving functions. The device
can be set to a power-saving mode, and can be
woken by the network when a host sends data to
it; thus economizing on power requirements. For
highly mobile users, this battery conservation is a
particularly useful feature.
Weaknesses
Roaming Roaming is still a problem for the Mobitex
network. It is currently available in approximately
11 countries, but since different frequencies are
used, roaming becomes a complicated issue.
Speed The maximum speed achieved on the
Mobitex network is 8 Kbps. This is signicantly
lower than GPRS, but due to the lack of connection
delay at the beginning of a session, the lower
transmission speeds of Mobitex are not signicant
except for a large data transfer. For many short data
transfers, Mobitex is equally fast, or potentially
faster than GPRS.
Latency Although raw throughput is 8,000 bps,
actual throughput after protocol overhead is only
about half this rate. Round trip delays usually range
from 4 to 8 seconds.
Figure 35
Mobitex network
Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN)
Category: High Speed Packet Radio Network
Technology: A technology introduced by Motorola
that provides support for voice, data, short messages
(SMS) and dispatch radio (two-way radio) in one
phone. Though used by various carriers around the
globe, Nextel Communications provides nationwide
coverage in the U.S. Today, iDEN wireless handsets are
utilized in a variety of work environments ranging from
manufacturing oors to executive conference rooms as
well as mobile sales forces.
Strengths
Technologies iDEN technology allows business
users to take advantage of four advanced wireless
technologies in one pocket-sized digital handset.
iDEN combines: two-way digital radio, digital
wireless phone, alphanumeric messaging, and data/
fax capabilities.
Services iDENs service includes: speakerphone,
voice command, phone book, voice mail, mobile
Internet and e-mail, voice activation, and voice
recordings so that an ofce can virtually be recreated
on the road, but the biggest market differentiation
for iDEN carriers is the walkie-talkie service. This
service attracts both lucrative business users and
families who need to be in constant contact. iDEN
is the only network that supports a two-way radio
feature. That service - often called Direct Connect
- allows for less expensive and more convenient
communication between iDEN members.
Weaknesses
Consumer Cost When reviewing iDENs
customers average minutes used, one will notice
that it stands at approximately 400. Thats about two
times to three times more than on regular cellular.
If capital expenditure (CAPEX) per minute of use
is examined, iDEN is on par with GSM or CDMA.
If it is evaluated on a pure CAPEX per subscriber,
iDEN is more expensive. Thats one reason why,
so far, iDEN carriers have focused on high-margin
business users.
Figure36
Data networks comparison chart
High Speed Circuit Switched Data - iDEN
A
A
B
Y
Z
A
B
Y
Z
Channel
Channel
Channel
MESSAGE ROUTING
N
E
T
W
O
R
K

U
S
E
R
S
Dedi cated (Ci rcui t-Swi tched Cel l ul ar)
Packet Data
CDPD
Data from
A
Data from
Z
Data from
A
Data from
Y
Data from
B
Data from
Z
Data from
Y
Data from
B
voice call voice call
Data from A
voice
Data Over Low-Orbitting Satellite
Category: Data Over Satellite
Technology: Low orbiting satellite systems provide
near global coverage for transmitters, meaning objects
can be tracked from anywhere in the world. Data over
satellite systems are satellite-based location and data
collection systems which operate in various low orbital
congurations to provide truly global communication
and data collection solutions.
Strengths
Very High Downlink Speeds (up to ve megabits
of data per second for Alpha - more than twice the
capacity of current satellite systems).
Near Global Coverage provides nearly global
coverage for transmitters, meaning objects can be
tracked from anywhere in the world, including over
oceans. While the ability to constantly monitor the
position of a transmitter, or to receive regular updates
is not present, worldwide coverage is available.
The key issue is that low orbiting satellites are a
functional, proven method of communicating small
amounts of data from anywhere in the world.
No Tower Dependence Is not dependant on cellular
towers for transmission.
Weaknesses
Latency of Transmission Limited number of
communication opportunities presented by the
system. As opposed to GPS devices with real
time communication modems that can transmit
real time information back to a base station, the
low orbiting transmitters rely on being seen by a
passing satellite. As opposed to GPS devices with
real time communication modems that can transmit
real time information back to a base station, most
satellite transmitters rely on being seen by a
passing satellite. As a result, if the satellite does
not see the transmitter, the user has no easy way to
retrieve information. This has traditionally rendered
these low orbiting satellite systems unattractive for
agents requiring to get precise locations of the target, as
needed.
Location Coverage Gaps While offering a
nearly global coverage, one of the drawbacks of
these satellite systems is the limited number of
communication opportunities presented. Given that
the satellites are in a polar orbit as opposed to a geo-
synchronous orbit, communication opportunities are
much greater the father removed from the equator the
unit is. This issue may cause concern for individuals
tracking in equatorial regions.
High Power Consumption Low Orbiting Satellite
- based equipment requires larger battery pack
installations as they have a higher power consumption
than traditional celluar-based equipment.
High Cost Transmitters and access fees may not
make this communication technology a viable solution
for all parties.
Highly Sensitive This technology is based on low-
frequency doppler measurements. Consequently, it is
very sensitive to small movements at receiver.
Law Enforcement Applications
It has several advantages in terms of tracking packages
and or vehicles. The transmitters are very small with
an average size of just a few centimeters square. The
power consumption of the actual transmitter is quite
low and given that the average transmission length is
only milliseconds long, units can operate over extended
periods of time with limited batteries.
This technology is currently being used mainly by federal
agencies that are attempting to track objects across
large distances, over long periods of time. Examples
of agencies using these transmitters include: DEA, US
Customs, USDOD, and the RCMP.
Sample of a Low Earth Orbiting Satellite System
Iridium System
The Iridium System is a satellite-based, wireless personal
communications network providing a robust suite of
voice features to virtually any destination anywhere on
earth.
The Iridium system comprises three principal
components: the satellite network, the ground network
and the Iridium subscriber products including phones
and pagers. The design of the Iridium network allows
voice and data to be routed virtually anywhere in the
world. Voice and data calls are relayed from one satellite
to another until they reach the satellite above the Iridium
Subscriber Unit (handset) and the signal is relayed back
to Earth.
Terrestrial and Space Based Network
The Iridium constellation consists of 66 operational
satellites and 13 spares orbiting in a constellation of
six polar planes. Each plane has 11 mission satellites
performing as nodes in the telephony network. The 13
additional satellites orbit as spares ready to replace any
unserviceable satellite. This constellation ensures that
every region on the globe is covered by at least one
satellite at all times.
The satellites are in a near-polar orbit at an altitude of
485 miles (780 km). They circle the earth once every
100 minutes traveling at a rate of 16,832 miles per hour.
Each satellite is cross-linked to four other satellites;
two satellites in the same orbital plane and two in an
adjacent plane.
LEO satellites offer a number of benets to customers.
Unlike geosynchronous satellites, which hover about
the equator at an altitude of 35,900 kilometers (22,300
miles), the Iridium constellation of 66 satellites are
in polar orbits at an altitude of only 780 kilometers
(485 miles). This orbital conguration provides the
following benets over systems based on other orbital
congurations: No signicant transmission delays;
small, handheld pagers and phones (versus laptop-size
terminals); lower transmit power resulting in longer
battery life; and complete global coverage, including all
oceans and all land areas including the Poles.
The Iridium system design is predicated upon line-
of-sight access to the satellite. Therefore, in-building
coverage for handsets is generally not available.
Data Over Low-Orbitting Satellite
Figure 37
Rendering of the Iridium Satellite System
3.4 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS SUMMARY
Network Strengths Weaknesses
Robust signal low chance of data
corruption
Excellent coverage, especially in
rural areas
Reduced support by carriers
Low transmission bandwidth
No standard encryption
Potential for high speed data
Potential for long battery life
Access by phone or internet
Some formats have the potential for
wide international roaming
Roaming between unsupported
carriers can result in dropped calls,
loss of features, etc.
CDMA coverage is mainly limited to
North America
AMPS
CDMA, GPRS, CDMA2000,
W-CDMA, GSM,
D-AMPS/TDMA
Reasonable coverage in urban areas
and corridors
Very low power, long battery life
(like pager)
Easy communication to Blackberry
pagers
Very convenient, cheap operation
Best for small amounts of data, no
large downloads
Message delays of several seconds
DataTAC
Mobitex
High Speed Packet Data
iDEN High speed data, short delays
Low cost, monthly packages
Not widely available, but coverage
is spreading
CDPD
Reasonable coverage in major
centres and corridors
High speed data with low latency
Direct connection via internet
Complexities of dual mode
Power consumption not as low as
packet radio
CDPD technology is being phased out
Analog Cellular
Digital Cellular
Low Speed Packet Radio
Digital Data Over AMPS
Data Over Satellite
Low Earth Orbiting
Satellites
High Data transfer speeds
Global Coverage
Does not depend on Cellular Towers
No Real Time Tracking
Time & Location Coverage Gaps
High Power Consumption
High Cost Potential
Table 4
Wireless Communications Summary
3.5 COVERAGE MAP EXAMPLES
The following is an example of what a typical coverage map might look like. Since these technologies
are changing so rapidly, we strongly advise you to visit your service providers web site directly for the
most accurate and up to date coverage information. You can nd links for US, Canadian and Worldwide
coverage maps in the Reference section at the back of this manual or in the list of popular service providers
in Appendix H.
Figure 38
US GSM coverage map
Currently, wireless networks are based on multiple
technologies. International roaming is based on the
exchange of signaling messages, billing records and
other information. Operators need to ensure that their
networks - and the switches and databases connected
by them - are compatible with their roaming partners,
or they will not be able to exchange information. In
the international roaming arena, ensuring compatible
connections is especially difcult, requiring protocol
conversions. In Europe, the competition is only at the
service level over a standardized and well-organized
cellular infrastructure. Americas cellular competition,
on the other hand, is at the service level as well as the
technology level, imposing incompatible (sometimes
totally proprietary) technologies on their clients.
European wireless carriers utilize international, inter-
standard roaming which allows customers to roam
on different wireless networks that utilize different
standards. These standards include the ANSI-41 family
of standards (Analog, NAMPS, CDMA, TDMA) and
the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)
standard.
Wireless operators must overcome the challenges
associated with international and inter-standard roaming.
This requires bridging the gap between different
numbering schemes, different billing and signaling
systems, and different network elements. Operators
must deal with issues that range from managing roaming
agreements and network inter operability to settling
roaming debts, managing fraud, and training their
customer care departments to troubleshoot roaming-
related problems.
Figure 39
Common roaming agreements
3.6 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS AND ROAMING
Chapt er 4
GPS
Accessor i es
This chapter discusses the ways in which the technologies previously discussed may be
applied as well as the implications GPS tracking has on Law Enforcement Agencies. It will
further review some of the more popular accessories that are commonly used amongst Law
Enforcement communities to aid in covert surveillance applications.
All Radio Frequency energy has a wavelength. High
frequency signals have short wavelengths, while
low frequency signals have long wavelengths.
An antenna is a device shaped /cut to fundamentally
match the wavelengths of the signal its trying to
receive. For example, your car antenna is cut to
the correct specications to pick up radio signals,
however, you would not be able to use your AM/FM
radio antenna for your cellular telephone as it is not
designed to receive the wavelengths that cellular
phones transmit their signals on.
There are many different types of antennas:
monopole, dipole, patch, helical, loop, etc. Each
of these styles has their own advantages and
disadvantages, according to the function they are
supposed to serve. You can learn more about each
of these various antennas by referring to our Internet
Website references found at the back of this manual.
There are also passive (cellular) and active (GPS)
antennas. Passive antennas consist of only a
resonator (raw antenna), whereas active antennas
have amplier circuitry to boost their signal.
(Examples are strictly applicable to Orion products)
The efciency of an antenna is expressed as gain,
usually in dBs (decibels). As a general rule, the
higher the dB, the more efcient the antenna will
be. The gain of a passive antenna actually is an
indication of its directionality. In some directions,
it will pick up signals very well, but that means that
it cannot pick up signals from other directions quite
so well.
4.1 ANTENNA OVERVIEW
Figure 40
900/1900 MHz
Stubby Cellular Antenna
Figure 41
3Db gain Rubber Duck
Cellular Antenna
Figure 42
800,800, 1800, 1900 MHz
Dagger Cellular Antenna
2
in
c
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e
s
5
.5
in
c
h
e
s
In terms of Law Enforcement tracking, there are two sides to the antenna equation - GPS antennas and a communication
antenna. Unless youre dealing with a GPS data logger, youll need to install some sort of communication antenna as
well, to transmit data taken by your tracking device.
The placement of this antenna is just as important as that of the GPS antenna. The majority of antennas do not respond
well to being surrounded by metal. Always remember to strike the balance between covertness and functionality.
Take a look at some examples of communication antennas below to get a rough impression of their size.
The following are some quick-reference antenna facts
Key Antenna Installation Tips
If installing a GPS antenna, remember it must SEE
THE SKY. GPS antennas can see through most
plastics, berglass, thin wood, and paper. The better
view the antenna has of the sky, the better the results
will be.
Keep in mind that not all GPS antennas are created
equal! Different sized antennas will require
different voltages. It is important to check the
voltage requirements of your GPS antenna before
connecting it to any tracking device to ensure that
you are using the proper equipment.
As a general rule, the larger the antenna, the more
efcient it will be at receiving GPS signals. This
having been said, the larger the antenna being used,
the more difculties your team will experience in
a covert and accurate antenna placement on the
target.
Make sure you check the RSSI (signal strength)
of the communication antenna you install. Most
communication antennas dont like to be shielded
by metal or non-conductive materials. GPS signals
will easily pass through plastic, glass and berglass
but not metal, metallic paints and some types of
mirrored/tinted glass.
When installing a GPS antenna in conjunction
with a Cellular antenna (or another RF transmitter
antennas), always try to separate them by at least
3 feet. Any closer than that, and you risk getting
interference in the GPS antenna from the Cellular
antenna.
If you have a long extension cable on any of your
antennas, make sure you bundle the excess near the
unit, not the antenna. Coiling up the excess wire
near any RF transmitter antennas (i.e. your own cell
antenna, two way radio etc.) can cause interference
with the antenna.
If possible, avoid coiling any extra cable you
might have, as this will reduce your cell antennas
efciency. When possible, route the antenna cable
in such a way that you make use of the full antenna
cable length.
Try to install your cellular antenna as vertically as
possible.
Avoid installing cellular antennas near other
electronics that may be interfered with by the
radiated cellular energy.
The Installation Wizard is a good way to check
your installation. Look at RSSI or cellular signal
strength. You should aim for at least 60% in a
covert install.
Again, it cannot be stressed enough, when installing
the antenna, always keep in mind how much of
the sky can actually be seen by the antenna from
the installation point; the more sky, the better the
signal!
GPS Antennas
All GPS tracking systems have one overriding
requirement; they must have a GPS antenna to function.
The GPS Antenna is the units link to the GPS system
of satellites orbiting overhead. By intercepting this
signal, the GPS unit is able to position itself on the
world. In addition to the GPS antenna, many Real
Time GPS tracking systems need a secondary antenna
for communication. The choosing and placing of these
antennas will make the difference in the effectiveness of
your GPS system.
GPS antennas come in all shapes and sizes. As a covert
installer, you need to be concerned with 2 issues when it
comes to these antennas:
1. How big is the antenna?
The smaller the antenna is, the easier it will be to
install. As mentioned earlier in this section, the GPS
antennas need to See the Sky. As a result, one of
the hardest parts of the install is nding somewhere
to hide the antenna. Refer to the pictures below for a
rough idea of the size of some of the GPS antennas
available.
2. What gain is the antenna?
When discussing the properties of various GPS
antennas the word gain is sure to pop up. Gain is
a word that describes the amount of amplication
present in the antenna (how much the antenna
will amplify these signals it receives). Most GPS
receivers come with their own ampliers on the
front (receiver) end. Some can even work with
passive (0 gain) antennas. Usually any gain over
14dB (in modern GPS receivers) is unnecessary.
However, if a signal is very weak, added gain might
be useful. Too much gain is a danger when a strong
signal is amplied to the point of over-driving the
ampliers of the GPS receiver. Do not judge an
antenna strictly by gain. The MkIV is a relatively
high gain antenna, but it also is not ltered. So the
amplier amplies everything the antenna detects
including non-GPS signals. This causes problems
when placed near powerful RF sources.
Note: Pease refer to the previous page for some useful
antenna installation tips.
Figure 43
Trimble 6Db gain GPS
antenna
Figure 44
Sigem 18Db gain GPS
antenna
Figure 45
Mk IV 24Db gain GPS
antenna
Camera Basics
In a nutshell, cameras convert light energy into
electrical energy.
When taking a picture with a camera, the camera
takes a snapshot of what is in its view and this
image is converted into an electrical signal that is
stored in the memory of the surveillance unit - in a
binary format. With the appropriate corresponding
software, the stored information is later re-created
into a visual display for the user.
Technical Camera Tips
Bright light shining directly into the camera will
cause your image to have a washed out area around
the light source. Try and install your cameras so
they point away from any windows in an internal
install.
The cameras Orion supplies are only splash proof;
so avoid installation areas that expose the cameras
to excessive moisture.
Try using various cameras with your units. Some
cameras operate better in low light conditions than
others.
Always test your installation before leaving. Using
a video interface unit can help you adjust details like
the focus and aiming points of the camera.
Investigate if your case requires the use of an
infrared light camera for nighttime surveillance.
Figure 46
Example of photograph taken by a covert camera hidden
in suspects vehicle
Figure 47
Examples of covert surveillance cameras
4.2 CAMERA SURVEILLANCE OVERVIEW
4.3 MICROPHONE OVERVIEW
Microphone Basics
A microphone is any device which converts
mechanical sound energy into electrical energy (an
electrical signal)
Hiding a microphone under clothing requires much
attention. Not only must the mic be hidden from
view, but you must also contend with the problems
of clothing noise.
Contact clothing noise is caused by clothing
physically rubbing against, or striking, the mic
capsule or mic cable. The best means to eliminate
this type of noise is to immobilize the clothing
around the mic.
Acoustic noise interference is created from
clothing rubbing against itself. Static Guard works
very well to lubricate clothing, such as jackets
rubbing over shirts. When performing personal
audio surveillance, always be sure to wear natural
bers such as cotton and wool. As a rule of thumb,
cottons and woolens are the quietest clothing bers.
Synthetics and silks cause a bad audio feed and
should be avoided as much as the situation allows.
The best solution to clothing noise is to keep the
microphone off of the body entirely. It is a simple
matter to hide microphones on many handheld
objects.
Microphones can also be hidden in other areas,
under the collar, under the brim of hats, or hidden
in the hair at the forehead. Small microphones can
also be hidden on the frames of eyeglasses.
Technical Microphone Tips
If your microphone cable is stretched taunt, vehicle
vibration can be transmitted to the microphone
causing audio distortion.
Place your microphones as far away from any
sources of moving air (i.e. windows, air vents, etc.)
as possible. Contact wind noise (the distortion
caused when wind strikes the diaphragm of the
mic itself) can greatly diminish the quality of the
recording. This can be effectively diminished or
eliminated with use of an effective foam windshield
around the mic. Unfortunately, acoustic wind noise
such as wind howling through trees is almost
impossible to remove. Placing the microphone as
close as possible to the desired source is the only
technique that can diminish the acoustic wind
noise. Try various spots and at various speeds to
get a good idea of performance under a variety of
circumstances.
Take care not to place microphones near noise
sources due to the automatic gain control (within
the circuitry that the mic feeds to) as found
in most audio equipment. The automatic gain
control will cause the mic to focus on the loudest
signal it picks up, whether it be the conversation
you are attempting to listen to, or the radio in the
background, depending on where the mic is placed.
Try installing one microphone in the front of the
car and one in back, or one on the inside and one
on the outside of the vehicle. Imagine where the
conversations you want to hear will be most likely
to take place.
Never store or install microphones in or around
Styrofoam, as it too, will interfere with the sound
quality. You can, however, wrap the microphone
in a small piece of foam to prevent vibration and
therefore transmit better audio quality.
The end of the microphone should not be permitted
to swing or hang loose as the movement will cause
excessive background noise.
Figure 48
Example of covert microphone
mic
Batteries come in two types:
Rechargeable & Non-rechargeable
1. Regular or Non-rechargeable batteries are good
because they have more energy stored for their size
than chargeable ones. Also, if you use fresh ones
you are pretty sure how long they will last. They
are bad because you have to throw them away after
use.
2. Rechargeable Batteries are good because you can
use them over and over. They are bad because for
the same capacity, they are larger and there is a
limit to how often they can be used. Rechargeable
batteries are dangerous to rely on because you
never really know what condition they are
in. Rechargeable batteries tend to not stand
up to abuse (full discharge, over charge etc)
and lose their capacity with no easy way
for you to determine what their real capacity
is. The only thing you know for sure is
that they do not have the capacity they did
when they were new, as listed on the spec. At some
point they are going to fail, so you need a good plan
to keep track of how much they are used. All this
makes rechargeable batteries a poor choice for most
surveillance applications.
Non-rechargeable Batteries Come in Different
Chemistries
1. Your basic cheap ashlight battery is Carbon-
Zinc. Dont use it in your tracking products!
(Except maybe for testing purposes, or in your
ashlight!)
2. Most higher price types are Alkaline. These are
ne to use at temperatures above approximately 14
degrees F (-10C). Below that, you will get a lot less
life from them. The battery companies have come
out with a whole bunch of super alkalines with
various clever names and high prices. The ones
reviewed by Orion all have the same technical
specications as the cheap ones so make sure you
check the specs before you spend a lot of money on
a new name. Beware of ashy marketing tactics!
3. There are scores of specialty batteries generally
called Lithium. Be warned that they are nowhere
near uniformly the same. All work well at low
temperatures, and often have much more energy for
their size than the other two types. Some, however,
can only supply low currents while others supply
high currents, but can explode if shorted! Lithium
batteries also generally cost a lot more. Be careful
which ones you choose.
Some good examples
EverReady has a Lithium-Ion AA cell. It is a
good replacement for Alkaline AA cells at low
temperatures. At regular temperatures it will give
you about 20-30% more life.
Ultra-life makes a 9-volt lithium battery. It has
approximately twice as much energy as the same
size Alkaline.
A number of manufacturers, including Panasonic,
make Lithium batteries intended for cameras. They
are odd sizes, but actually are pretty good batteries;
both for energy storage and for cold temperatures.
Some types may however, need special shipping.
4.4 BATTERIES
Figure 49
Sample of a battery set-up
Most covert electronics use batteries packs to hardwire themselves or are hardwired to another power source. If you
decide to use a battery pack, how do you know what kind of batteries to use, or how long they will last? For that
matter, whats the difference between one kind of battery and another? This section will give you the knowledge to
answer those questions and more.
Rechargeable Batteries also Come in
Different Chemistries
1. Lead Acid - Your average car battery. Great if you
have the space. Basic cell is 2.0 volts.
2. Gell Cell - Your car battery with jello added. Does
not spill. Refer to 1) above.
3. Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cad) - Until recently, the most
used rechargeable battery. Found in electric razors,
mobile phones etc. Does not store much energy
for its size by modern standards, and has a charge
memory If you dont take care, it will pretend to
be charged when it isnt. Easily available. Use with
caution, however, as they are toxic and need special
disposal. Each Cell 1.2 volts.
4. Nickel Metal Hydride - At least 50% better than
Ni-Cad. Tend to lose charge quickly when not used.
Not easily bought - except in cell phone battery
packs - and require care in charging.
5. Lithium-Ion - Can double Ni-Cad in storage
capacity. Very light in weight. Works well over
wide temperature range. Tends to lose charge when
not used, but not as fast as other types. Requires
special care in charging. Best choice in present
rechargeable technology if you can deal with the
charging issue. Lithium cells usually come in 3.6
volts, with a few exceptions such as the 9 volt or
AA.
Making Your Own Battery Packs
With a little bit of work, you can put together cells or
batteries to make your own battery packs. There are two
main congurations: Series and Parallel.
Series multiplies the voltage but gives the same amp-
hour capacity as one cell. Parallel multiplies the amp-
hour capacity but leaves the voltage the same. In either
series or parallel the energy is the same - the number of
cells times the energy in one cell.
This concept regarding parallel and series groups of
batteries is a very important one. If you want to build
your own battery pack - whether you build a series pack
or a parallel pack - will be a prime consideration before
starting.
Golden Rules for Battery Packs
1. Know how long you want them to last.
2. The size of the battery is directly related to how
long you want it to last.
Figure 50
Parallel battery pack
Figure 51
Series battery pack
What are the current and voltages specied? Is there
a high current for short time or low current for a
long time? Does the draw change depending on the
use?
What is the power consumption of your unit? If
your device draws 500 mA an hour under full load,
a single A cell with a capacity of 3000 mA will last
about 6 hours. Is that enough?
What kind of load will you will put on them?
Steady? Pulsed?
A pulsed load will generally allow the battery to
supply relatively more power than a steady one,
because it allows the battery to recover between
pulses. Some batteries will not work well with high
pulse loads, because their internal resistance is too
high and they get hot, wasting energy.
What environmental conditions are they going to be
used in?
If the batteries are going to be subjected to extreme
cold weather temperatures, make sure you use
a lithium battery. They respond better to cold
temperatures.
Make sure that you adequately protect the batteries
and any circuits you may have from the outside
environment.
What size limitations will there be in terms of
installations? If you only have a small space,
consider using the right sized battery and playing
with voltages and capacity with your series and
parallel arrangements.
REMEMBER! Never, never, never solder directly
onto a cell. (The heat will damage the cell, and
may very well cause it to explode regardless of its
chemical makeup. At the very least, it may fail at any
later given time.)
Power Supplies
Different electronic devices use different power supplies
and you need to know what kind youre working with
when designing your battery pack.
1. A linear supply will be very wasteful if the supply
voltage is much different from the internal needs of
the unit. For example, a unit might run at 3 volts
internally, but have a linear power supply that the
manufacturer species from 4 to 12 volts. All the
energy supplied over 4 volts will be wasted. If you
use a 12-volt battery, around 70% of the battery
energy will be wasted in heat. If a unit with a linear
supply takes 10mA at 6 volt, it will still take 10mA
at 12 volts.
2. A switching supply, on the other hand, will only
waste as little as 5% as long as the voltage is within
the specied range. The higher the voltage, the
lower the current needed with this type. If the unit
takes 10 mA at 6 volts, at 12 volts it will take 5
mA. For calculating the life of a battery used
with a switching supply, you need to use energy
calculations - not capacity ones. (Use milliwatts,
not milliamps)
Battery Storage
Generally speaking, batteries should be stored in a cool
location, at just above the freezing mark. Some batteries
can be frozen, but this should be discussed with the
supplier before attempted. A decent fridge can also be
a used to store batteries, although some cells should
not be refrigerated because condensation may create a
resistance and run the cell down (ie, 9V). If batteries are
kept in cool (ex. air conditioned) rooms, refrigeration is
not useful. For the most reliable results, it is always best
to use new batteries for important cases.
Power Requirements and Considerations
Carbon Zinc
9V 9 400 3,600
AA 1.5 950 1,425
AAA 1.5 540 810
C 1.5 3,000 4,500
D 1.5 5,900 8,850
Alkaline
9V 9 595 5,355
AA 1.5 2,565 3,847.5
AAA 1.5 1,375 2,062.5
AAAA 1.5 595 892.5
C 1.5 8,350 12,525
D 1.5 18,000 27,000
Lithium Ion
A 3 1,550 4,650
9V 9 1,200 10,800
AA 1.5 2,900 4,350
LSH 14-C 3.6 5,500 6,480
LSH 20-D 3.6 13,000 4,680
Nickel Cadmium
9V 7.2 150 1,080
AA 1.2 1,700 2,040
AAA 1.2 750 900
C 1.2 2200 2640
Battery Matrix
The following chart outlines some of the specications
of different consumer batteries. Use your own judgment
and look at the exact specications before deciding on
any particular battery.
The energy values for some batteries cannot be calculated
strictly as voltage times capacity due to their discharge
pattern. This applies mainly to Alkaline and Carbon
Zinc because their discharge voltage is rarely the stated
voltage. If you have any questions about selecting the
best battery for your needs, please feel free to call our
helpful Orion staff.
The chart to the right indicates the discharge patterns of
different battery types. As you can see, Lithium holds
a constant voltage for a longer period and then drops
off. Alkaline drops off a bit at the start, holds a lower
voltage and then drops off. Nickel Cadmium has a
constant downward slope.
Battery Type Battery Size Voltage Capacity (mAh)* Energy (mWatts)
Volts
Time
Lithium
Alkaline
Nickel Cadmium
Table 5
Battery Comparison Chart
Chapt er 5
I nst al l at i on
Ti ps & Tool s
This chapter will serve as a valuable introduction to install and protect covert GPS tracking
units. On the following pages, we will be discussing issues to keep in mind when preparing
for a surveillance installation, and how to effectively mount your tracking devices on a target
in order to achieve the best results from your products.
5.1 INSTALLATION PREPARATION
Orion employees do not have a lot of practical experience
in this eld, so to help us out we asked Trooper Eugene
Cullen from the Pennsylvania State Police for some
advice. Hes been a great asset to us over the years and
most of the information below comes from him. If you
ever need help dealing with a GPS system hes a great,
experienced resource.
Installation is where all your knowledge can be put to
bear, and legends are made and broken. Weve all heard
stories about 3 minute hardwire installs, borrowing
cars in the middle of the night among other things we
cant even put into print. As exciting as these stories are,
they all have one thing in common: the people involved
certainly invested a lot of time and effort in making
sure that everything went as perfectly as possible. Its a
clich, but the truth is that mistakes in this business have
very serious consequences.
Look through the following section for some hints and
tips on how to make sure your next installation goes as
smoothly as possible.
Step 1: The Investigators Initial Phone Call
Start asking by asking the right questions. This is where
you start to get the feel for the case to come.
What is the missions objective?
What are they trying to accomplish? What type of
case is it?
Do they need real time monitoring capabilities,
memory tracking only, or a combination of both?
Step 2: Deciding What to Use and How
After your initial conversation with the lead case
investigator, you should have a good idea of what kind
of unit to use. There are, however, still some questions
that need to be answered.
What type of tracker needs to be used? Make sure
you nd out exactly what kind of GPS unit they
want. If they dont know, make the decision based
on the initial information the investigator gave
you.
How long will the unit need to be up and running?
Will the installation be Slap & Dash or a
hardwire?
Note: Refer to page 61 for a quick reference ow chart
that can help you decide what kind of product you
should be considering for your case.
Step 3: Investigating the Target
Once you gure out what kind of unit youre going to
use, its time to investigate the target vehicle.
Whats the exact make and model of the car?
Does it have an alarm? If so, is it factory installed
or an after market one?
Are keys available? How is the investigator going
to acquire the vehicle?
Where will the installation take place?
When does the investigator wish the installation
take place?
Step 4: Installation Preparation
Once you have answered the questions in the sections
above, you can begin to prepare for the upcoming
installation. The suggestions below are based on
signicant experience. While you might not always have
time to do every single thing mentioned here, the more
you do, the easier the installation will be in the end.
5.2 COVERT GPS TRACKING INSTALLATION
Preparation checklist
Get the Investigator to obtain surveillance pictures
of the target vehicle.
Run the vehicles VIN through VIN Assist to
get the exact vehicle year, exact Model info, and
engine code (V6 or V8).
Obtain a Build Sheet from the manufacturer.
This provides the specic options installed on the
vehicle.
*Remember two vehicles may appear alike, but one
may have different options. Two Chevy pick-ups with
5.7-liter V8 engines may not be the same as one another.
The second one may have a towing package that
provides a larger radiator or transmission cooler. Having
the exact specications means you wont have practiced
on the basic V-8 package, and the install location you
found for your midnight raid slap & go is not there at
0300 hours!
Obtain other information from outside sources like
shop manuals from the dealer, or an aftermarket
provider like Chiltons or Mitchells on Demand
CDs.
Obtain a similar vehicle for testing and practice.
You can usually nd one if you look hard enough
and it will make the job a lot easier in the long run.
Look at the rental agencies, friends or co-workers, a
used car lot, auction house, impound lot, or even a
junk yard for those older models.
5.3 GPS INSTALLATION EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST
With regards to hand tools, if you are a full time
tech, you will probably already have most of the
recommended tools listed. There are, however, some
additional automotive tools that will certainly help.
Also, many people get by with only using SAE tools
and never use metric wrenches and sockets, but with
automotive, they are a must!
Hand Tools and Accessories
Hydraulic jack
Jack stands
Creeper
Wheel dollies
Light Sources
Snake light (Craftsman)
Miners headlight (red)
Filter ash light for night installs
Special Hand Tools
Panel removal tool (Snap-On YA-331)
Window or door handle removal tool
Razor knife or scalpel (X-acto)
Torx set (T-10 through T-50)
Snap-on or Craftsman
Standard and with hole in middle
Inspection mirrors
Retrieval magnet or magic ngers
Dental probes & hooks (telephone wire picks)
Electrical Tools
Cordless drill / screwdriver
Spare battery
Right angle attachment
Uni-bit & complete drill index
Knock-out set (Greenlee)
Spiral saw (Roto-Zip)
Portable dremel tool
Portable soldering iron
Solder & extra butane
Portable vacuum (Dustbuster)
Electrical Supplies
Test light
Alligator clip leads (Burger buttons)
Misc. 12 volt relays
30-amp automotive relay
Automotive noise lter (Radio Shack)
RF adapter assortment (BNC to SMA etc)
Spare RF connectors
Meters (Simpson, Fluke)
Fuses
Buss type & blade type
In-line fuse holders
Add a circuit
Assorted terminal lugs (3M, Stacon)
Assorted wiring
Old wire is good (Get an old harness from a
junkyard)
Parasitic connectors (Scotchlock)
Self-sealing is best, but not required
Heat shrink (multi color available)
Loom tubing (assorted sizes)
Zip ties (assorted sizes)
Miscellaneous Hardware
Automotive screw assortment (including
metric sizes)
Interior snap / clip assortment
Scrounge box (all your leftovers)
Self tapping screws
Pop rivets
Adhesives
Windshield sealant
Duct sealant or Monkey Goop
Silicon (beware of odor)
Hot glue gun
Epoxy (double bubble packs or syringe)
Tapes
Double-sided carpet tape
Electrical tape
Duct tape
Adhesive backed Velcro (3M #3541)
Spray foam sealant (good for rattles and
securing equipment)
Continued
Additional Items
Polaroid camera
Digital camera
Automotive paint
Primer & touch up
Undercoating
Trim adhesive
Lubricant (CRC or WD-40)
Cleaner (Simple Green, etc.)
Compressed air
PLEASE BE AWARE:
If you are installing equipment around the dash of
a car, pay particular attention to the airbags. They
can be deadly if discharged accidentally!
Installation Check List
Disable alarm
Observe and/or disconnect odometer
Record AM/FM presets
Record seat & steering wheel positions
Consider recording interior with a camera
before entry
Do not remove power, some cars remember
Tapping electrical power?
Does unit have internal surge suppression /
fusing or is in-line fuse needed
Ensure good ground connection!
Place GPS antenna in area where it can see the
sky
Angle antenna to permit optimum view if
partially blocked
Ensure proper placement of cell or RF antenna
Camouage installation so that it matches
surroundings!
Unit Final Check List
Will unit answer?
RF link
Cellular link
If using test box, self check unit
Is GPS head taking xes?
Cell antenna percentages?
Now is the time to nd any problems.
Not after you return the vehicle!
Installation Final Check List
Return interior to original positions
Refer to pictures and lists
Test AM/FM radio across the band
Interference?
Re-attach odometer if disconnected
Adjust steering wheel
Were doors locked?
Hand prints all over side of car?
Dirt or dust disturbed on side of car?
GPS Installation Equipment Checklist continued
Never leave your cable runs apping loose. Use tie
wraps or tape to attach them to the frame or other
wires.
Try to keep some black wire conduit around; its
perfect for hiding wires and cables.
Make sure all equipment is attached rmly to the
vehicle. If you are planning on using magnetic
plates, make sure they are also secured with tape or
tie wraps to prevent slipping and sliding.
Make sure all connectors are locked in place to
prevent them from vibrating loose. If you are at all
concerned, wrap them with black tapeno more
worries and it disguises the connectors as a bonus!
Test your install as thoroughly as possible.
Never pull, stretch, or crush your cables. If you
notice nicks or frays, make sure you test them as
carefully as possible. If you have any doubts as to
the performance condition of the unit, replace it!
Take extra installation accessories to the install
site, so you are well equipped for any unexpected
emergency.
Use a vacuum cleaner and reverse its suction to
blow dust on newly installed conduits and wires to
prevent detection if the rest of the engine bay was
previously dusty. This will give it a nice camouage
and make it less likely to stand out.
Last Minute Quick Reference Installation Tips
5.4 LEGAL ASPECTS OF COVERT GPS TRACKING
Pennsylvania
Court order needed regardless of tapping vehicle
electrical system (PACC/5761).
Good for up to 90 days & only one extension.
Only need Reasonable Suspicion to support you
request.
Need a Probable Cause order to monitor in an area
covered by an expectation of privacy.
Federal and most other States
Order not needed unless tapping vehicle electrical
system.
An order is needed if tracking is to occur in an area
covered by a reasonable expectation of privacy.
Having to obtain an order is not very difcult.
You can have additional authorization statements
added in the order to help you do your job! (see
below)
Precautionary Order Additions
All basic case-related information.
Make / Model / Owner information.
Maintenance Statement.
Authorization to make periodic adjustments to
tracking unit as necessary.
Steal It Statement.
Your agency is hereby authorized to make secret
entry into, detain, and/or temporarily remove
vehicle from said parking location for purposes of
installing a tracking device .
Any additional information necessary to complete
your task statement. The following locations could
provide you information:
Manufacturer
Local and all dealerships
National Insurance Crime Bureau (NICB)
Alarm Companies
Key Codes
Build Sheets
Alarm Technical Data
If removal not practicable at time of expiration,
monitoring shall cease.
Shut off GPS head if possible.
Geographic limitations of evidence use
statement.
If vehicle travels outside area covered under this
order, any information obtained shall not be used
unless authorized by a court in that jurisdiction or
area.
Technology currently not available.
We went back to our friend Sgt. Cullen of the Pennsylvania
State Police for this one. Now a lot of the information
contained within this section will deal specically with the
Pennsylvania legal system. We feel that if you know what
other people have to do, it will raise the question: What do
I have to be aware of? Once you ask that question youre
well on your way to nding out what legalities you have
to be aware of in your state or province.
5.5 GPS COVERT TRACKING UNIT INSTALLATION TIPS
One of the biggest challenges facing investigators is
where to install both the GPS tracking unit and the
accompanying antennas it needs to work. Look at the
cars below. Pretty average at rst glance, but there
are things that make doing an install a lot easier. First
consider how much of this car is made of plastic:
fenders, bumpers, wheel wells and more. These places
also happen to be ideal spots for installing antennas for
a GPS installation. Take a look at the pictures below for
some universal ideas on installation spots.
Plastic grill
Headlight, turn signal and
brake light assemblies
Plastic bumpers
Look here for power
Place unit behind glove
box
Place the antenna under
the dash
Lots of plastic to hide
under
Look for power in here
Dont forget the rear deck of a 4-door sedan
as an installation spot. It offers the same
benets as the front dash, while being less
likely to come under scrutiny.
Security Chip Keys
Car manufacturers today are focusing more on car theft
prevention then ever before. This is bad news for the
majority of technical investigators. One of the things
theyve come up with is a security chip car key. The
ignition key has a small, integrated chip built into the
key. A sensor in the ignition reads the chip code from
the key when someone is trying to start the engine. If the
code is not present, it will not allow the engine to start.
However, in some cases the engine may start, but it will
not stay running for long! After about ten seconds, it
will temporarily disable the motor, and generate a fault
condition that will require a mechanics attention to
clear up.
You need to make sure the car youre working with does
not have a security chip car key. How do you nd out?
Ask a dealership or refer to a shop manual, some of
this information may also be found on various vehicle
websites.
If your car does have one of these keys, you need to get
a work around. What that means is getting a blank key
and have the proper code programmed into it. There are
two ways of programming your blank chip key:
Possess an original key that has already been
pre-programmed, and follow the manufacturers
directions. (Possible, but if you had an original you
wouldnt be concerned in the rst place!)
Take the vehicle to the same manufacturers
dealership, and have them use their multi thousand-
dollar machine to program the key! People tell us
that this process is very risky and not very practical,
so be careful if you attempt it.
Beware! A blank chip key is inexpensive in most
cases. A dealer may inadvertently provide you with the
pre-cut key, and not tell you that it has not been pre-
programmed!
Some older style chip keys used a resistor in the key.
Manufacturers only used approximately a dozen resistor
combinations. The resistors can be swapped in until the
right combination is found!
Alarm Systems
Sooner or later youll run into a problem with a car alarm
on a vehicle you want to install a unit on. Unfortunately,
theres not much you can do here without some good
research and contacts. The picture above illustrates some
of the parts you may nd in a car alarm. New alarms will
use one or all of these features.
Older models use the same frequency to turn security
system on and off. You can intercept using a scanner
or spectrum analyzer if in close enough proximity to
the target when they press the key. Many newer alarm
systems, however, use a frequency-hopping algorithm
that changes every time the remote is pressed. You may
intercept one code, but it may not work the next time!
5.6 SECURITY SYSTEMS
The Parts of
a Car Alarm
Figure 5.2
Car Alarm Diagram
5.7 EXAMPLE OF GPS DIGITAL SWITCHING SETUP
Digital Switching Setup for a GPS Informer (ST600)
Unit
Wiring the Output Switch to a Relay: The internal
switch of an Informer unit can only switch up to 0.5
A of current. You will need to use a separate relay to
control higher current levels. Most on-board devices in
a vehicle use more than 0.5 A such as tail lights, power
locks or engine components. Here is an example of how
to wire up a relay to the ST600 series Informer AND the
device you want to control remotely.
Sample Relay Bosch part # 0332-209-150
Switches up to 30 A @ 60 V and can be wired normally
open or normally closed.
Normally Open = no power running to the device until
you change the state of the relay ie. CLOSE switch.
Normally Closed = power running to device until you
change the state of the relay i.e. OPEN switch.
Informer Switch Requirements
The Informer does not supply power to the relay or
the internal switch. So you will need to wire it into
a power supply.
RECOMMENDED: Crimp into the +/- 12 V
source of the Informer (i.e. the blue lead)
The switch in the Informer is normally open. That
means, without using an external relay, the device
will not have any power until you CLOSE the
switch using the software or touch tone commands.
You can force the device to be continuously
powered using an external relay.
Whenever the Informer internal switch is set
CLOSED, it will draw additional current until
it is set OPEN again. So, if you want the device
to be continuously powered, use an external relay.
The Bosch relay used here can be wired normally
open or closed.
Figure 53
External relay - normally open
Figure 54
External relay - normally closed
5.8 HOMEMADE GPS BATTERY CALCULATOR
One of the hardest things when working with batteries
is guring out how long they will last under various
circumstances and with various electronic devices. One
of the easy ways around this problem is to write a small
battery calculator program using a spreadsheet program
like Excel or Quattro Pro. The concept is fairly simple and
is independent of specic software programs. The result
will be a much better understanding of how long your
devices will last under a variety of conditions.
How to
1. Find a spreadsheet program like Excel or Quattro Pro
and open a new document.
2. Heres some information youre going to need before
you start:
a. The power consumption specications for your
device. In other words, how much power the
device draws in its various states.
b. The capacity of the batteries you plan on using.
If youre not sure and are using commercial
batteries, go to the manufacturers website and
check out the specs.
3. You can see in the example on the following page
how its laid out. The section at the top will be pretty
universal: the number of batteries, the capacity per
battery, the voltage per battery and the end result of
total voltage per battery.
Please Note: This example assumes a series battery
pack. For a parallel battery pack, the voltage would be
the same regardless of the number of batteries, while
the capacity would change.
4. The second section will change according to what
parameters you want to track. For instance, in the
example, a Dual Mode Real Time GPS tracking unit
has been selected, so variables for both CDMA and
AMPS, as well as tracking and not tracking were
required. You can see the result in the lower corner,
which shows the number of days the battery pack will
last.
5. Set up your spreadsheet to resemble the one below.
Under the Operating Mode heading, you need to
insert the operational modes that are particular to your
device. Now that you have your headings, you can
input your variables and your formulas. The formulas
will be the tools that do the grueling math for us. Take
look at the example below to see the formulas used.
6. Now enter the formulas. Under the Total Voltage
heading, you will want to create a formula that will
multiply the number of batteries by the voltage
per battery. Or, as displayed in the example above,
=A2*C2, which simply states that we want to multiply
the value in cell A2 by whatever value is in C2.
This setup allows you to change the numbers in the
other cells and not have to continually recalculate.
7. Next, you need to write the formulas for the power
consumption. Take your spec sheet and gure out how
much power the device consumes under the settings
you put down. Then write the formula that will multiply
the number of hours with the power consumption. You
can see that for this example, the device is drawing
130ma when Taking readings: Cell phone transmitting
CDMA. Multiply the number of hours by 130mA, and
then multiply that gure with the result of 12 divided
by the total voltage.
This ensures that your power consumption numbers
reect the actual draw at 12 volts. This standard will
ensure your power consumption values are consistent
regardless of power supply. A general rule is the higher
the voltage, the lower the current consumption and the
lower the voltage, the higher the current consumption.
8. Now you can set up your nal numbers. You need to
total the number of hours you have as variables, and
ensure they total 24. You also want to get the total from
your power consumption values in the Total Current
Drawn column.
9. Once you have those completed, you can write the
formula that will tell you how long the battery pack
will last. Simply divide the Capacity of the battery
by the total you got from your Power Consumption
column. This will give you the number of days your
battery pack will last. Now you should be done!
*Note: As mentioned above, this example was used for
a parallel battery setup. In order to calculate a series
battery pack, you must multiply the total number of
batteries by the individual battery capacity to get the
total capacity. You must also change the Total Voltage
column to reect the voltage of a single battery. For
more information on the difference between a series
and parallel battery pack, see the Battery Basics section
in this manual.
Homemade GPS Battery Calculator continued
8 4200 1.5 =A2*C2
Enter approximate hours below
Taking readings: cell phone
transmitting CDMA 2 =B9*230* (12/D2)
transmitting AMPS 0 =B10*430* (12/D2)
Taking readings: cell phone standby 3 =B11*25* (12/D2)
Not reading: cell phone off 19 =B12*0.40* (12/D2)
Total Hours =SUM(B9:B12)
Total Current Draw/24 hours mA =SUM(C9:C12)
Total Numbers of Days of Use B2/C14
Number of Batteries Capacity Voltage per Battery Total Voltage
Operating Mode Total Hours should equal 24 Total Current Draw mA
8 4200 1.5 12
Enter approximate hours below
transmitting CDMA 2 460
transmitting AMPS 0 0
Taking readings: cell phone standby 3 75
Not reading: cell phone off 19 7.6
Total Hours 24
Total Current Draw/24 hours mA 542.6
Total Numbers of Days of Use 7.74
Number of Batteries Capacity Voltage per Battery Total Voltage
Operating Mode Total Hours should equal 24 Total Current Draw mA
Modem Overview
Modem is an acronym for Modulator Demodulator.
A modem is a device that converts data from digital
computer signals to analog signals that can be sent over
a phone line. This is called modulation. The analog
signals are then converted back into digital data by the
receiving modem. This is called demodulation.
A modem is fed digital information in the form of ones
and zeros from the CPU. The modem then analyzes this
information and converts it to analog signals that can be
sent over a phone line. Another modem then receives
these signals, converts them back into digital data, and
sends the data to the receiving CPU.
AT Command Sets
Long ago, Hayes set a standard for modem commands
with its Smartmodem 300. Most modem manufacturers
adopted this command set in order to call themselves
Hayes compatible. The command set used by the
Smartmodem 300, as well as most modems today
(with a few advanced commands), is known as the AT
command set. AT stands for attention, and precedes all
(with the exception of A/) commands directed to the
modem. For example, when dialing, it is necessary
for either the software or the user to issue an ATDT or
ATDP command followed by the number and enter. AT
tells the modem that it is about to receive a command.
DT tells it to dial by tone, while DP tells it to pulse dial.
Finally, the modem dials the number given to it after the
command. Different modems do have slightly different
command sets, but generally most modems follow the
standard set by Hayes.
The following is Orions Default Modem String to
illustrate an example of an AT Command Set:
E1 &D2 &C1 M2 L2
(Note: A full listing of AT Command Denitions can
be found in Appendix F)
Figure 56
Cable modem connection
Figure 55
Dial up modem connection
5.9 MODEM OVERVIEW & AT COMMAND SETS
Chapt er 6
An I nt r oduct i on
t o Or i on Equi pment
Chapter 6 presents readers with a condensed introduction to Orions exclusive line of GPS
tracking solutions. As a leader in this industry for over 27 years, Orions team of experts is
able to offer law enforcement ofcers a wide range of surveillance options to satisfy nearly
any GPS tracking situation. For more information on GPS tracking solutions, any one of our
qualied Orion representatives will be pleased to assist you in nding the correct product to
meet your cases requirements.
6.1 PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS FLOWCHART
How long do your investigations
usually last?
2 - 3 days 1 - 2 weeks 1 month or more
Do you need information
on your targets location
during the investigations?
Yes No Yes No Yes No
Does your agency
have between $7500
and $10000 for the
rst purchase?
Data Loggers will
keep track of all
known positions
and tend to be much
cheaper than Real
Time systems
Do you need to
see Real Time
updates on the
suspects location?
Look for a long
lasting Data Logger.
Check the power
consumption & make
sure the unit will last
the time you need.
Do you need to
see Real Time
updates on the
suspects location?
Look for a long
lasting Data Logger.
Check the power
consumption & make
sure the unit will last
the time you need.
Real Time Systems
There are a few things to remember
when looking at Real Time Tracking
Systems:
Talk to your local cellular phone
providers. See what is offered in the
areas youll be working in.
Real Time Tracking sucks up battery life.
If youre using a battery pack make sure
you know how long the unit will last.
For long cases (2 weeks or more)
consider hardwiring if possible.
Remember to check legalities in your
area.
Make sure your maps are up to date and
accurate. It will make things easier.
Data Loggers/Remote Access
Data Loggers and Remote Access
units can be the perfect choice in many
situations:
Data Loggers usually last much longer
on battery power than Real Time
systems.
With the addition of a Short Range link,
you can access your information without
removing the unit.
These types of units are usually cheaper
as well, making them a great way to
enter the GPS tracking eld.
Look for a Real Time
tracking system with
some Analog (AMPS)
capabilities. Theres
no use having a new
digital unit if theres no
coverage in your area.
Urban Rural Both
You can use a digital
only Real Time system.
Examples of digital
communications are
GSM, CDMA and
GPRS. Remember to
check which protocol
has the best coverage in
your tracking area.
You need at least a dual
mode Real Time system.
Look for a system with
a combination of digital
and AMPS capabilities.
Yes No
Consider using a Data
Logger with a remote
download capability.
There are several
choices including
Short Range RF as
well as cellular.
Do you need
to track in
urban or rural
areas or both?
Do you need
to track in
urban or rural
areas or both?
Yes No Yes No
Do you need
to track in
urban or rural
areas or both?
Consider using a Data
Logger with a remote
download capability.
There are several
choices including
Short Range RF as
well as cellular.
6.2 ORION PRODUCT FEATURES MATRIX
Product Family HYDRA
Product Line JAVELIN LOGGER
MICRO-
WITNESS
OBSERVER SENTINEL SENTRY
Product Name HT550 ST60J ST61 ST75 ST55S ST200 ST801 ST802 ST810
TECHNOLOGIES
AMPS x
NAMPS
CDMA x x x x
TDMA
GSM
GPRS
RF x x
Low Orbitting Satellites x
PCS
CONNECTION
Landline
2.4Ghz Spread Spectrum Radio Frequency x x
Analog Only
Alpha Satellite System x
CDMA (800 & 1900) x x x
GSM Tri Mode (900, 1800, 1900)
GPRS (900/1800/1900)
Tri Mode (Analog 800/CDMA 800/1.9) x
Internet Capabilities x
Cell To Cell
EXTERNAL CONNECTION DEVICES
Remote Download Box x
Orion Test Box x x
Palm Installation Wizard x x x
D-AU Audio Unit
Requires Basestation / Cellular Intercept Receiver x
CONFIGURATION
Password Protection x x x
Encrypted Data Transmission x
Test Phone/Pager Numbers x x x
Cell Phone Always On (Stand-by Mode) x x x
Cell Phone OFF (Shut-Down Mode) x x
Cell Phone Cycles Power
Records GPS w/ Motion/Vibration and/or Direction x x x x x x x x
User Defined GPS Fixed Record Intervals x x x x x x x x
Reports Last Known GPS via SMS
Queue Changes x x
Can Handle Multiple (5) User Connections x
Geographic Boundaries (Limit 5) x x
Geographic Boundaries (Limit 10) x x x
Includes Battery Calculator x x x x x x x x
Paging Capabilities x
E-Mail Capabilities x
SMS Capabilities x x x x
CALLOUT EVENTS
Call On Low Battery x x x x
Call On Boundary (Entry/Exit) x x x x
Call On Motion (Start/Stop) x x x x
Call On Input Trip x x x x
Output Switch x x x
AUDIO/VIDEO
Audio x x
Video x
Live Tracking w/Audio via ST616 Basestation x
DATA
Smart Download (New Records Only) x x x x x
FLASH Memory Backup x x x x x x x x x
Download Records Remotely x x x x x
Live Tracking x x x x
TECHNICAL TRAINING REQUIRED
LOW x x x
MODERATE x
ADVANCED x x x x x
HT550 ST60J ST61 ST75 ST55S ST200 ST801 ST802 ST810
GU
SKYTRACK
Product Family
BASE
STATION
VOICE
DATA
MODULE
CELL-
WIRE
CELL-
SWITCH
CAN-
TRACK
Product Line
ST811 ST851 ST852 ST853 ST854 ST616CBS ST615VDM VT300-D CS200 CN502G Product Name
TECHNOLOGIES
x x x AMPS
x NAMPS
x x CDMA
x TDMA
x x x x GSM
x x GPRS
RF
Low Orbitting Satellites
x PCS
CONNECTION
x Landline
2.4Ghz Spread Spectrum Radio Frequency
x x Analog Only
Alpha Satellite System
x x CDMA (800 & 1900)
x x x GSM Tri Mode (900, 1800, 1900)
x x GPRS (900/1800/1900)
Tri Mode (Analog 800/CDMA 800/1.9)
x x x Internet Capabilities
x Cell To Cell
EXTERNAL CONNECTION DEVICES
Remote Download Box
Orion Test Box
x x x x x Palm Installation Wizard
x D-AU Audio Unit
x Requires Basestation / Cellular Intercept Receiver
CONFIGURATION
x x x x Password Protection
x Encrypted Data Transmission
x x x Test Phone/Pager Numbers
x x x x x Cell Phone Always On (Stand-by Mode)
x x x Cell Phone OFF (Shut-Down Mode)
x Cell Phone Cycles Power
x x x x x Records GPS w/ Motion/Vibration
x x x x x User Defined GPS Fixed Record Intervals
x x x x x Reports Last Known GPS via SMS
x x Queue Changes
x x x Can Handle Multiple (5) User Connections
x x x Geographic Boundaries (Limit 5)
x x Geographic Boundaries (Limit 10)
x x x x x Includes Battery Calculator
Paging Capabilities
x E-Mail Capabilities
x x x x x SMS Capabilities
CALLOUT EVENTS
x x x x x Call On Low Battery
x x x x x Call On Boundary (Entry/Exit)
x x x x x Call On Motion (Start/Stop)
x x x x x x Call On Input Trip
x x x x x x Output Switch
AUDIO/VIDEO
x x x x x x Audio
Video
x x x x x Live Tracking w/Audio via ST616 Basestation
DATA
x x x x x Smart Download (New Records Only)
x x x x x x FLASH Memory Backup
x x x x x Download Records Remotely
x x x x x x x x Live Tracking
TECHNICAL TRAINING REQUIRED
x LOW
x x MODERATE
x x x x x x x ADVANCED
ST811 ST851 ST852 ST853 ST854 ST616CBS ST615VDM VT300-D CS200 CN502G
UARDIAN SERIES
UNITASK
Chapt er 7
War ni ngs &
Saf et y Concer ns
Chapter 7 will offer readers a general introduction to the most important safety issues
surrounding tracking, to promote proper usage and extend the life of your surveillance
equipment.
7.1 BATTERY DISPOSAL
Sooner or later your batteries are going to run out
of juice. If youre using primary (non-rechargeable)
batteries that will happen after the rst time they run
at. Most secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be
recharged multiple times, but they will still eventually
become un-rechargeable. When this happens you need
to dispose of your batteries. The rules for disposal of
batteries vary according to where you live, as well as
what kind of battery youre trying to dispose of.
The chemicals in the battery determine the method of
disposal. The common, non-rechargeable alkaline and
lithium batteries can be disposed of through normal
trash. Rechargeable batteries (nickel/cadmium and
mercury) and lead/acid batteries must be disposed of
through the Hazardous Waste Program.
There are all kinds of rules for disposal of batteries,
many of which have toxic contents. Cadmium and
Mercury are two of the worst. Do the right thing and
check with your local authorities.
Please refer to the link below for more information on
disposing different batteries.
http://data.energizer.com/datasheets/battdisposal/
battdispindex.htm
7.2 RADIO FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS AND YOUR HEALTH
Nobody really knows how dangerous radio waves are.
Current scientic research indicates that RF heating,
like what takes place in a microwave oven, is the most
serious safety issue related to RF communications.
The RF heating effect can cause cell damage, if the
cellular temperature increase is severe. Evidence that
radio waves can cause cancer is sketchy, and most
scientists do not currently believe that radio waves are
carcinogenic (cancer causing). Research in this area,
however, is ongoing. Regardless, the RF heating effect
is a real risk, and care should be taken when transmitters
are carried or worn close to the body. The eyes and
testes are particularly sensitive to RF heating because
there is relatively little blood ow in those organs to
carry away excess heat. Keep this fact in mind when
placing a transmitter on the body.
The Specic Absorption Rate (SAR) has been adopted
as a measure of the RF heating effect. The SAR is
simply the rate of energy dissipation (conversion into
heat) per unit mass of body tissue. The FCC has adopted
near-eld, partial-body SAR limits of 8W/kg for
occupation exposure, and 1.6W/kg for general public
exposure. Research indicates that, for a 2W transmitter
operating up to the low GHZ range, and using a dipole
antenna placed 2cm away from the head, the SAR at
1cm inside the brain is within the recommended limits
for occupational exposure. SAR is approximately
proportional to radiated power, so exercise caution
when using a high-power transmitter or high-gain
antenna close to the body. Always transmit at the lowest
power capable of meeting your needs.
REMEMBER! Never, never, never solder directly
onto a cell. (The heat will damage the cell, and
may very well cause it to explode regardless of its
chemical makeup. At the very least, it may fail at any
later given time.)
Soldering is accomplished by quickly heating the
metal parts to be joined, and then applying a ux and a
solder to the mating surfaces. The nished solder joint
metallically bonds the parts forming an excellent
electrical connection between wires and a strong
mechanical joint between metal parts.
When preparing to solder, heat the pieces sufciently,
apply the solder to the items being joined; not to the iron,
and do not allow the joint to move until it has cooled.
Solder is intended to make electrical connections,
not glue things together. Ideally, solder joints should
always be mechanically supported. One of the main
disadvantages of soldering is that the solder wicks into
the wire and stiffens it. If the wire is then exed it is
likely to break there.
Key Points to Remember
1. Always keep the tip coated with a thin layer of
solder.
2. Use uxes that are as mild as possible but still
provide a strong solder joint.
3. Keep temperature as low as possible while
maintaining enough temperature to quickly solder
a joint (2 to 3 seconds maximum for electronic
soldering).
4. Match the tips size to the work.
5. Use a tip with the shortest reach possible for
maximum efciency.
Safety Precautions
Please be safe! Remember that you are dealing with
melted metal. Always wear eye protection. This is to
protect you not only from possible solder splashes, but
also from solder fumes. Since soldering involves ller
metal (such as lead and cadmium), it can be very toxic.
To prevent inhalation of such potentially toxic fumes,
extra caution should be exercised when soldering by
always working in a well ventilated area.
Note: Lithium batteries have a fuse under the top,
therefore DO NOT solder directly to the battery, you
must use the tabs. Accordingly, if you are making
battery packs, be sure to order your lithium batteries
with the tabs to solder to. If you instantaneously short
out a lithium battery, the fuse will likely blow, so watch
your bare wires.
7.3 HOW TO SOLDER SAFELY
Figure 57
Soldering Tool
Much of what technical investigators deal with today
involves electronic equipment. From GPS tracking
systems, RF switches, phone taps, video cameras
and more, technical investigators are charged with
understanding how equipment works and how best to
use it. There are a few simple things everyone working
with electrical devices should know. One of these is
how to protect the equipment you are working with as
well as yourself. In an effort to help you along the path,
weve added a section that explains some practical hints
surrounding the basics of electronic theory.
Electrostatic Discharge
Static Electricity is an electrical charge at rest. Static
electricity is most commonly created by friction and
separation. This can be felt by rubbing your feet along
a nylon carpet and then barely touching someone. One
of the biggest dangers to sensitive electrical equipment
is Electrostatic Discharge (ESD). ESD is caused by the
buildup of static electric sparks. ESD happens when
the difference in charge between the two bodies is great
enough to cause the electrons to jump from one body to
the other. This can cause severe damage to electronic
components and circuits.
The smallest discharge of electricity that can be felt by
humans as a shock is 3,000 Volts. Many electronic
components can be damaged by charges of less than
1,000 Volts, and some by charges as low as 10 Volts.
Users should be aware of the relative sensitivity of their
devices. Not only are tiny static discharges damaging
to components, but the actual damage caused cannot be
detected by the naked eye. ESD can destroy or worse
invisibly damage electronic components, which will
then fail at the most inopportune time.
ESD Causing Activities
Many of the commonplace activities people may
engage in daily generate charges on their bodies that
are potentially harmful to electrical components. Some
of these activities include: walking across a carpet;
walking over untreated vinyl oor; working at a bench;
opening a vinyl envelope used for work instructions; or
even picking up a common plastic bag from a bench.
To Prevent ESD
1. Take ESD Training.
2. Do not work on any electronic equipment unless you
are sure the workplace is ESD safe.
Ground workbench and equipment
Make sure soldering irons are grounded or
certied ESD safe.
Ground yourself with approved straps.
If you expect to work in the eld, get a portable
ESD kit - and use it!
3. If access to proper grounding mechanisms is not
available, and you must handle sensitive electronic
equipment, make sure you touch the metal case of a
computer or another grounding device before touching
the equipment to neutralize the difference in electrical
charge.
7.4 ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE (ESD)
Figure 58
ESD warning label
Figure 59
Grounded workstation
Appendi ces
Basic Electronics and Denitions
Often youll hear various terms being tossed around
when people are discussing electronic equipment. Here
is a basic description of what those terms mean.
Current
Think of Current (I) as the ow of water in a pipe.
Current is a measure of the ow of electricity from a
power source through wires, or a device. By convention,
current is shown as owing from the positive to negative
terminals of the power source. Currents produce
magnetic elds.
There are two types of current encountered in every
day life: direct current (DC) as from batteries, and
alternating current (AC) as from household plugs.
Most Electronic equipment runs off direct current, so to
operate these devices from a wall plug, the AC must be
converted to DC.
Current is measured in Amperes (Amps, A) or milliamps
(mA), which are thousandths of amps.
Voltage
An analogy to voltage is the pressure of water in a pipe.
Voltage is the potential difference between the two
terminals on a power source. It is the electrical force
which causes a current to ow.
Voltage is expressed in volts (V) or millivolts (mV)
1/1000 V.
Resistance
An analogy to resistance is the size of the water pipe
- the smaller the pipe, the greater the resistance .
Resistance is the opposition to the ow of electrical
current, so if you connect a battery across a device with
low resistance a high current will ow, but the same
battery across a high resistance device will only cause
a small current to ow. Good conductors have a small
resistance, while poor conductors (insulators) have a
high resistance. Resistance is expressed in Ohms ().
Ohms Law states that you can calculate the resistance
of a device by dividing the voltage applied across the
device by the value of the resulting current.
R = V/I
Power
Power is a measure of the amount of energy used per
unit of time and is expressed in watts (W) or milliwatts
(mW) 1/1000 W. For direct-current circuits, and
many AC circuits, it is calculated by multiplying the
voltage by the current.
P = V * I
Energy
Most utility bills quote electrical energy consumption in
kilowatt-hours (kWhs). One kilowatt hour is dened as
the amount of energy used by a device that consumes
1000 watts for one hour.
Energy is the amount of power multiplied by the length
of time that it is used. Energy is usually expressed in
watt-hours (WH) or milliwatt-hours (mWH). Other
common units of energy include the Btu, calorie,
and kilowatt-hour. This parameter is important in
determining battery life. The power consumption of the
device (expressed in mWH) must be less than the battery
capacity (terminal voltage (V) times the milliamp-hours
(mAH) of the battery).
APPENDIX A
Capacitors
A capacitor is made up of three basic parts: one layer
of non-conductive material sandwiched between two
layers of conductive material. Capacitance is the
ability of a capacitor to store electricity. Capacitors
are primarily used for ltering. The unit of capacitance
is the Farad (F) but values are usually expressed in F
(microfarad, or 1 millionth of a Farad), nF (nanofarad
or 1 thousandth of a microfarad), or pF (picoFarad, or 1
millionth of a microfarad).
Some examples of symbols for capacitors are:
Diodes
Diodes have two connections, an anode and a cathode.
The cathode is always identied by a dot, ring or some
other mark. Since diodes are polarized, they must be
inserted into the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) the correct
way round. This is because an electric current will only
ow through them in one direction. They are often used
to convert an alternating current into a direct current.
The symbol for a diode is:
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
In this special type of diode, a current owing through it
causes it to give out a light. Different types of materials in
the diode will cause different wavelengths (colors) of light
to be emitted.
The Symbol for a Light Emitting Diode is:
Solar Cells
Most common types of solar cells function on the basis
of an LED working backwards; light hits the device and
creates electricity. In this process, solar energy is being
converted to electrical energy. The solar cells that you
see on calculators and satellites are photovoltaic cells or
modules (modules are simply a group of cells electrically
connected and packaged in one frame). Photovoltaics,
as the word implies (photo = light, voltaic = electricity),
convert sunlight directly into electricity.
Relays
A relay is an electrical switch that allows a low power
current to control a higher one. A small current energizes
the relay, which pulls in a switch, allowing a large
current to ow through. In the radio world, a relay is
a device that receives a signal from a low-power, or
distant transmitter, and amplies and retransmits it on
the same or different frequency in order to increase the
coverage area. In commercial TV and radio, relay sites
are known as translators.
Resistors
Resistors are devices with resistance! They can be bought
in a whole range of values. Resistors are extremely
commonplace in electronic circuits. Without them, most
electronic circuits or devices would not function or
interface with each other.
A couple of symbols for resistor are:
Resistors are made generally in two types. Surface
Mount resistors are used in almost all electronic
circuits these days. Small chips are soldered directly on
the circuit card. Through Hole resistors are an older
type. They have wires attached so they can be either
soldered into circuit cards or used externally.
Resistors come in various sizes, shapes, colors, and
tolerances. Surface Mount resistors are generally
marked with their value (in very small type). Through-
hole resistors are color-coded. Each color band on the
resistor corresponds to a certain number along with a
multiplier.
APPENDIX A continued
Standard
capacitor
symbol
Fixed, non-polarized
(bipolar) capacitor
+
Fixed,
polarized
capacitor
Variable capacitor
Variable Resistance Fixed Resistance
Color bands on resistors have the following numerical
signicance:
Black = 0; Brown = 1; Red = 2; Orange = 3; Yellow = 4;
Green = 5; Blue = 6; Violet = 7; Grey = 8; White = 9.
The last band (second last in 6-band resistors) signies
the tolerance (in percent) of the resistor, and can be a
RED 2%, GOLD 5%, or SILVER 10% colored band.
Note: the 3rd Digit is not used when reading the 4 band
resistor.
Inductors
Inductors are two-terminal devices consisting of one or
more turns of wire. The unit for inductance is Henries
(H) but they are usually expressed as mH (MilliHenry,
or one thousandth of a Henry) or uH, (microHenry, or 1
millionth of a Henry).
Some symbols for inductors include:
Iron-Core Inductor
Air-Core Inductor
Variable Inductor
Transistors
Transistors are devices used to amplify current or
voltage. Another application of transistors is as an
electronic switch.
The symbols for bipolar transistors are:
There are two main uses of transistors:
Ampliers - A relatively weak signal feeds into a much
larger current owing from the emitter to the collector.
Switches - A certain type of signal into the base will
either cut off the current owing from the emitter to the
collector, or turn on this current. Removing this signal
will cause the exact opposite effect. This switching
technique can also be used to allow a relatively small
voltage to switch, or control, a relatively high voltage.
Ammeter and Voltmeter
An ammeter is a meter which measures current. It must
be placed in the line where the current is owing. A
voltmeter measures voltage. It must be connected across
the terminals of the voltage to be measured. Ammeters
have low resistance, voltmeters have high. DO NOT
CONNECT AN AMMETER LIKE A VOLTMETER. It
will cause a high current to ow, which might be dangerous.
Connector
A device for joining two electrical wires, or any plug
and socket that links two devices together. When not
designed or constructed properly, connectors often
become the weakest element in an electronic system.

Series and Parallel Circuits
There are only two ways to hook components together in
an electronic circuit; in series with each other (in a row),
or in parallel (side by side). Most electronic circuits,
however, consist of many individual series circuits
connected in parallel or vice versa.
Power Supplies
A power supply is simply the source of power for a
Resistors Connected In-Series
Resistors Connected In-Series
device. It could be a battery or wall adapter. This
phrase is often used, however, to describe an electrical
circuit for converting one kind of electrical power to
another, especially in electronics.
There are two kinds of power supplies of this type:
linear and switching.
Linear A linear power supply has a regulated output
voltage that is lower than its input voltage. The output
voltage is kept at a xed voltage, regardless of the input
voltage (provided the input voltage is greater than the
xed output voltage). The input current is the same as
the output current. The excess power (input voltage
minus output voltage times the current) is dissipated
as heat by the regulator. If the regulator is forced to
dissipate too much power it will overheat and fail.
Linear supplies are very inefcient because all the extra
energy is lost.
If a device has a linear supply it will draw the same
current regardless of input voltage. This means that
if the output voltage is regulated to 5 volts, a 6-volt
battery and a 12-volt battery with the same ampere-hour
capacity will last the same length of time. The regulator
will just get hotter with the 12-volt battery.
Switching A switching supply works on the principal
of power regulation. Switching supplies can be used to
decrease the voltage (buck), increase the voltage (boost)
or decrease/increase the voltage as required (buck/
boost). The output voltage is kept xed regardless of the
input voltage. The power drawn from the input equals
the power required at the output. Not current, like the
linear. Switching supplies can be very efcient.
With this method very little power is dissipated in the
power supply making it very efcient. Also, as the input
voltage increases the input current gets less. This is an
advantage in battery-powered systems. If the output
voltage is regulated to 5 volts, a 12 volt battery will last
twice as long as a 6 volt battery with the same ampere-
hour capacity
Digital Switching
Output Once everything is set up, external output
connections can be activated using software or Dual
Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF, also known as touch-
tone) commands using a normal phone. The switch
outputs are like a simple toggle switch with two contacts.
When the switch is on, the two contacts join. Power will
ow from one contact to the other. These two contacts
are interchangeable. There is no positive or negative
terminal. When the switch is OFF, the two contacts act
as an open switch. No current will ow. Note that the
unit supplies no power. The external switched circuit
must supply its own power.
Input A change of external input can force a unit to dial
out to a phone or pager.
Basic Units
V = Voltage (Volts)
P = Power (Watts)
I = Current (Amps) C = Capacitance (Farads)
R = Resistance (Ohms) L = Inductance (Henrys)

Ohms Law Power
V = I *R I = V/ R R = V/ I P = V * I P = I
2
* R P = V
2
/ R
Resistors in Series Resistors in Parallel
R
total
= R
1
+ R
2
+R
3
. . . R
total
= (R
1
x R
2
)/(R
1
+R
2
)
If Rs are all the same value, multiply R value If Rs are all the same value, divide R value
by the number placed in parallel by the number placed in parallel

Capacitors in Series Capacitors in Parallel
C
total
= (C
1
x C
2
)/(C
1
+C
2
) C
total
= C
1
+ C
2
If Cs are all the same value, divide C value by If Cs are all the same value, multiply C value by
the number placed in parallel. Effective working the number placed in parallel. Effective working
Voltage is increased by the number of Cs in series Voltage does not change.

Inductors in Series Inductors in Parallel
L
total
= L
1
+ L
2
+L
3
. . . L
total
= (L
1
x L
2
)/(L
1
+L
2
)
APPENDIX B
Basic Electronic Formulas
Basic Units for Working with Batteries
I = Current (Amps) R
series
= Effective Series Resistance (Ohms)
V
terminal
= Terminal Voltage (Volts) H = Hours = 3600 seconds
P = Power (Watts) C = Capacity (mA-H or A-H [Amp-Hours])
Q = Charge (Coulombs) E = J = Energy (Joules) = Watt-Seconds
Energy Stored Battery Capacity
E = V x C C = E/V
Simple Battery Model
All cells have internal resistance. The terminal
voltage will drop under load due to the Voltage
drop across the internal series resistance. Energy is
consumed in the form of heat by the internal
resistance.
Batteries in Series Batteries in Parallel
V
total
= Number of Cells in series times V
cell
V
total
= V
cell
C
total
= Capacity is unchanged = C
cell
C
total
= Number of Cells in parallel times C
cell
E
total
= Number of Cells in series times E
cell
E
total
= Number of Cells in parallel times E
cell

R
series total
= Number of Cells in series times R
series
R
series total
= Number of Cells in parallel divided
by R
series

NOTE: Diodes are used to prevent back powering
cells. Diodes drop approx. 0.6 volts (0.4 if using
Schottky type)
APPENDIX C
Basic Battery Reference
APPENDIX D
Basic Units
V = Voltage (Volts) P = Power (Watts)
I = Current (Amps) C = Capacitance (Farads)
R = Resistance (Ohms) L = Inductance (Henrys)
= Wavelength (meters) v = Velocity (meters/second)
f = Frequency (Hertz) T = Period = Time of one cycle (seconds)
Constants, Denitions, Equations and Examples
c = RF Propagation velocity 0 dbm = RF power reference level = 1 milliWatt (mW)
= speed of light = 3 x 10
8
meters/second
T = 1/f c = f x
f = c / = c/ f
Finding Wavelength when Frequency = 900 MHz: 1/2 Wavelength = Wavelength / 2 = /2
= c/f = 3 x10
8
/ 900 x 10
6
= .333 meters 1/4 Wavelength = Wavelength / 4 = /4
Constructing a Monopole: Constructing a Dipole:
NOTE: Ground plane required NOTE: No ground plane required

Orientation is shown vertically polarized. Balun is used to convert unbalanced coax to
the balanced dipole. Orientation is shown
vertically polarized (maximum radiation of
dipole is at right angles)
Basic Antenna Reference
APPENDIX E
Metric Prexes
Prex Symbol Numerical Multiplier Exponential
yotta Y 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 10
24

zetta Z 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 10
21

exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 10
18

peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 10
15

tera T 1,000,000,000,000 10
12

giga G 1,000,000,000 10
9

mega M 1,000,000 10
6

kilo k 1,000 10
3

hecto h 100 10
2

deca da 10 10
1

no prex: 1 10
0
deci d 0.1 10
1

centi c 0.01 10
2

milli m 0.001 10
3

micro 0.000001 10
6

nano n 0.000000001 10
9

pico p 0.000000000001 10
12

femto f 0.000000000000001 10
15

atto a 0.000000000000000001 10
18

zepto z 0.000000000000000000001 10
21

yocto y 0.000000000000000000000001 10
24

%Cn -- Enable/Disable Data Compression
%En -- Auto-Retrain control
&Cn -- DCD Control
&Dn -- DTR Option
&Fn -- Recall Factory Prole
&Gn -- Select Guard Tone
&Jn -- Telephone Jack Control
&Kn -- Data Flow Control
&Qn -- Communication (Sync/Async Mode)
&Rn -- RTS/CTS (Hardware) Flow Control
&Tn -- Test Mode
&V -- View Conguration
&Wn -- Store User Prole
&Yn -- Default User Prole
&Zn=x -- Store Phone Number
)Mn -- Cellular Power Level Adjustment
*Hn -- Link Negotiation Speed
+++ -- Escape Sequence
+MS -- Select Modulation
:En -- Compromise Equalizer Setting
? -- Read Currently Selected S Register
@Mn -- Initial Cellular Power Level Setting
\An -- Select Maximum MNP Block Size
\Bn -- Transmit Break
\Gn -- Modem to Modem (Software) Flow Control
\Ln -- Select MNP Block/Stream Mode
\Nn -- Protocol Negotiation Selection
A -- Answer
A/ -- Re-execute Command
Bn -- CCITT or Bell Selection
Cn -- Carrier Control
Dn -- Dial
En -- Command Echo
Fn -- Select Modulation
Hn -- Disconnect (Hang-up)
In -- Identication
Ln -- Speaker Volume
Mn -- Speaker Control
Nn -- Automode Enable (Automatic Line Speed Detection)
On -- Return to On-Line Data Mode
P -- Set Pulse Dial Default
Qn -- Result Code On/Off
Sn -- Select a Specic S Registe
Sn=x -- Write an S Register Value
Sn? -- Read an S Register
T -- Set Tone Dial Default
Vn -- Result Code Format
Wn -- Negotiation Progress (Connect Message) Control
Xn -- Extended Result Code
Yn -- Long Space Disconnect
Zn -- Modem Reset
APPENDIX F
AT Command Reference Chart
AT Command Reference Summary
WayTek Tools/ wire/ connectors
7600 Quattro Drive
PO Box 690 Chanhasses, MN 55317
952-949-0765 1-800-328-2724
Fax: 800-858-0319 www.waytekwire.com
Digi Key 701 Brooks Ave. South
Thief River Falls, MN 56701-0677
1-800-344-4539
www.digikey.com
Mauser Electronics 958 N. Main Manseld, TX 76063-4827
1-800-346-6873 www.mouser.com

Sears Nationwide www.sears.com
Johnson Components Inc. PO Box 1732 Waseca, MN 56096-0832
1-800-247-8256 Fax: 507-835-6287
www.johnsoncomp.com
Amphenol One Kentucky Ave. Danbury, CT 06810
203-743-9272 Fax: 203-796-2032
www.amphenolcnp.com
Stark Electronics 401 Royalston Ave. N
Distributor of connectors for Amphenol, Minneapolis, MN 55405
Johnson Components and others. 612-372-3199 or 888-372-3161
Fax: 612-332-1783
www.starkelectronics.com

Antenna World
Cellular strip antenna www.antennaworld.com
MicroPulse 409 Calle San Pablo, Suite 102
GPS Antennas Camarillo, CA 93012
805-389-3446 Fax: 805-389-448
www.micropulse.com
APPENDIX G
Installation Tool Sources
Installation Tool Source Suggestions
APPENDIX H
Verizon Wireless
www.verizonwireless.com CDMA, CDPD, BlueTooth
SprintPCS
www.sprintpcs.com CDMA
Nextel
www.nextel.com iDEN
Cingular Wireless
www.cingular.com TDMA, GSM, GPRS, CDPD, Mobitex
VoiceStream / T-Mobile
www.voicestream.com GSM, GPRS
US Cellular Network Providers (not conclusive)
Network Provider Air Technology
Bell Mobility
www.bellmobility.ca AMPS & CDMA
Rogers AT&T
www.rogers.com AMPS & GSM & GPRS & TDMA
Telus Mobility
www.telusmobility.com AMPS, CDMA, 1XRTT, iDEN
Aliant Net
http://english.aliant.net/home.jsp AMPS, CDMA
MTS Mobility
www.mts.mb.ca CDMA
Telstra
www.telstra.com DataTAC
SaskTel
www.sasktelmobility.com AMPS, CDPD, 1XRTT
Canadian Cellular Network Providers (not conclusive)
Network Provider Air Technology
APPENDIX I
Cellular Network System / Band Frequency Chart
Worldwide Cellular Bands
AMPS/TDMA/ IS-95 824 849 25 2.99 -45 869 894 25 2.84
GSM /EDGE 890 915 25 2.77 -45 935 960 25 2.64
JDC 810 826 16 1.96 -130 940 956 16 1.69
EGSM 925 960 35 3.71

JDC HIGH BAND 1429 1453 24 1.67 -48 1477 1501 24 1.61

DCS1800/EDGE 1710 1785 75 4.39 -95 1805 1880 75 4.07

KOREA CDMA 1750 1780 30 1.7 -90 1840 1870 30 1.62
DECT 1880 1900 20 1.06 TDD 1880 1900 20 1.06
UMTS TDD 1900 1920 20 1.05 TDD 1900 1920 20 1.05
PCS UNLICENSED 1910 1930 20 1.04 TDD 1910 1930 20 1.04
PCS LICENSED 1850 1910 60 3.19 -80 1930 1990 60 3.06
UMTS FDD (3G) 1920 1980 60 3.08 -190 2110 2170 60 2.80
Low MHz High MHz Width MHz Width % MHz Low MHz High MHz Width MHz Width %
System Band Edges TX Offset Band Edges
TX Frequencies RX Frequencies
Gl ossar y
1G - The rst generation of mobile cellular communications
systems. Originally used for voice communications, they
were primarily analog systems such as AMPS, TACS and
NMT.
2G - The second generation of mobile cellular
communications systems used digital encoding and include
GSM, TDMA and CDMA. Except for GSMs SMS text
message service, 2G systems have been used mostly for
voice communications.
3G - The third generation of mobile cellular communications
systems is designed for high-speed multimedia data and
voice communications. Its goals include high-quality audio
and video as well as advanced global roaming, which
means being able to go anywhere and automatically be
handed off to whatever wireless system is available (in-
house phone system, cellular, satellite, etc.).
A Carrier - The cellular service provider operating on the A
System. Also see Non-Wireline.
A System (Band) - Frequency range operated by the A
Carrier.
A/B Switch - See System Selection Switch.
Access Fee (Access Charge) - A at monthly service
charge for use of the cellular telephone system.
Airtime - The time spent placing or receiving a cellular
telephone call.
Airtime Package - A selected level of service chosen by
the subscriber that includes the monthly Access Fee and
may or may not include a guaranteed amount of Airtime
(number of usage minutes). Some service plans may also
include certain calling features.
Alkaline Cell/Battery - Modern, high-performance, non-
rechargeable cells and batteries used in most modern
battery-driven electrical and electronic consumer
devices.
Alphanumeric Display - A display containing both letters
and numbers.
Amperage - This is a name sometimes used in place
of current. It is used because the electrical current is
measured in Amperes (Amps). The amount of electrical
current through a conductive source is equal to Coulombs
per second. This is the ow rate of electrons moving
through a circuit, very roughly analogous to gallons per
minute owing from a faucet.
Ampere - The internationally accepted unit for the measure
of current ow (migrating electrons) in an electronic circuit.
One ampere of current will ow through one ohm of
resistance under the inuence of one volt.
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) - The
analog cellular mobile phone system in North and South
America and more than 35 other countries. It uses FDMA
transmission in the 800Mhz band.
Analog - A method of modulating radio signals so that they
can carry information such as voice or data.
Anywhere Fix - The ability of a receiver to start position
calculations without being given an approximate location
and approximate time.
AP (Access Point) - A hardware device or a computers
software that acts as a communication hub for users of
a wireless device to connect to a wired LAN. APs are
important for providing heightened wireless security and
for extending the physical range of service a wireless user
has access to.
APN (Access Point Name) Identies a PDN that is
congured on and accessible from a GGSN in a GPRS
network. Carrier specic username.
ARDIS (Advanced National Radio Data Service)
Now termed the Motient Network, it is a wireless data
network from Motient Corporation that covers more than
11,000 cities and towns in the U.S., Puerto Rico and U.S.
Virgin Islands. ARDIS is a packet-switched network that
provides a data rate of 19.2 Kbps and is known for its deep
penetration into buildings.
Area Code - A telephone number prex designating a
particular geographic calling area.
Assisted GPS (AGPS) - AGPS works in conjunction with a
mobile communications device. The mobile network knows
the GPS location of the closest tower and transmits that to
the mobile communication device, enabling the GPS head
to more quickly and accurately decipher its current position.
The mobile network may also assist with computing power
and other tasks the GPS receiver must perform. AGPS is
a system will be implemented in part to satisfy USA E911
requirements to be able to quickly locate people calling
from mobile phones.
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) - A cell switching
and asynchronous multiplexing technology that manages
packet switching (exibility, efciency for intermittent
trafc) and circuit switching (constant transmission delay,
guaranteed capacity) on the same network using cell relay
technology.
Auxiliary Alert - An optional feature available on some
models that, when activated, will sound your vehicles horn
or ash the headlights to alert you of an incoming call.
B Carrier - The cellular service provider operating on the B
System. See also Wireline.
B System (Band) - Frequency range operated by the B
carrier.
Glossary of Acronyms and Terms
Bandwidth - The amount of data that can be passed along
a communications channel in a given period of time. The
range of frequencies in a signal.
Battery - An electro-chemical device consisting of separate
cells connected together to sum their voltages or current
capability. Examples are lead-acid batteries, 9-volt
batteries, maintenance-free batteries, gel cells, among
many others.
Bit - The smallest unit of digital data, often represented by a
one or a zero. Eight bits usually comprise a byte.
BlueTooth The code name for a new wireless technology
developed by Ericsson Inc., Intel Corp., Nokia Corp.
and Toshiba. This short-range technology enables data
connections between electronic devices such as desktop
computers, wireless phones, electronic organizers and
printers in the 2.4 GHz range. Bluetooth would replace
cable or infrared connections for such devices.
bps (bits-per-second) - A measure of the information
transfer rate of digital data across a communication
channel.
Brown-out - Even though a roaming agreement may be in
place, you may occasionally be unable to use your phone
in certain areas. When high fraudulent use is detected
on a cellular system, the cellular service provider may
temporarily suspend roaming privileges for specic roaming
customers to protect themselves and the cellular customers
from fraudulent users.
BTA (Basic Trading Area) - A group of counties, as
dened by a study conducted by Rand McNally, that
represent a geographic area of common business interests
and relationships. These areas were used by the FCC to
dene the boundaries of the new C, D, E and F block PCS
licenses.
Byte - A string of digital data usually made up of eight data
bits. The actual data rate the user experiences might be
lower due to some bits being used for error detection and
synchronization.
C/A Code - The standard (Course/Acquisition) GPS code.
A sequence of 1023 pseudo-random, binary, biphase
modulations on the GPS carrier at a chip rate of 1.023 MHz.
Also known as the civilian code.
Capacity (C) - This is the parameter that most users are
concerned with, and is not normally listed on consumer
type battery packaging. This specication has units of
Amp-Hours (A-H) or milliAmp-Hours (mA-H) and gives the
usable energy from a particular cell. For example, a cell
rated at 3 A-H could deliver 100 mA for 30 Hours: divide the
A-H rating by the current draw to determine how long the
battery will last.
CAP (Channel Access Protocol) - A specic identication
sequence that each pager has to identify itself.
Car Phone - Car Phone - Cellular phone installed in a
vehicle. Also referred to as a Mobile.
Carrier (meaning 1) - A company that provides telephone
service.
Carrier (meaning 2) - A signal that can be varied from a
known reference by modulation.
Carrier-Aided Tracking - A signal processing strategy that
uses the GPS carrier signal to achieve an exact lock on the
pseudo random code.
Carrier Frequency - The frequency of the unmodulated
fundamental output of a radio transmitter.
Carrier Phase GPS - GPS measurements based on the L1
or L2 carrier signal.
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) - CDMA is a
digital communication technology used by some carriers to
provide PCS service. Other examples of such technologies
used are TDMA and GSM. CDMA is a popular digital
cellular telephone system in the US and Korea. A method
for transmitting simultaneous signals over a shared portion
of the spectrum. CDMA phones are noted for their excellent
call quality and long battery life.
CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Data) - A technology for
transmitting data over analog cellular networks. Requires a
special modem and the wireless carriers network must be
upgraded to accommodate such data transmissions. Once
a popular cellular packet network in the US, it is now being
phased out.
Cell (meaning 1) - Single-unit, self-contained voltage/
current source. Has positive and negative connectors for
use with devices, with or without other cells. Examples of
cells are AA, AAA, C-size, D-size, button cells and
others.
Cell (meaning 2) - In cellular telephone systems,
a geographic area. Each cell in a cell phone system
represents the area served by one cell phone tower. A xed
area served by a particular cell site. A Cellular Geographic
Service Area is divided into a number of cells, which can
vary in size depending upon system requirements. These
requirements can include capacity needs and topographic
restrictions.
Cell (meaning 3) - In communications and networking, a
cell represents a xed-size packet of data.
Cell Site - The radio transmitting and receiving equipment
for a given Cell area used to communicate between your
cellular phone and the MTSO.
Cell Switching - Using cell switches to forward xed-length
packets in a network.
CGSA (Cellular Geographic Service Area) - May include
one or more licensed cellular MSA and/or RSA service
areas.
Glossary of Acronyms and Terms continued
Channel - A path in which voice or data is transmitted.
There are currently a total of 832 channels assigned to
cellular use for both the A and B systems. A channel of a
GPS receiver consists of the circuitry necessary to receive
the signal from a single GPS satellite.
Chip - The transition time for individual bits in the pseudo-
random sequence. Also, an integrated circuit.
Charge - The electric charge of an object is a measure of
how much electricity is there. It is similar to the mass of an
object when you are dealing with gravity, but unlike mass,
charge can be either positive (+) or negative (-). At the
atomic level, charge is measured in multiples of the charge
on an electron (-1), In larger, macroscopic cases, the usual
measurement is the Coulomb.
Cipher Text - Encrypted data.
Circuit Switching - A networking technology that provides
a temporary, but dedicated connection between two
stations no matter how many switching devices the data is
routed through.
Clock Bias - The difference between the clocks indicated
time and true universal time.
CODEC (COder-DECoder) - Hardware or software that
converts analog sound, speech or video to digital code and
vice versa (analog to digital -- digital to analog).
Code Phase GPS - GPS measurements based on the
pseudo random code (C/A or P) as opposed to the carrier
of that code.
Conductor - A conductor is a material that allows electricity
to move through it easily. That is, it is a material with low
electrical resistance, one in which a fairly small voltage will
produce a fairly large current. The opposite of an insulator.
Connect Fee - A one time charge associated with the
initiation of service and the assignment of a new telephone
number.
Continuous Discharge Current - This is the maximum
current that can be drawn from the cell on a continuous
basis. Generally a battery discharged at a continuous rate
will not provide the rated capacity.
Control Segment - A world-wide network of GPS monitor
and control stations that ensure the accuracy of satellite
positions and their clocks.
Coulomb - The Coulomb is the unit normally used to
measure large charges. 1 Coulomb = the amount of
electricity passing a given point in 1 second at a current of
1 Ampere.
Coverage Area - The geographic area served by a wireless
system (same as Service Area).
Crosstalk - An occurrence when a second conversation
can be overheard. This situation arises occasionally due to
interference involving Frequency Reuse.
CSC (Circuit-Switched Cellular) - Current technologies
are primarily circuit-switched, meaning a continuous circuit
transmission allows the network to route continuous data to
a single location. Circuit-switched data requires a dedicated
radio channel even when no data is being sent.
Current - The electrical current is simply a measure of
how much electric charge passes a given point in a xed
amount of time. The organized migration of electrons
through a circuit or conductive material, as the result of an
applied voltage and the presence of resistance. It is similar
to the current of a stream or river, which measures how
much water passes a given point in a xed amount of time.
Electrical current is measured in Amperes (Amps).
Cycle Slip - A discontinuity in the measured carrier beat
phase resulting from a temporary loss of lock in the carrier
tracking loop of a GPS receiver.
DAB (Digital Audio Broadcasting) - The broadcasting of
radio programs in digital format.
D-AMPS (Digital-Advanced Mobile Phone Service) - The
second generation of TDMA, and is also known as IS-136.
DARS (Digital Audio Radio Service) - The FCC
nomenclature for digital radio. DARS is the landline version
that is implemented with the IBOC technology.
DAS (Data Analysis Software) - This is your mapping /
data analysis software, such as SkyTrack North America.
Data Integrity - The process of preventing accidental
erasure or adulteration in a database.
Data Message - A message included in the GPS signal
which reports the satellites location, clock corrections and
health. Included is rough information on the other satellites
in the constellation.
Data Security - The techniques used to ensure that data
stored in a computer cannot be read or compromised.
Datum - A math model which depicts a part of the surface
of the earth. Latitude and longitude lines on a paper map
are referenced to a specic map datum. The map datum
selected on a GPS receiver needs to match the datum
listed on the corresponding paper map in order for position
readings to match.
DBS (Direct Broadcast Satellite) - An alternative to cable
television is now available nationwide. It provides cable-
like television programming directly from satellites on small
satellite dishes.
Decibel (db) - A unit of reference for audio volume.
DGPS (Differential GPS) - An extension of the GPS
system that uses land-based radio beacons to transmit
position corrections to GPS receivers. DGPS reduces the
effect of selective availability, propagation delay, etc. and
can improve position accuracy to better than 10 meters.
Differential Positioning - Accurate measurement of the
relative positions of two receivers tracking the same GPS
signals.
DOP (Dilution Of Precision) - A measure of the GPS
receiver/satellite geometry. A low DOP value indicates
better relative geometry and higher corresponding accuracy.
The DOP indicators are GDOP (geometric DOP), PDOP
(position DOP), HDOP (horizontal DOP), VDOP (vertical
DOP), and TDOP (time clock offset). The multiplicative
factor that modies ranging error. It is caused solely by the
geometry between the user and his set of satellites.
Digital - A method of encoding information using a binary
code of 0s and 1s. Most newer, wireless phones and
networks use digital technology.
Directional Antenna Array - An antenna having the
property of radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves
more effectively in some directions than others.
Distance - The length (in feet, meters, miles, etc.) between
two waypoints or from your current position to a destination
waypoint. This length can be measured in straight-line
(rhumb line) or great-circle (over the earth) terms. GPS
normally uses great circle calculations for distance and
desired track.
Dithering - The introduction of digital noise. This is the
process the DoD uses to add inaccuracy to GPS signals to
induce Selective Availability.
Dongle A dongle is a small hardware device that connects
to a computer and acts as an authentication key for a
particular piece of software. When the dongle is present,
the software will run properly; when it is not, the program
will run in a restricted mode or refuse to start. Sometimes
called a Memory Key, or just a Key.
Doppler-Aiding - A signal processing strategy that uses a
measured doppler shift to help the receiver smoothly track
the GPS signal. Allows more precise velocity and position
measurement.
Doppler Shift - The apparent change in the frequency of a
signal caused by the relative motion of the transmitter and
receiver.
Downlink - A transmission path for the communication of
signals and data from a communications satellite or other
space vehicle to the earth.
DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory (see RAM)
Dropped Call - The disconnection of a call due to
temporary signal interference, reduction of signal strength
near a coverage area border, or loss of power.
DTMF (Dual Tone Multi Frequency) - the system used
by touch-tone telephones. DTMF assigns a specic sound
frequency, or tone, to each key so that it can easily be
identied by a monitoring microprocessor. That frequency
is then translated into a usable analog or digital signal.
Commonly known as Touch Tone.
Duplex - Allows parties to talk and listen simultaneously.
Dynamic IP A dynamic IP address changes each time you
connect to your Internet Service Provider (ISP). This allows
ISPs to keep a pool of addresses available to subscribers.
If you disconnect from the ISP, your address is returned
to the pool, becoming available to the next computer that
connects.
EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution)
- An enhancement to the GSM and TDMA wireless
communications systems, which increases data throughput
to 384 Kbps.
Electric Field - The space near a charged body where
other charges are affected. Similar to the gravitational eld
near a planet, except that it can also repel. The term is also
used to describe how the eld will affect other charges
(which way and how much it will accelerate them).
Elevation - The distance above or below mean sea level.
Ellipsoid - A geometric surface, all of whose plane sections
are either ellipses or circles.
Encryption - The translation of data into a form that is
unintelligible without a deciphering mechanism.
Enhanced GPS The DE-GPS technique allows a GPS
receiver to use the signal from a DBS satellite when it is in
a bad spot. The E-GPS seeks to capture the best-quality
signals from either satellites or cellular base stations,
whichever has a preferred position x at that precise time.
Ephemeris Data - The predictions of current satellite
position and timing information transmitted to the user as
part of the GPS satellite data message. A set of ephemeris
data is valid for several hours, but is usually updated
hourly.
ESN (Electronic Serial Number) - a unique 32-bit
serial number programmed into the phone when it is
manufactured.
ESD (Electrostatic discharge) - ESD is more commonly
referred to as static electricity. ESD is produced by friction
between two surfaces that are in intimate contact. Some
materials such as synthetics have a higher capacity than
others for holding static charges. This is especially true in
dry environments. Damage due to ESD can be catastrophic
to the device. It is important to realize that ESD damage is
accumulative and repeated exposure to ESD can result in
below average performance and / or product failure.
EPE (Estimated Position Error) - A measurement of
horizontal position error in feet or meters based upon a
variety of factors including DOP and satellite signal quality.
ETE (Estimated Time Enroute) - The time it will take
to reach your destination (in hours/minutes or minutes/
seconds) based upon your present position, speed, and
course.
ETA (Estimated Time Of Arrival) - The estimated time
you will arrive at a destination.
ETC (Enhanced Throughput Cellular) - Has been
designed to allow for the highest throughput and the most
reliable connections available today on the analog cellular
network.
Faraday Cage - The name given to a device that shields
its interior from electric elds generated by static electricity.
Usually a complete conductive shell, it collects stray
charges and, because like charges repel, stores them on
the outside surface (where they can be further apart than on
the inside). The electric elds generated by these charges
then cancel each other out on the inside of the cage. Often
used to protect sensitive radio equipment.
Fast Switching Channel - A single channel which rapidly
samples a number of satellite ranges. Fast means that
the switching time is sufciently fast (2 to 5 milliseconds) to
recover the data message.
FCC (Federal Communications Commission) - The
governmental agency which regulates communications
services.
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) Known
today as narrowband analog mobile-phone service (ex.
NAMPS)
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum) - Involves
the application of a pseudorandom code, which causes the
transmitter to periodically hop or jump to a new frequency,
transmit information on the frequency for a dened period
of time, then hop to the next frequency and repeat the
process.
FM (Frequency Modulation) - A form of modulation which
represents information as variations in the instantaneous
frequency of a carrier wave. (Contrast this with amplitude
modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied
while its frequency remains constant.) The exact frequency
of the radio signal varies slightly from moment to moment,
in proportion to the intensity of the sound waves. This is
the style of modulation used in FM broadcasting and for
the audio portion of TV broadcasts. Line of sight radio
transmission less susceptible to atmospheric and electrical
interference. Cellular telephones operate using frequency
modulation.
FOMA (Freedom Of Mobile multimedia Access) - the
freedom to access multimedia content without restrictions
in time and place. FOMA is the worlds rst 3G mobile
service based on W-CDMA
Frequency - For an alternating current, the frequency
is the number of times that the current goes through a
complete cycle per second. It is measured in Hertz (cycles
per second).
Frequency Band - A particular range of frequencies.
Frequency Reuse - The basic concept behind cellular
communication. The same frequencies are reused
repeatedly throughout a cellular system allowing for greater
system capacity. Each cell is designed to utilize only a
portion of the available frequencies. Neighboring cells use
different frequencies, but cells farther away can use the
same frequencies once again. The more cells that are used
in the design of a cellular system, the more the frequencies
are reused.
Frequency Spectrum - The distribution of signal
amplitudes as a function of frequency.
Geocaching - A high-tech version of hide-and-seek.
Geocachers seek out hidden treasures utilizing GPS
coordinates posted on the Internet by those hiding the
cache.
Geodetic Datum - A math model representing the size and
shape of the earth (or a portion of it).
GIS (Geographic Information System) - A computer
system or software capable of assembling, storing,
manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced
information (i.e., data identied according to their location).
In practical use, GIS often refers to the computer system,
software, and the data collection equipment, personnel,
and actual data.
GDOP (Geometric Dilution of Precision) - A measure of
the GPS receiver/satellite geometry. Also see Dilution of
Precision.
Geosynchronous Orbit - A specic orbit around where
a satellite rotates around the earth at the same rotational
speed as the earth. A satellite rotating in geosynchronous
orbit appears to remain stationary when viewed from a
point on or near the equator. It is also referred to as a
geostationary orbit.
GGRF (GSM Global Roaming Forum) - Provides a
collaborative and non-competitive opportunity for the
discussion and development of technical requirements and
commercial standards for roaming between GSM and other
wireless technologies.
Gain (Antenna) - A measure of how much of the input power
to the antenna is concentrated in a particular direction as
it radiates. It is expressed with respect to a hypothetical
isotropic antenna, which radiates equally in all directions.
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) - An enhancement
to the GSM mobile communications system that supports
data packets. GPRS enables continuous ows of IP data
packets over the system for such applications as Web
browsing and le transfer. GPRS is a high-speed cellular
packet network over GSM.
GPS (Global Positioning System) - A global navigation
system of 24 satellites for identifying earth locations,
launched by the U.S. Department of Defense. These
satellites orbit the earth at an altitude of 12,000 statue
miles and provide very precise, worldwide positioning and
navigation information 24 hours a day, in any weather. By
triangulation of signals from a minimum of three of the
satellites, a receiving unit can pinpoint its current location
anywhere on earth to within a few meters. Also called the
NAVSTAR system.
Glonass - The Global Orbiting Navigational Satellite
System; the Russian counterpart to the United States GPS
system.
GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) - The mean solar time
for Greenwich, England, which is located on the Prime
Meridian (zero longitude). Based on the rotation of the
earth, GMT is used as the basis for calculating standard
time throughout most of the world.
Grid - A pattern of regularly spaced horizontal and vertical
lines forming square zones on a map used as a reference
for establishing points. Grid examples are UTM, MGRS,
and Maidenhead.
Ground - The ground is an arbitrarily decided point whose
voltage is taken as zero. In many situations, equipment
is connected physically to the actual, dirt ground, so that
voltage is taken as zero; hence the name. In England the
term earth is used, for the same reason. To be grounded
means to be connected to a place that is maintained at the
ground voltage.
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications /
Global Standard for Mobile) - A digital cellular phone
communication protocol based on TDMA that is the
predominant system in Europe, but is also used in a variety
of countries around the world, and is now being introduced
in North America by some of the new PCS licensees. GSM
denes the entire cellular system, not just the air interface.
Global Standard for Mobile.
Handoff - The transfer of a cellular telephone call from one
cell site to another.
Handset - The part of the phone consisting of the ear- and
mouth-piece, and the keypad.
Hands-Free Speakerphone - A phone with secondary
microphone and speaker, separate from those contained in
the handset, that allows you to converse without removing
the handset from the cradle. This is a safety feature
required in some states.
Hardover Word - The word in the GPS message that
contains synchronization information for the transfer of
tracking from the C/A to P code.
HASP HASP stands for Hardware Specic software.
Your HASP is also referred to as your Orion Tracking
Control software.
HDOP (Horizontal Dilution of Precision) - Is caused
when the satellites are in a poor geometric conguration.
Heading - The direction in which a vehicle is moving. For
air and sea operations, this may differ from actual Course
Over Ground (COG) due to winds, currents, etc.
Healthy - A term used when an orbiting GPS satellite is
suitable for use. State is also used to refer to satellite
health.
Horn Alert - An option feature available on some phones
that sounds your vehicles horn to alert you of an incoming
call.
HSCSD (High Speed Circuit-Switched Data) - An
enhancement to the GSM mobile communications system
that enables up to four 14.4 Kbps channels to be combined
to provide 57.6 Kbps data transfer.
IBOC (In-Band /On-Channel) - The technology used for
terrestrial digital audio broadcasting (DAB). It transmits
digital signals in the same frequency band as the analog
signals, and uses the same channel number so listeners
can tune into the same radio station.
iDEN (Integrated Digital Enhanced Network) - A
wireless communications technology from Motorola that
provides support for voice, data, short messages (SMS)
and dispatch radio (two-way radio) in one phone. Each
channel can be divided six times to transmit any mix of
voice, data, dispatch or text message.
IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity) -
Uniquely identies mobile equipment for GSM systems.
IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) -
Contained in the SIM card, the IMSI is used to identify the
subscriber to the GSM system.
IMTS - Improved Mobile Telephone Service. The
predecessor to cellular telephone service which used a
single transmitting and receiving location.
Inductance - The property of an electric circuit by which
an electromotive force is induced in it as the result of
a changing magnetic ux. A circuit element, typically a
conducting coil, in which electromotive force is generated
by electromagnetic induction, is called an inductor.
Induction - Induction is the process by which charge is
moved in a conductor by the presence of an electric eld.
In wires this will lead to a current, in discrete conducting
objects it will lead to local charging.
Initialization - The rst time a GPS receiver orients itself
to its current location and collects almanac data. After
initialization has occurred, the receiver remembers its
location and acquires a position more quickly because it
knows which satellites to look for.
I/O (Input/Output) - The two-way transfer of GPS
information with another device.
Insulator - An insulator is a material that electricity has a
hard time moving through, if it can at all. For a true insulator
it takes a very high voltage to produce any current at all,
and that often results in damage to the insulator. The
opposite of a conductor.
Internal Resistance - All battery cells have some internal
resistance. As cell sizes increase, their internal resistance
decrease due to larger conducting surfaces. As cells
become discharged the resistance also rises, so a cell
that has failed in a high-current application will still work
for some time in a lower current application. Lower internal
resistance means longer life and higher current.
Internet - Originally developed for the U.S. military,
the Internet became widely used for academic and
commercial research. Users had access to both published
and unpublished works and journals on a huge variety of
subjects. Today, the Internet has become commercialized
into a worldwide information highway, providing information
on every subject known to humankind.
Ionosphere - A region of the earths atmosphere where
ionization caused by incoming solar radiation affects the
transmission of GPS radio waves. It extends from a height
of 50 kilometers (30 miles) to 400 kilometers (250 miles)
above the Earths surface.
Ionospheric Refraction - The change in the propagation
speed of a signal as it passes through the ionosphere.
IP (Internet Protocol) - Each computer on the Internet has
an address, an example of such is 194.69.121.3 The IP
address distinguishes between each and every computer
on the Internet. IPs allow messages to be routed to a
different network or subnet. IP does not ensure delivery of
a complete message, and the TCP transport layer is used
to provide that guarantee.
IRM (International Roaming MIN) - A special type of MIN
(Mobile Identication Number) that identies a mobile
outside the NANP. An IRM always begins with the digit 0
or 1.
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) - An
international telecommunications standard for providing
a digital service from the customers premises to the
dial-up telephone network. Unlike an analog modem,
which converts digital signals into an equivalency in audio
frequencies, ISDN deals only with digital transmission.
Analog telephones and fax machines are used over ISDN
lines, but their signals are converted into digital by the ISDN
modem.
ISP (Internet Service Provider) - An organization that
provides access to the Internet. Small Internet service
providers provide service via modem and ISDN, while the
larger ones also offer private line hookups.
L1 Frequency - One of the two radio frequencies
transmitted by the GPS satellites. This frequency carries
the Coarse Acquisition Code (C/A code), P-Code, and the
nav message, and is transmitted on a frequency of 1575.42
MHz.
L2 Frequency - One of the two radio frequencies
transmitted by the GPS satellites. This frequency carries
only the P-Code, and is transmitted on a frequency of
1227.6 MHz.
LAAS (Local-Area Augmentation System) - The
implementation of ground-based DGPS to support aircraft
landings in a local area (20-mile range).
Landline - Conventional telephone communications
connected by wire.
Latency - Timelapse: The time it takes for a packet to cross
a network connection, from sender to receiver. The period
of time that a frame is held by a network device before it is
forwarded.
Latitude - A positions distance north or south of the
equator, measured by degrees from zero to 90. One minute
of latitude equals one nautical mile.
L Band - The radio frequencies that extend from 390 MHz
to 1550 MHz. The GPS carrier frequencies are in the L
band (1227.6 MHz and 1575.42 MHz).
Leg (Route) - A portion of a route consisting of a starting
(from) waypoint and a destination (to) waypoint. A route that
is comprised of waypoints A, B, C, and D would contain
three legs. The route legs would be from A to B, from B to
C, and from C to D.
Line Of Sight (LOS) Propagation - Of an electromagnetic
wave, propagation in which the direct transmission path
from the transmitter to the receiver is unobstructed.
The need for LOS propagation is most critical at GPS
frequencies.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) - A display circuit
characterized by a liquid crystal element sandwiched
between two glass panels. Characters are produced by
applying an electric eld to liquid crystal molecules and
arranging them to act as light lters.
Lithium Battery - A soft, silvery, highly reactive metallic
element that is used in batteries where weight and cold
weather conditions are concerns.
Li-ion (Lithium Ion) - Modern, high capacity, rechargeable
cell or battery, used where a compact or small physical size
is demanded. Often used in cellular phones so that they are
smaller and lighter to carry, without loss of performance, as
compared to a similarly rated nickel cadmium.
LAAS (Local Area Augmentation System) - The
implementation of ground-based DGPS to support aircraft
landings in a local area (20-mile range).
Longitude - The distance east or west of the prime meridian
(measured in degrees). The prime meridian runs from the
north to south pole through Greenwich, England.
LORAN - Loran, which stands for LOng RAnge
Navigation, is a grid of radio waves in many areas of the
globe that allows accurate position plotting. Latitude and
longitude are determined from the time displacement of
radio signals from two or more xed transmitters. Loran
transmitting stations around the globe continually transmit
100 kHz radio signals. LORAN is relatively obsolete.
Magnetic North - Represents the direction of the north
magnetic pole from the observers position. The direction
a compass points.
Magnetic Variation - In navigation, at a given place and
time, the horizontal angle (or difference) between true north
and magnetic north. Magnetic variation is measured east or
west of true north.
Map Display - A graphic representation of a geographic
area and its features.
MDN (Mobile Directory Number) - A 10-digit directory
number used to call a wireless phone. The MDN is the
actual phone number that you would dial to get a hold of the
device.
Mean Sea Level - The average level of the oceans surface,
as measured by the level halfway between mean high and
low tide. Used as a standard in determining land elevation
or sea depths.
Milli Amp Hour (mAh) - The number of amperes that a
battery can continually supply to a load in one hour.
MIN (Mobile Identication Number) - A 10 digit number
that uniquely identies an AMPS or CDMA mobile phone.
MNP (Microcom Network Protocol) - A family of
communications protocols from Microcom Inc., that have
become de facto standards for error correction and data
compression.
Mobile - Cellular phone installed in a vehicle. Generally
referred to as a car phone.
Mobitex - Data-only packet radio cellular network operating
at around 7,200 bps.
Modular Jack - Quick connecting plug, similar to that of a
home telephone.
MOS (Mean Opinion Score) - The quality of a digitized
voice line. It is a subjective measurement that is derived
entirely by people listening to the calls and scoring the
results from 1 to 5, with a 5 meaning that speech quality
is perfect. The MOS is an average of the numbers for a
particular codec.
MSA (Metropolitan Service Area) - A group of counties, as
dened by the US Census Bureau, that represent a central
major city and its suburban communities. These 306 areas
were used by the FCC to dene the boundaries of the initial
cellular telephone operating licenses.
MSC (Mobile Switching Center) - Connects mobiles to
other mobiles or to phones in the telephone network or on
other cellular systems.
MSID (Mobile System Identier) - Wireless systems use
ve-digit MSID codes to uniquely identify each operators
network and market. Commonly known as SID.
MTA (Major Trading Area) - A group of counties, as dened
by a study conducted by Rand McNally, that represent
a geographic area of common business interests and
relationships. These areas were used by the FCC to dene
the boundaries of the new A and B block PCS licenses.
MTAs are created by combining multiple BTAs.
MTSO (Mobile Telephone Switching Ofce) - The
brains of a mobile communications network, it controls
the routing of calls, connects cellular phones with other
telephone systems, collects billing information, checks
customer validity, etc.
Multi-Channel Receiver - A GPS receiver that can
simultaneously track more than one satellite signal.
Multipath Error - An error caused when a satellite signal
reaches the GPS receiver antenna by more than one path.
Usually caused by one or more paths being bounced or
reected. The TV equivalent of multipath is ghosting.
Multiplexing Channel - A channel of a GPS receiver that
can be sequenced through a number of satellite signals.
Multi-Tracking Using a combination of multi-tracking
enabled Software, and IP tracking units, investigators now
have the ability to track multiple units at the same time, on one
computer screen. IP based multi-tracking systems allow users
to conduct large-scale investigations by keeping command and
control centers updated on everyones location.
NAM (Number Assignment Module) - A computer chip
that is programmed to contain information specic to
your cellular phone, such as its phone number, lock code,
system identication number (SID) and other important
information necessary for call validation and billing. Some
cellular telephones offer dual- or multi-nam capabilities,
allowing cellular customers to operate as a local customer
in more than one cellular service area.
NANP (North American Numbering Plan) - the
numbering plan for the Public Switched Telephone Network
in the United States and its territories, Canada, Bermuda,
and many Caribbean nations, including Anguilla, Antigua
& Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, British Virgin Islands,
Cayman Islands, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada,
Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St.
Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, and
Turks & Caicos.
Nautical Mile - A unit of length used in sea and air
navigation, based on the length of one minute of arc of a
great circle, especially an international and U.S. unit equal
to 1,852 meters (about 6,076 feet).
Navigation - The act of determining the course or heading
of movement. This movement could be for a plane, ship,
automobile, person on foot, or any other similar means.
Navigation Message - The message transmitted by each
GPS satellite containing system time, clock correction
parameters, ionospheric delay model parameters, and the
satellites ephemeris data and health. The information is
used to process GPS signals to give the user time, position,
and velocity. Also known as the data message.
NAVSTAR - The ofcial U.S. Government name given to
the GPS satellite system. NAVSTAR is an acronym for
NAVigation Satellite Timing and Ranging.
Nickel-Cadmium - The most commonly used secondary or
rechargeable cell or battery. Often used in cellular phones,
cordless phones, radio-controlled devices, toys, and many
others. Nickel-Metal Hydride - Modern, high capacity,
rechargeable cell or battery, used where a compact or
small physical size is demanded. Often used to make a
cellular phone smaller and lighter to carry without loss
of performance, as compared to a similarly rated nickel
cadmium.
NMEA (National Marine Electronics Association) - A
U.S. standards committee that denes data message
structure, contents, and protocols to allow the GPS receiver
to communicate with other pieces of electronic equipment
aboard ships.
NMEA Standard - A NMEA standard denes an electrical
interface and data protocol for communications between
marine instrumentation.
No Service Indicator - Indicates when cellular users are in
an area where cellular service is unavailable.
Non-Wireline - The A Carrier, referring to a cellular
provider that usually has no involvement in providing local,
conventional telephone services within that area.
Off-Peak - Period during a day of lowest trafc on a cellular
system. Some cellular service providers charge a lower per
minute rate during this low-use period.
Ohm - The Ohm is the unit of electrical resistance and is
represented by the Greek letter omega ().
Operating Temperature - Since batteries convert chemical
reactions into electrical power, temperature greatly affects
the energy and voltage a cell can present. The effects of
temperature are highly dependent on the state of discharge
of the battery and are typically displayed using graphs.
Packet Switching - A networking technology that breaks
up a message into smaller packets for transmission and
switches them to their required destination, where they are
then re-assembled.
Parallel Channel Receiver - A continuous tracking
receiver using multiple receiver circuits to track more than
one satellite simultaneously.
PCB (Printed Circuit Board) - A thin substrate on which
chips and other electronic components are placed.
Computers consist of one or more boards, often also called
cards.
PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card
International Association) - An international standards
body and trade association that was founded in 1989 to
establish a standard for connecting peripherals to portable
computers. PCMCIA created the PC Card.
P-code - The Precise code. This precise code of the
GPS signal typically used only by the U.S. military. It is
a very long sequence of pseudo random binary biphase
modulations on the GPS carrier at a chip rate of 10.23
MHz which repeats about every 267 days. Each one week
segment of this code is unique to one GPS satellite and it
is reset each week. It is encrypted and reset every seven
days to prevent use from unauthorized persons.
PCS (Personal Communications Services) - Refers to
wireless services that emerged after the U.S. Government
auctioned commercial licenses in 1994 and 1995. This
radio spectrum in the 1.8-2GHz range is typically used for
digital cellular transmission that competes with analog and
digital services in the 800Mhz and 900MHz bands.
PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) - A small electronic
device to store and manage personal information.
PDC (Personal Digital Communications) - A digital
cellular phone system widely used in Japan. Based on
TDMA, it transmits in the 810-826MHz and 1477-1501MHz
bands. PDC is a 2G wireless system.
PDN -1 (public data network) - Network operated either
by a government (as in Europe) or by a private concern to
provide computer communications to the public, usually for
a fee. PDNs enable small organizations to create a WAN
without the equipment costs of long-distance circuits.
PDN -2 (public/private/packet data network) - Represents
a public or private packet-based network, such as an IP or
X.25 network.
Peak - Period during a day of highest trafc on a cellular
system. Some cellular service providers charge a higher
per minute rate during this high-use period.
Plain Text - Unencrypted data.
Photovoltaic Cells (photo = light, voltaic = electricity) -
They convert sunlight directly into electricity.
Pixel - A single display element on an LCD screen. The
more pixels, the higher the resolution and denition.
Polarity - (+) and ( - ) markings on a battery to facilitate
proper installation into a battery compartment. Negative
polarity or pole indicates an area with an excess of free
electrons. Positive polarity or pole indicates an area with a
decit of free electrons.
Portable - Small, self-contained, hand-held cellular
telephone.
Position - An exact, unique location based on a geographic
coordinate system.
Position Fix - The GPS receivers computed position
coordinates.
Position Format - The way in which the GPS receivers
position will be displayed on the screen. Commonly
displayed as latitude/longitude in degrees and minutes,
with options for degrees, minutes and seconds, degrees
only, or one of several grid formats.
PPS (Precise Positioning Service) - The most accurate
dynamic positioning possible with standard GPS, based on
the dual frequency P-code and no SA.
Primary Cell - A cell that cannot be recharged. An example
is an alkaline-type cell or battery, which must be replaced
when discharged.
Prime Meridian - The zero meridian, used as a reference
line from which longitude east and west is measured. It
passes through Greenwich, England.
PRN (Pseudo-Random Noise or Number) - A sequence
of 1s and 0s generated by a feedback shift register and
used to represent something resembling a random pattern.
Pseudolite - A ground-based differential GPS receiver
which transmits a signal like that of an actual GPS satellite,
and can be used for ranging.
Pseudo-Random Code - The identifying signature signal
transmitted by each GPS satellite and mirrored by the
GPS receiver in order to separate and retrieve the signal
from background noise. A signal with random, noise-like
properties. It is a very complicated but repeating pattern of
1s and Os.
Pseudorange - The measured distance between the GPS
receiver and the GPS satellite using uncorrected time
comparisons from satellite-transmitted code and the local
receivers reference code.
PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) - The
worldwide voice telephone network. Once a strictly analog
system, the heart of most telephone networks today is
digital.
Pulsed Discharge Current - In pulsed mode, batteries
can deliver higher currents for short periods of time. This
can get complicated, as one has to know the duration of
the pulse and the repetition rate. Most manufacturers
can provide technical assistance for determining a cells
suitability for a particular pulsed application.
Quadrilar Helix Antenna - A type of GPS antenna in
which four spiraling elements form the receiving surface
of the antenna. For GPS use, quadrilar antennas are
typically half-wavelength or quarter-wavelength size and
encased in a plastic cylinder for durability.
QOS (Quality of Service) - The ability to dene a level of
performance in a data communications system.
RAIM - Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring; A GPS
receiver system that would allow the receiver to detect
incorrect signals being transmitted by the satellites by
comparing solutions with different sets of satellites.
RAM (Random Access Memory) - A group of memory
chips, typically of the dynamic RAM (DRAM) type, which
function as the computers primary workspace. The
random in RAM means that the contents of each byte of
storage in the chip can be directly accessed without regard
to the bytes before or after it.
Real-Time (meaning 1) - Relating to tracking refers to the
ability to watch your suspects movements live, or in real
time.
Real-Time (meaning 2) - Relating to computer systems
refers to the ability to update information at the same rate
as they receive data, enabling them to direct or control a
process such as an automatic pilot.
Relays - A device that responds to a small current or
voltage change by activating switches or other devices in
an electric circuit.
Resistance - The opposition of a body or substance to
current passing through it, resulting in a change of electrical
energy into heat or another form of energy. Electrical
resistance is a measure of how hard it is for a current to
pass through a given material. It is similar to the way that it
is harder for you to walk through water than air. It is usually
measured in Ohms.
RF (Radio Frequency) - The range of electromagnetic
frequencies above the audio range, and below the range of
visible light (between 30 kHz and 300 GHz).
RIM (Research In Motion) - The manufacturer company of
wireless BlackBerry (PDA) devices.
RKP (Relative Kinematic Positioning) - is another
approach for a precise GPS-based positioning system. In
this approach, accurate determination of range signal can
be resolved to an accuracy of less than 10 centimeters by
using a combination of differential GPS (DGPS) correction
data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and
ambiguity resolution techniques.
Roaming - Using your cellular phone outside of your home
coverage area.
Roaming Agreement - A reciprocal agreement between
two carriers that allows for cellular customers of one system
to use the others system without having to pre-register or
use a credit card to place and receive calls.
Route - A group of waypoints entered into the GPS receiver
in the sequence you desire to navigate them.
RS-232 - A serial input/output standard that allows for
compatibility between data communication equipment
made by various manufacturers.
RSA (Rural Service Area) - After initial cellular operating
licenses were awarded for operating within Metropolitan
Service Areas (MSA), the FCC divided the remaining
counties within each state in to Rural Service Areas.
RTCM (Radio Technical Commission For Maritime
Services) Special Committee 104 - A committee created
for the purposes of establishing standards and guidance
for interfacing between radio beacon-based data links and
GPS receivers, and to provide standards for ground-based
differential GPS stations.
SAR (Specic Absorption Rate) - This is a measure of
the quantity of radio frequency energy absorbed by the
body. The exposure standard for wireless mobile phones
employs a unit of measurement known as the Specic
Absorption Rate, or SAR.
Satellite Constellation - The arrangement in space of a
set of satellites.
SCP (Service Control Point) - A node in an SS7 telephone
network that provides an interface to databases, which may
reside within the SCP computer or in other computers. The
SCP may also be combined with the SS7 node that routes
messages, called a signal transfer point (STP).
S-DARS (Satellite DARS) - The satellite version of DARS,
the FCC nomenclature for digital radio. DARS is the landline
version that is implemented with the IBOC technology.
Search The Sky - A message shown when a GPS receiver
is gathering satellite almanac data. This data tells the GPS
receiver where to look for each GPS satellite.
Secondary Cell - A cell that can be recharged to its voltage
rating by causing current to ow in reverse polarity, from
positive to negative regions. Examples are nickel cadmium,
nickel-metal hydride and lead-acid cells or batteries.
SA (Selective Availability) - A policy adopted by the US
Department of Defense to introduce some intentional clock
noise into the GPS satellite signals thereby degrading
their accuracy to prevent adversaries from using the
extremely accurate GPS positioning data. This policy was
discontinued as of May 1, 2000 and now SA is turned off.
Serial Communication - The sequential transmission of
the signal elements of a group representing a character
or other entity of data. The characters are transmitted in
a sequence over a single line, rather than simultaneously
over two or more lines, as in parallel transmission. The
sequential elements may be transmitted with or without
interruption.
Service Area - The geographic coverage area served by a
given cellular telephone system.
Service Plan - A selected level of service chosen by the
subscriber that includes the monthly Access Fee and may
or may not include a guaranteed amount of Airtime (number
of usage minutes). Some service plans may also include
certain calling features.
Shelf Life - Battery cells discharge and decay when left
standing. Shelf life is dened as the time taken for a cells
capacity to fall to 85% of its original. Applications that take
little current, like smoke alarms, will often use the battery for
over a year; so a failure could present if a battery is used
that has outlived its shelf life.
SID (System Identication Code) - Wireless systems use
ve-digit SID codes to uniquely identify each operators
network and market.
Signaling - The process of making, managing and ending
calls within and between telephone systems.
SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) - A smart card inserted
into GSM phones that contains your telephone account
information. It lets you use a borrowed or rented GSM
phone as if it were your own.
Slow Switching Channel - A sequencing GPS receiver
channel that switches too slowly to allow the continuous
recovery of the data message.
SMS (Short-Messaging Service) - A text message service
that enables short messages of generally no more than
140-160 characters in length to be sent and transmitted
from a cellular phone.
SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio) - Ratio of signal power
to noise power of a received signal. A higher SNR will
generally lead to improved clarity in an audio transmission.
SS (Spread Spectrum) - A communications technique
whereby a radio frequency signal is modulated (spread)
a second time so as to generate an expanded bandwidth
wideband signal.
SONAR - A system using transmitted and reected
underwater sound waves to detect and locate submerged
objects or measure the distance to the oor of a body of
water. An example of this technology is used in Garmin sh
nders and sounder products.
Space Segment - The satellite portion of the complete
GPS system, as found in space.
Speed Over Ground (SOG) - The actual speed a GPS unit
is moving over the ground. This may differ from airspeed
or nautical speed due to such things as head winds or sea
conditions. For example, a plane that is going 120 knots
into a 10-knot head wind will have a SOG of 110 knots.
Spread Spectrum - A system in which the transmitted
signal is spread over a frequency band much wider than
the minimum bandwidth needed to transmit the information
being sent. This is done by modulating with a pseudo
random code, for GPS. This provides the ability to receive
all satellites unambiguously and to give some resistance to
noise and multipath.
SPS (Standard Positioning Service) - The normal civilian
positioning accuracy obtained by using the single frequency
Course/Acquisition (C/A) code.
Standby Time - The amount of time a fully charged battery
will operate a Portable or Transportable phone turned ON
and waiting for a call to be placed or received. Requires
less power than Talk Time. Example: Specication for a
particular battery may offer 8 hours of Standby Time or 45
minutes of Talk Time.
Static Electricity - Static electricity (or just static) is the
name used to cover those phenomena that involve charges
that are not moving (much)--ie. they are static. The other
form of electrical phenomena is current electricity, where
the charges are moving in a large-scale, organized way.
Static electricity is the imbalance of positive and negative
charges.
Static IP A xed (non-dynamic) IP address. Your IP
address and host name are recorded in DNS, and remain
unchanged each log in. Servers usually have static
addresses, so they can always be found at the same
location.
Static Positioning - Location determination when the
receivers antenna is presumed to be stationary on the
Earth. This allows the use of various averaging techniques
that improve accuracy by factors of over 1000.
Statute Mile - A unit of length equal to 5,280 feet or 1,760
yards (1,609 meters) used in the U.S. and some other
English-speaking countries.
STP (Signal Transfer Point) - Packet switches that relay
messages between network switches and databases. Their
main function is to route SS7 messages to the correct
outgoing signaling link, based on SS7 message address
elds.
Switching Power Supply - A non-linear DC-DC converter
that operates more efciently than a linear voltage regulator
can. Inverters also use switching technology to obtain AC
power from a DC source.
System Selection Switch - A feature on your cellular phone
(usually activated by pressing several keys) that allows
you to select either the A (Non-wireline) or B (Wireline)
cellular system. A or B priority is usually automatic, with the
alternate service being switched to only when the preferred
carrier is unavailable, or when your carrier advises you of
an advantage in switching bands.
Talk Time - The amount of time a fully charged battery
will operate a Portable or Transportable phone while
transmitting and receiving calls. Requires more power than
Standby Time.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) - Internet protocol
that sets up a connection between two entities, allowing for
an ordered stream of data to pass back and forth.
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) - A satellite and
cellular phone technology that interleaves multiple digital
signals onto a single high-speed channel. A popular
cellular telephone network in the US
Terminal Voltage (V) - The typical voltage on the terminals
with no load and a full charge. Sometimes battery
manufactures give a nominal voltage roughly half way
down the discharge curve (i.e. Lithium Ion rechargeables
are usually operated between 4.2 and 3.0 Volts and in this
case the nominal voltage is often given to be 3.6 volts).
Time To First Fix (TTFF) - Time to First Fix (TTFF) is the
time it takes a GPS receiver to nd satellites after the user
rst turns it on (when the GPS receiver has lost memory or
has been moved over 300 miles from its last location). If
you have not used your GPS unit for several months, the
almanac data for the satellites may be out of date. The unit
is capable of recollecting this information on its own, but the
process can take several minutes.
TLDN (Temporary Location Directory Number) - A
number that is used to route a call to a roaming mobile, to
enable call delivery.
Transceiver - A radio transmitter and receiver combined in
a single unit. A cellular phone uses the transceiver to send
and to receive signals from the cell site.
Transducer - A device, much like a microphone, that
converts input energy of one form into output energy of
another. Fish nders separate and enhance the information
received from a transducer to show underwater objects.
Transformer - A transformer is a simple device that
transforms AC electricity from one voltage to another.
The power coming out of the transformer cannot exceed
that going in, so the output current is reduced in direct
proportion to the gain in voltage, and vice versa.
Transportable - A cellular phone that is normally installed
in a car but has the capability of being removed and carried
in a pack or case with an attached battery pack.
Triangulation - A method of determining the location of an
unknown point, as in GPS navigation, by using the laws of
plane trigonometry.
Troposphere - The lowest region of the atmosphere
between the surface of the earth and the tropopause,
characterized by decreasing temperature with increasing
altitude. GPS signals travel through the troposphere (and
other atmospheric layers).
True North - The direction of the north pole from your current
position. Magnetic compasses indicate north differently due
to the variation between true north and magnetic north. A
GPS receiver can display headings referenced to true north
or magnetic north.
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System)
Provides service in the 2GHz band and offers global
roaming and personalized features.
Uplink - A transmission path by which radio or other signals
are sent from the ground to an aircraft or a communications
satellite.
USB (Universal Serial Bus.) - A plug-and-play interface
between a computer and add-on devices (such as mobile
phones, audio players. scanners and printers).
User Interface - The way in which information is exchanged
between the GPS receiver and the person using it. This
takes place through the screen display and buttons on the
unit. The controls and displays.
User Segment - The segment of the complete GPS system
that includes the GPS receiver and operator.
UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) - A nearly
worldwide coordinate projection system using north and
east distance measurements from reference point(s). UTM
is the primary coordinate system used on U.S. Geological
Survey topographic maps.
UWCC (Universal Wireless Communications
Consortium) - A membership organization that supports
the IS-41 (WIN) information and control system and EDGE
enhancements for increased data rates.
Voltage - Voltage is a measure of the force, or potential
difference, on a unit charge at a given point in space due
to all the other local charges, usually expressed in volts.
Electro-motive Force (EMF), the internationally accepted
unit of measure for the potential difference between an
area with an excess of free electrons (negative charge)
and an area with an electron decit (positive charge).
Voltage induces current to ow in a circuit. It is similar to
the gravitational pull on a unit mass in space, except that,
since charges can be + and -, the force can be attractive or
repulsive. 1 Volt = force required to produce a current of 1
Ampere in a wire of 1 Ohm resistance.
VSELP (Vector Sum Excited Linear Predictor)
A speech coding technique, VSELP digitally codes and
signicantly compresses voice signals, increasing radio
channel capacity by reducing the amount of information
that needs to be transmitted.
VSP (Vehicular Speaker Phone) - A phone with secondary
microphone and speaker, separate from those contained in
the handset, that allows you to converse without removing
the handset from the cradle. This is a safety feature
required in some states. Also commonly referred to as a
Hands-Free Speakerphone.
WAGE (Wide Area GPS Enhancement) - is an attempt to
improve GPS accuracy by providing more accurate satellite
clock and ephemeris (orbital) data to specially-equipped
receivers.
WAN (Wide Area Network) - A communications network
that covers a wide geographic area, such as state or
country.
WAP (Wireless Applications Protocol) - A standard for
providing cellular phones, pagers and other handheld
devices with secure access to e-mail and text-based Web
pages.
Wavelength - The distance between points of corresponding
phase of two consecutive cycles of a wave.
Waypoints - Waypoints are locations or landmarks worth
recording and storing in your GPS. These are locations
you may later want to return to. They may be check points
on a route or signicant ground features. (e.g., camp, the
truck, a fork in a trail, or a favorite shing spot). Waypoints
may be dened and stored in the unit manually by taking
coordinates for the waypoint from a map or other reference.
This can be done before ever leaving home. Or more
usually, waypoints may be entered directly by taking a
reading with the unit at the location itself, giving it a name,
and then saving the point. Waypoints may also be put into
the unit by referencing another waypoint already stored,
giving the reference waypoint, and entering the distance
and compass bearing to the new waypoint.
W-CDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) -
One of two 3G (third generation) standards that makes use
of a wider spectrum than CDMA and therefore can transmit
and receive information for faster and more efciently.
Typically dened with 5 MHz channels and 3.84 MHz
carrier signals. Typically dened with 5 MHz channels and
3.84 MHz carrier signals.
WGS-84 - World Geodetic System, 1984. The primary map
datum used by GPS. Secondary datums are computed as
differences from the WGS 84 standard.
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) - A system
of satellites and ground stations that provide GPS signal
corrections for better position accuracy. A WAAS-capable
receiver can give you a position accuracy of better than
three meters, 95 percent of the time. (At this time, the
system is still in the development stage and is not fully
operational.) WAAS consists of approximately 25 ground
reference stations positioned across the United States that
monitor GPS satellite data. Two master stations, located on
either coast, collect data from the reference stations and
create a GPS correction message.
Wireline - The B Carrier, referring to a cellular provider
that is often involved in providing local landline telephone
services within that area.
Y-Code - The encrypted P-Code. P-Code represents the
precise code of the GPS signal typically used only by the
U.S. military. It is a very long sequence of pseudo random
binary biphase modulations on the GPS carrier at a chip
rate of 10.23 MHz which repeats about every 267 days.
Each one week segment of this code is unique to one
GPS satellite and it is reset each week. It is encrypted and
reset every seven days to prevent use from unauthorized
persons.
Zigbee - ZigBee is a proprietary set of high level
communication protocols designed to use small, low power
digital radios based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for
wireless personal area networking.
Zinc-Carbon - Common, older-style cell using zinc and
carbon compounds to create current ow. They deliver light
to medium service, limited shelf life, and can leak contents
if left discharged in battery compartment. Examples are
AA, AAA, C-size, and D-size as the most common
sizes.
Ref er ence
I nf or mat i on
References and Useful Websites
Legal Disclaimer: The opinions expressed, and any references made to specic commercial products, processes, services, manufacturers,
or companies in any of the web sites found in this manual, do not constitute their endorsement or recommendation by Orion Electronics
Limited, or any of its employees. Orion is not responsible for the contents of any off-site web pages referenced in any of the URLs listed
in this document.
3G Technologies
http://www.mymobile.com/3g.htm
AMPS
http://www.cellular.co.za/celltech.htm
http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ni/3G/technology/
Analog vs Digital Cellular
http://www.wirelessadvisor.com/analog-cellular.cfm
Antennas
http://www.borg.com/~warrend/guru.html
http://www.aticourses.com/antennas_tutorial.htm
http://www.marcspages.co.uk/rtc/0147.htm
http://www.telex.com/Wireless/web.nsf
http://www.electronics-tutorials.com/antennas/antenna-basics.htm
Assisted GPS
http://www.GPSworld.com
http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com
AT Command Sets
http://www.modems.com/glossary/glos10.html
http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/archive/comndset.mspx
http://www.modemhelp.org/sets.html
http://www.modems.com/general/extendat.html
http://www.ij.net/init_strings.htm
Batteries
http://data.energizer.com
http://www.batteryexpress.net/battery_glossary.html
http://www.greenbatteries.com/documents/battery_myths.htm
http://es.epa.gov
http://w3fp.arizona.edu/riskmgmt/battery_disposal.htm
http://home.ican.net/~ccs/AlkBattW.htm
http://www.nec-tokin.com/english/product/me/index.html
http://www.powerpulse.net/powerpulse/archive/aa_080601a2.stm
http://www.buchmann.ca/Article10-page2.asp
http://www.motorola.com/EHS/environment/battery/
http://www.panasonic.com/industrial/battery/oem/chem/lith/index.html
http://dbserv.maxim-ic.com/tarticle/view_article.cfm?article_id=104
http://dbserv.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm?appnote_number=663
http://www.rayovac.com
http://www.pureenergybattery.com/technology.html
http://www.rbrc.org
http://www.m-j-h.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/hiltec/elec/battery.html
http://www.tadiranbat.com/home.php
http://www.ultralifebatteries.com/
in this document.
Bluetooth
http://www.bluetooth.com/
Capacitors
http://ourworld.cs.com/gknott5413/elect14.htm
http://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/capacitor.html
CDMA
http://www.arcx.com/sites/CDMAvsTDMA.htm
http://www.qualcomm.com/technology/index.html
CDPD
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/CDPD.html
http://www.budgetweb.com/cdpd/
Circuits
http://physics.bu.edu/py106/notes/Circuits.html
http://library.thinkquest.org/10784/circuit_symbols.html?tqskip1=1&tqtime=0628
Circuit Switched vs. Packet Switched
http://infocenter.cramsession.com/techlibrary/gethtml.asp?ID=1576
http://www.linktionary.com/c/circuit_switching.html
Coverage Maps
CANADA
http://www.shoprogers.com/store/wireless/coverage/overview.asp
http://www.data.bellmobility.ca/products/data/coverage/default.asp
http://www.cellular-news.com/coverage/canada.shtml
http://www.canadiancontent.net/tech/mobile/
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
http://www.shoprogers.com/store/wireless/coverage/overview.asp
http://support.airdesk.biz/?body=wireless-coverage#UnitedStates
http://www.rentcell.com/world-phone-coverage-frame.htm
http://www.verizonwireless.com
http://www.wow-com.com/content/index.cfm/AID/62
http://www.nextel.com/services/coverage/index.shtml
http://www1.sprintpcs.com/explore/ExploreHome.jsp
http://www.t-mobile.com/locator.asp?referer=/coverage/Default.asp
http://www.cingular.com
WORLDWIDE
http://www.cellular-news.com/coverage/
http://www.shoprogers.com/store/wireless/coverage/international.asp
http://idenphones.motorola.com/iden/international/international_home.jsp
Crimping
http://www.molex.com/tnotes/crimp.html
in this document.
DataTAC
http://www.dopforum.com/
http://www.abb.com/global/abbzh/abbzh251.nsf!OpenDatabase&db=/global/seapr/seapr035.nsf&v=63126&e=us&m
http://www.motorola.com/LMPS/RNSG/data/pdtac.htm
http://www.eaccessinc.com/wireless_tech/datatac.htm
http://www.motorola.com/cgiss/datatac.shtml
Differential GPS
http://www.fieldworker.com/support_gps_differential.html
Digital & Satellite Radio
http://www.howstuffworks.com/satellite-radio4.htm
Electricity / Electronics
http://www.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell1.htm
http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/g_knott/elect12.htm
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)
http://www.esda.org/aboutesd.html
http://www.warmbier.com/englisch.htm
http://www.esda.org/basics/part4.cfm
FOMA
http://www.peterindia.net/FOMA.html
Glossary / Terminology
http://www.csgnetwork.com/glossary.html
http://www.techweb.com/encyclopedia/
http://www.letstalk.com/glossary/
http://www.dictionary.com
http://www.webopedia.com/
http://www.nightflight.com/foldoc
http://www-306.ibm.com/ibm/terminology/index.html
http://www.americanroamer.com/indstry/glossary.html
http://business.cisco.com/glossary/
weather.gov/glossary/index.php
http://www.trimble.com/gps/glossary.html
GPRS
http://www.wirelessready.org/nettech_gprs.asp
http://www.ram.com
http://www.mobilecomms-technology.com/projects/indiana/
http://www.gsmworld.com/technology/gprs/intro.shtml
http://www.notepage.net/smtp.htm
in this document.
GPS
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps_f.html
http://www.howstuffworks.com/gps.htm
http://www.howstuffworks.com/satellite.htm
http://www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/
www.garmin.com
http://www.trimble.com/gps/how.html
GPS Errors
http://www.edu-observatory.org/gps/gps_accuracy.html
http://www.fieldworker.com/support_gps_errors.html
http://theinfrequentflyer.com/global-positioning-system-errors.php
GSM
http://www.wirelessready.org/nettech_gsm.asp
www.gsm-pcs.org
iDEN
http://www.geocities.com/45peter/iden.html
http://idenphones.com/
Inductors
http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/i1/inductor.asp
Installation Guides
http://www.bulldogsecurity.com
Loran
http://www.loran.org/basics.html
http://www.megapulse.com/needforloran.html
Mobitex
http://www.cellular.co.za/mobitex.htm
http://www.ericsson.com/technology/tech_articles/MOBITEX.shtml
Modems
http://www.modems.com/technical.html
http://www.modems.com/glossary/glos24.html
http://www.howstuffworks.com/modem.htm
http://www.howstuffworks.com/cable-modem2.htm
Pagers
http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~wdutton/comm533/Ap-che.htm
http://www.networkcomputing.com/netdesign/wireless6.html#paging
http://eshop.msn.com/softcontent/softcontent.aspx?scpId=2071&scmId=990
Radio Frequency Direction Finding (RF Tracking)
http://members.aol.com/homingin/
http://www.dopsys.com/faq.htm
http://www.howstuffworks.com/location-tracking.htm
in this document.
Resistors
http://www.williamson-labs.com/resistors.htm
Roaming
http://www.atis.org/about.shtml
http://www.cdg.org/technology/roaming.asp
http://www.cdg.org/technology/roaming/resource%5Flinks.asp
http://www.americanroamer.com
Safety Concerns & Warnings
http://www.fcc.gov
Specic Absorption Rate
http://wwwapps.motorola.com/rfhealth/sar/sar.html
http://www.fcc.gov/oet/rfsafety/
Soldering
http://www.elexp.com/t_solder.htm
http://www.mindhertz.com/Solder.php
http://www.antex.co.uk/pages/paper2.htm
Spread Spectrum Radio
http://www.microwavedata.com/
Power Switching
http://www.howstuffworks.com/power-supply1.htm
TDMA
http://www.arcx.com/sites/CDMAvsTDMA.htm
http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci214175,00.html
http://www.fiercewireless.com/topics/3g.html
http://www.cnp-wireless.com/tdma.html
Technical Information (miscellaneous)
http://www.marcspages.co.uk
http://www.nrc.ca/cisti/cisti_e.shtml
WAAS
http://www.garmin.com/aboutGPS/waas.htmlIt just keeps getting better
http://www.gpscentral.ca/whatiswaas.htm
http://gpsinformation.net/exe/waas.html
http://users.erols.com/dlwilson/gpswaas.htm
http://iono.jpl.nasa.gov/waas.html
Wireline Telephone Technology Development
http://www.agilent.com/Feature/English/archive/C006.html
in this document.
Wireless Technologies
http://www.rim.net
http://www.wirelessready.org/
http://www.comsoc.org/livepubs/surveys/public/3q99issue/salkintzis.html
http://www.cnp-wireless.com/cellular.html
http://www.pcmag.com/article/0,2997,s=1483&a=3867,00.asp
http://www.networkcomputing.com/netdesign/wireless6.html#ram
http://idenphones.motorola.com/iden/iden_home.jsp
http://www.gsmdata.com
http://www.getyourwireless.com/cellular_data.htm
http://www.wavenet.com.au/
http://ai.bpa.arizona.edu/go/datawarehousing/publications/tpdmobile/
http://www.americanroamer.com/indstry/glossary.html
Zigbee
http://www.zigbee.org/en/index.asp
Or i on
El ect r oni cs
Li mi t ed
Cont act
I nf or mat i on
Critical Contacts
Mike Morris
President
ext# 365
mmorris@orion.ns.ca
Paul Sangster
VP of Sales and Client Services
ext# 303
psangster@orion.ns.ca
Michael Peach
Technical Support Supervisor
ext# 325
skytracksupport@orion.ns.ca
902-790-0506 After Hours
I N N O V A T I O N , I N T E G R I T Y & S U P P O R T
1-800 NO LIMIT
90 SANFORD DRIVE, PO BOX 2728, WINDSOR, NOVA SCOTIA CANADA B0N 2T0
www. ori on. ns. ca sal es1@ori on. ns. ca

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