NOZZLES

Nozzles are a fundamental component of all chemical propulsion systems

including chemical rockets, airbreathing devices of all types and combined cycle engines.
The following section is a fundamental introduction to concepts necessary for predicting
nozzle performance. Ideal nozzles behave according to the theory of isentropic flow
which is explored as follows.

Thermodynamics of Isentropic Flow of Perfect Gases

Definition of Entropy

rev
T
dQ
dS

(1)

where dS is the change in entropy during a reversible heat exchange. For irreversible
processes, entropy can be split into two parts:

T
dQ
dS dS
irrev
+ = (2)

dS
irrev
is always positive while dQ/T has the sign of dQ and

T
dQ
dS so

If the process is reversible and adiabatic (dQ = 0), it is isentropic

Processes involving the following are irreversible
1) Friction (shearing etc.)
2) Heat transfer with finite temperature gradient
3) Mass transfer with a concentration gradient
4) Unrestrained expansion

First Law of Thermodynamics

dw de dq + = (4)

where q is heat out of a system per unit mass, e is internal energy (due to random thermal
motion) per unit mass, and w is work per unit mass.
Consider a reversible work process (dw = pdv)

Equation Gibbs pdV de Tds + = (5)


This equation hold for all processes involving pure substances or substances having
only 2 independent state properties. For example, an ideal gas behaves the ideal gas
equation of state which can be written in a variety of ways including these:

T nR pV RT pv RT p
u
= = = , ,

Note that the selection of any two state variables prescribes the third.
Also note:

+ + =
+ =
Vdp pdV de dh
pV e h
(7)

Using equation 7 to replace de in the Gibbs Equation yields:

Vdp dh Tds = (8)

Equation of State (Perfect Gas)

T
M
R
RT pv = = (9)

where

mole gm K
cal
R mole lb
lb ft
R
m
f

=
9857 . 1
43 . 1545
o


From Maxwells equations:

) (T e e = (10)

pV e h again + =

) (t h h so = (12)

specific heats are defined as follows:

dT
dh
c
dT
de
c
p v
= = , (13)

where c
v
is the specific heat at constant volume and c
p
is the specific heat at constant
pressure

so


RdT de dh + =

R c c
v p
+ = (14)
Isentropic Process:

dp
dh Tds = (15)

p
dp
R
T
dT
c ds so
p
=

for ds = 0 (isentropic process)

R
c
p
T
T
p
p

=
1 1
(17)

define = c
p
/c
v
; then:

1
=

v p
p p
c c
c
R
c
(18)



1
1 1

T
T
p
p
so (19)

using ideal gas

=

pv or
p
p
or
T
T
1 1
1
1
1 1
constant (20)


Nozzle Flow
Equations developed in this section relate the local (static) thermodynamic state variables
(pressure, temperature, etc.) to stagnation (near zero velocity) states (in rocket
combustion chambers, for example) using the Mach number (from Ernst Mach). The
sound speed is defined to be the speed of propagation of a very small pressure
disturbance. It can be shown that

RT
p p p
a
T s

= =

=

velocity local
speed sound local
a
u
M Number Mach

=

Isentropic Flow
From the First Law of Thermodynamics


0
h w q
shaft
= (21)

For adiabatic flow with no mechanical work, the total enthalpy per unit mass is constant


2
2
0
u
h h + = (22)

or for constant c
p
(calorically

perfect gas)


2
2
0
u
T c T c
p p
+ = (23)

or


T c
u
T
T
p
2
1
2
0
+ = (24)

The last term contains both velocity and Mach number but can be reduced to a function
of one variable, Mach number.

(25) RT M a M u
2 2 2 2
= =

so


( )
2
1 1
1
2 2 2 2
2 2
2
2
2

= =

M M
c
c c
M
T c
RT
M
T c
u p
v p
p p
(26)

so
(this holds for all adiabatic, zero-work processes even if they are not isentropic)


2 0
2
1
1 M
T
T
+ =

(27)

Recall: for an isentropic process,


1
0 0
1
1 1

T
T
p
p
or
T
T
p
p
(28)

substituting from above, we get


1
2 0
2
1
1

+ =

M
p
p
(29)


1
1
2
0
0
0 0 0 0
2
1
1

+ = = =

M
T
T
p
p
so
RT
RT
p
p
(30)

or


1
1
2 0
2
1
1

+ =

M (31)

The isentropic flow relationships are sometimes organized as a chain of equations. So far
the isentropic chain contains the following terms.

) (
0
1
0 0
chain isentropic
T
T
p
p

=

(32)

For any flow of a perfect gas, these relations describe the local values of T
0
,
0
, and p
0

regardless of the actual flow because the stagnation state is defined to be the conditions
which would exist if the flow were decelerated to rest isentropically. If the flow is
actually isentropic, T
0
,
0
, and p
0
are constants.
In order to relate these thermodynamic state variables to the nozzle dimensions,
an area-Mach number relationship is needed. We obtain such a relationship using the
principle of continuity.



u
A
m
=

(33)

2
0
0
2
1
1 M
RT
M
T
T
RT M aM u

+
=

= =

also


0
0

= (35)

then

2
1
1
1
2
0 0
2
1
1

+ =

M RT M
A
m
(36)

or


( ) 1 2
1
2
0
0
2
1
1

+

+ =

M M
RT
p
A
m
(37)

This is an area Mach number relationship for isentropic flow containing only constants.
Next we will eliminate by relating areas to the area of max /A. Formally, the max
value for /A can be found by differentiating with respect to Mach number.

m


















0
A
m
=

dM
d


( )
( )
( )
( )

+ =

M M M M
RT
p
A
m
dM
d
o
1
2
1
1
1 2
1
2
1
1 0
1
1 2
1
2
1 2
1
2 0

0
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2 2
=

+
+

M M



0
2
1
2
1
1
2 2
=
+

+ M M



0 1
2
= M

1 = M

1
max
=

A
m
M

So the maximum flow rate/unit area occurs at sonic conditions. Sonic conditions are
refered to with an . To get an area-Mach number relationship without the constants
( ), Divide the equation for /A evaluated at an arbitrary Mach number by
the same equation (for /A* ) evaluated at M = 1. This leads to
0 0
, , T and R p m& m&
m&

) 1 ( 2
1
2
2
1
1
1
2 1

+

+
+
=

M
M A
A
(38)

Isentropic chain:

2
1
1
) 1 ( 2
1
0
1
0 0
+

=
+

M
A
A
p
p
T
T
(39)

Note: The equations relating the stagnation properties to the static properties are valid
even for nonisentropic flows so long as the stagnation properties are understood to be
local values.




Excellent reference for air flow with constant gamma and specific heats
NACA 1135 Equations, Tables, and Charts for Compressible Flow, reproduced by Amtec
Engineering Inc, 1506-106
th
NE Bellevue, WA 98004.

Ideal Nozzle Flow Example:

Consider a Rocket Motor equipped with a nozzle in which the stagnation conditions are
T
0
= 3000 K and p
0
= 30 atm. The ratio of specific heats for the propellant can be
assumed to be a constant value of 1.25 and the molecular weight of the propellant is 18.
The nozzle throat diameter is 10cm and the nozzle exit diameter is 15cm. Calculate the
pressure and velocity at the nozzle exit.

Solution:

The first step is to obtain Mach number because all the flow parameters are related to the
Mach number. In this case, we have areas given so the area-Mach number relationship is
used to obtain Mach number.

2
2
2
) 1 ( 2
1
2
4 /
4 /
2
1
1
1
2 1

= = =

+
+

+
e
t
t
e e
e
e
D
D
D
D
A
A
M
M

(40)

This is a noninvertible equation to be solved iteratively. The area ratio is 2.25 and two
solutions to this equation exist for this area ratio. The supersonic one is appropriate
because the solution point is downstream of a throat and sufficient pressure exists to drive
the nozzle in the supersonic regime. For an area ratio of 2.25, the supersonic Mach
number is 2.20.

With this Mach number, the pressure-Mach number relationship can be used to obtain
pressure.

1
2 0
2
1
1

+ =

e
e
M
p
p
(41)


For a Mach number of 2.20, this ratio is 10.65 so, for a total pressure of 30 atm, the exit
pressure is 2.82 atm.

To get velocity, the temperature is required.

2
2
1
1
e
e
o
M
T
T
+ =

(42)

For a Mach number of 2.20, this ratio is 1.605 so, for a total temperature of 3,000 K, the
exit temperature is 1869 K. The velocity can now be calculated either by using the
energy equation directly or by multiplying the Mach number by the sound speed.

s m T
MW
R
M Ma u
u
/ 2285 1869
18
8314
25 . 1 20 . 2 =

= = (43)

Non-Ideal Nozzles and nozzle efficiency
The function of the nozzle is to random motion into directed motion. Therefore,
the nozzle efficiency is based on the decrease in the static enthalpy. It is the decrease in
the static enthalpy for the actual expansion in the nozzle (for a given pressure ratio)
divided by the decrease in the static enthalpy which would occur if the expansion were
ideal (isentropic). (This is the case which would produce the maximum exit velocity.)

s
h h
h h
o
o
n
7
7
6
6

= (44)

For all adiabatic efficiencies, the s subscript represents the value which would be
obtained from an isentropic calculation. The 6 and 7 represent the entrance and exit of
the nozzle respectively.
Converging Nozzles
Since the weight and external drag associated with the converging-diverging
nozzles normally needed to expand the flow to the ambient pressure often outweighs the
benefit of the expansion, simply converging nozzles are used.
Nozzle efficiency

6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
1
1
o
o
o
o
n
T
T
T
T
h h
h h
s
s

= (45)

Solve for the temperature ratio which we can relate to the nozzle pressure ratio

=
6
6
0
7 7
1
1
1
o n
T
T
T
T

(46)

Remaining is the actual temperature ratio for the nozzle; however, since the nozzle is
adiabatic, the temperature ratio can be calculated from the Mach number even though the
nozzle is not necessarily isentropic. Additionally, if the pressure ratio is sufficiently high
the nozzle will be choked at its minimum area point which is the exit for a converging
nozzle.

1
2
1
2
1
1
2
7
6
=
+
=

+ =
e e
o
M for M
T
T

(47)

substituting for the actual temperature ratio

+
=

1
1 1
1
1
2
1
1
1
6
7

n n o
T
T
s
(48)

substituting to find the pressure ratio

1
1
7
7
1
1 1
1
6 6

+ =

n o o
T
T
p
p
s
(49)

This is the pressure ratio for a converging nozzle assuming that choked flow. To
complete the analysis, we need to verify that the calculated nozzle exit pressure is above
the ambient pressure. If it is not, the nozzle is completely subsonic the calculation of
nozzle exit conditions must be repeated assuming p
e
= p
a
. If the exit pressure is above
ambient, the nozzle analysis can continue as before.

Nonideal Nozzle Flow Example:

Consider a Rocket Motor equipped with a nozzle in which the stagnation conditions are
T
0
= 3000 K and p
o
= 30 atm. The ratio of specific heats for the propellant can be
assumed to be a constant value of 1.25 and the molecular weight of the propellant is 18.
The nozzle throat diameter is 10 cm and the nozzle exit diameter is 15 cm. The nozzle
has an adiabatic efficiency of 90%. a) Calculate the pressure and velocity at the nozzle
exit. b) Assume that the nozzle is truncated at the throat. Calculate the pressure and
velocity at the exit in that case.



Solution:

a) This is a repeat of the first nozzle example except that the adiabatic efficiency is
not 100%. The exit static temperature and pressure for isentropic flow can thus
be extracted from above. From the definition of nozzle efficiency, the pressure
will remain the same as above at 2.82 atm. The exit temperature for isentropic
flow from above is 1869 K. The actual exit temperature can be calculated as
follows:

9 . 0
1869 3000
3000
7
7
7
7
7
6
6
6
6
=

=
T
T T
T T
h h
h h
s s
o
o
o
o
n
(50)

where a calorically perfect gas has been assumed. Solving for T
7
gives 1982 K. u
e
can
now be obtained directly from the energy equation.

s m T T
MW
R
T T c u
o
u
o p e
/ 2168 ) (
1
2 ) ( 2
7 7
6 6
=

= =

(51)

b) If the nozzle is converging only, the exit Mach number is assumed to be unity and
eq. 49

5174 . 0
25 . 1 1
25 . 1 1
9 . 0
1
1
1
1 1
1
1 25 . 1
25 . 1
1
7
6
=

n o
p
p
(52)

So the nozzle exit pressure is 15.52 atm. The exit velocity is simply the throat sound
speed.

s m T
MW
R
T
MW
R
u
o
u
e
u
e
/ 8 . 1240 3000
1 25 . 1
2
18
8314
25 . 1
1
2
6
=