Peacebuilding

1
Peacebuilding
Peacebuilding is an intervention that is designed to prevent the start or resumption of violent conflict by creating a
sustainable peace. Peacebuilding activities address the root causes or potential causes of violence, create a societal
expectation for peaceful conflict resolution and stabilize society politically and socioeconomically. The exact
definition varies depending on the actor, with some definitions specifying what activities fall within the scope of
peacebuilding or restricting peacebuilding to post-conflict interventions.
Civil society organizations began using the term peacebuilding in the 1970s. As the United Nations and governments
began using the term, it has taken on different meanings. Common to all definitions is the agreement that improving
human security is the central task of peacebuilding.
Peacebuilding includes a wide range of efforts by diverse actors in government and civil society at the community,
national and international levels to address the root causes of violence and ensure civilians have freedom from fear,
freedom from want and freedom from humiliation before, during, and after violent conflict.
There are two broad approaches to peacebuilding.
First, peacebuilding can refer to direct work that intentionally focuses on addressing the factors driving or mitigating
conflict. When applying the term "peacebuilding" to this work, there is an explicit attempt by those designing and
planning a peacebuilding effort to reduce structural or direct violence.
Second, the term peacebuilding can also refer to efforts to coordinate a multi-level, multisectoral strategy, including
ensuring that there is funding and proper communication and coordination mechanisms between humanitarian
assistance, development, governance, security, justice and other sectors that may not use the term "peacebuilding" to
describe themselves. The concept is not one to impose on specific sectors. Rather some scholars use the term
peacebuilding is an overarching concept useful for describing a range of interrelated efforts.
While some use the term to refer to only post-conflict or post-war contexts, most use the term more broadly to refer
to any stage of conflict. Before conflict becomes violent, preventive peacebuilding efforts, such as diplomatic,
economic development, social, educational, health, legal and security sector reform programs, address potential
sources of instability and violence. This is also termed conflict prevention. Peacebuilding efforts aim to manage,
mitigate, resolve and transform central aspects of the conflict through official diplomacy as well as through civil
society peace processes and informal dialogue, negotiation, and mediation. Peacebuilding addresses economic, social
and political root causes of violence and fosters reconciliation to prevent the return of structural and direct violence.
Peacebuilding efforts aim to change beliefs, attitudes and behaviors to transform the short and long term dynamics
between individuals and groups toward a more stable, peaceful coexistence. Peacebuilding is an approach to an
entire set of interrelated efforts that support peace.
In 2007, the UN Secretary-General's Policy Committee defined peacebuilding as follows: "Peacebuilding involves a
range of measures targeted to reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict by strengthening national capacities
at all levels for conflict management, and to lay the foundations for sustainable peace and sustainable development.
Peacebuilding strategies must be coherent and tailored to specific needs of the country concerned, based on national
ownership, and should comprise a carefully prioritized, sequenced, and therefore relatively narrow set of activities
aimed at achieving the above objectives."
Although many of peacebuilding's aims overlap with those of peacemaking, peacekeeping and conflict resolution, it
is a distinct idea. Peacemaking involves stopping an ongoing conflict, whereas peacebuilding happens before a
conflict starts or once it ends. Peacekeeping prevents the resumption of fighting following a conflict; it does not
address the underlying causes of violence or work to create societal change, as peacebuiding does. It also differs
from peacebuilding in that it only occurs after conflict ends, not before it begins. Conflict resolution does not include
some components of peacebuilding, such as state building and socioeconomic development.
Peacebuilding
2
The tasks included in peacebuilding vary depending on the situation and the agent of peacebuilding. Successful
peacebuilding activities create an environment supportive of self-sustaining, durable peace; reconcile opponents;
prevent conflict from restarting; integrate civil society; create rule of law mechanisms; and address underlying
structural and societal issues. Researchers and practitioners also increasingly find that peacebuilding is most
effective and durable when it relies upon local conceptions of peace and the underlying dynamics which foster or
enable conflict.
[1]
History
In the 1970s, Norwegian sociologist Johan Galtung first created the term peacebuilding through his promotion of
systems that would create sustainable peace. Such systems needed to address the root causes of conflict and support
local capacity for peace management and conflict resolution. Galtung's work emphasized a bottom-up approach that
decentralized social and economic structures, amounting to a call for a societal shift from structures of coercion and
violence to a culture of peace. American sociologist John Paul Lederach proposed a different concept of
peacebuilding as engaging grassroots, local, NGO, international and other actors to create a sustainable peace
process. He does not advocate the same degree of structural change as Galtung.
[2]
Peacebuilding has since expanded to include many different dimensions, such as disarmament, demobilization and
reintegration and rebuilding governmental, economic and civil society institutions. The concept was popularized in
the international community through UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali's 1992 report An Agenda for
Peace. The report defined post-conflict peacebuilding as an action to identify and support structures which will tend
to strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a relapse into conflict" At the 2005 World Summit, the United
Nations began creating a peacebuilding architecture based on Kofi Annan's proposals.
[3]
The proposal called for
three organizations: the UN Peacebuilding Commission, which was founded in 2005; the UN Peacebuilding Fund,
founded in 2006; and the UN Peacebuilding Support Office, which was created in 2005. These three organizations
enable the Secretary-General to coordinate the UN's peacebuilding efforts. National governments' interest in the
topic has also increased due to fears that failed states serve as breeding grounds for conflict and extremism and thus
threaten international security. Some states have begun to view peacebuilding as a way to demonstrate their
relevance.
[4]
However, peacebuilding activities continue to account for small percentages of states' budgets.
[5]
The Marshall Plan was a long-term postconflict peacebuilding intervention in Europe with which the United States
aimed to rebuild the continent following the destruction of World War II. The Plan successfully promoted economic
development in the areas it funded.
[6]
More recently, peacebuilding has been implemented in postconflict situations
in countries including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Northern Ireland, Cyprus and South Africa.
[7]
Components of peacebuilding
The tasks included in peacebuilding vary depending on the situation and the agent of peacebuilding. Successful
peacebuilding activities create an environment supportive of self-sustaining, durable peace; reconcile opponents;
prevent conflict from restarting; integrate civil society; create rule of law mechanisms; and address underlying
structural and societal issues. To accomplish these goals, peacebuilding must address functional structures,
emotional conditions and social psychology, social stability, rule of law and ethics and cultural sensitivities.
Preconflict peacebuilding interventions aim to prevent the start of violent conflict.
[8]
These strategies involve a
variety of actors and sectors in order to transform the conflict.
[9]
Even though the definition of peacebuilding
includes preconflict interventions, in practice most peacebuilding interventions are postconflict.
[10]
However, many
peacebuilding scholars advocate an increased focus on preconflict peacebuilding in the future.
There are many different approaches to categorization of forms of peacebuilding among the peacebuilding field's
many scholars.
Peacebuilding
3
Barnett et al. divides postconflict peacebuilding into three dimensions: stabilizing the post-conflict zone, restoring
state institutions and dealing with social and economic issues. Activities within the first dimension reinforce state
stability post-conflict and discourage former combatants from returning to war (disarmament, demobilization and
reintegration, or DDR). Second dimension activities build state capacity to provide basic public goods and increase
state legitimacy. Programs in the third dimension build a post-conflict society's ability to manage conflicts peacefully
and promote socioeconomic development.
[11]
1st Dimension 2nd Dimension 3rd Dimension
Taking away weapons
Re-integrating former
combatants into civilian
society
Rebuilding basic facilities,
transportation and communication
networks, utilities
Developing rule of law systems
and public administration
Building educational and health
infrastructure
Providing technical and
capacity-building assistance for
institutions
Creating legitimate (democratic,
accountable) state institutions
Trauma counseling
Transitional justice
and restoration
Community dialogue
Building bridges
between different
communities
Increasing human
rights
Gender empowerment
Raising environmental awareness
Promoting economic development
Developing a civil society and private
sector that can represent diverse interests
and challenge the state peacefully
A mixture of locally and internationally focused components is key to building a long-term sustainable peace.
[12]
Mac Ginty says that while different "indigenous" communities utilize different conflict resolution techniques, most
of them share the common characteristics described in the table. Since indigenous peacebuilding practices arise from
local communities, they are tailored to local context and culture in a way that generalized international peacebuilding
approaches are not.
[13]
Local, customary and traditional International
Respected local figures
Public dimension
Storytelling and airing of grievances
Emphasis on relationships
Reliance on local resources
Top-down: engages with national elites, not locals
Exclusive: deals are made behind closed doors
Technocratic/ahistorical basis: emphasis on 'striking a deal', 'moving on'
Modeled on corporate culture: reaching a deal, meeting deadlines prioritzed over relations
Relies on external personnel, ideas and material resources
Major organizations
Intergovernmental organizations
The United Nations participates in many aspects of peacebuilding, both through the peacebuilding architecture
established in 2005-6 and through other agencies.
Peacebuilding architecture
UN Peacebuilding Commission (PBC): intergovernmental advisory body that brings together key actors,
gathers resources, advises on strategies for post-conflict peacebuilding and highlights issues that might
undermine peace.
UN Peacebuilding Fund (PBF): supports peacebuilding activities that directly promote post-conflict
stabilization and strengthen state and institutional capacity. PBF funding is either given for a maximum of two
years immediately following conflict to jumpstart peacebuilding and recovery needs or given for up to three
years to create a more structured peacebuilding process.
UN Peacebuilding Support Office (PBSO): supports the Peacebuilding Commission with strategic advice and
policy guidance, administers the Peacebuilding Fund and helps the Secretary-General coordinate UN agencies'
Peacebuilding
4
peacebuilding efforts.
Other agencies
Peacebuilding Portal: provides information and develops communication networks in the peacebuilding
community to build local, national, intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations' capacity
UN Department of Political Affairs: postconflict peacebuilding
UN Development Programme: conflict prevention, peacebuilding, postconflict recovery
[14]
The World Bank and International Monetary Fund focus on the economic and financial aspects of peacebuilding.
The World Bank assists in post-conflict reconstruction and recovery by helping rebuild society's socioeconomic
framework. The International Monetary Fund deals with post-conflict recovery and peacebuilding by acting to
restore assets and production levels.
The EU's European Commission describes its peacebuilding activities as conflict prevention and management, and
rehabilitation and reconstruction. Conflict prevention and management entails stopping the imminent outbreak of
violence and encouraging a broad peace process. Rehabilitation and reconstruction deals with rebuilding the local
economy and institutional capacity.
[15]
The European Commission Conflict Prevention and Peace building
2001-2010 was subjected to a major external evaluation conducted by Aide a la Decisions Economique (ADE) with
the European Centre for Development Policy Management which was presented in 2011.
[16]
The European External
Action Service created in 2010 also has a specific Division of Conflict Prevention, Peacebuilding and Mediation.
Governmental organizations
USAID logo
France
French Ministry of Defence: operations include
peacekeeping, political and constitutional processes,
democratization, administrative state capacity, technical
assistance for public finance and tax policy, and support for
independent media
French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs: supports
peace consolidation, including monitoring compliance with
arms embargoes, deployment of peacekeeping troops, DDR,
and deployment of police and gendarmerie in support of the
rule of law
French Development Agency: focuses on crisis prevention
through humanitarian action and development
Germany
German Federal Foreign Office: assists with conflict resolution and postconflict peacebuilding, including the
establishment of stable state structures (rule of law, democracy, human rights, and security) and the creation of
the potential for peace within civil society, the media, cultural affairs and education
German Federal Ministry of Defence: deals with the destruction of a countrys infrastructure resulting from
intrastate conflict, security forces reform, demobilization of combatants, rebuilding the justice system and
government structures and preparations for elections
German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development: addresses economic, social, ecological,
and political conditions to help eliminate the structural causes of conflict and promote peaceful conflict
management; issues addressed include poverty reduction, pro-poor sustainable economic growth, good
governance and democracy
United Kingdom
Peacebuilding
5
UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office: performs a range of reconstruction activities required in the immediate
aftermath of conflict
UK Ministry of Defence: deals with long-term activities addressing the underlying causes of conflict and the
needs of the people
UK Department for International Development: works on conflict prevention (short-term activities to prevent the
outbreak or recurrence of violent conflict) and peacebuilding (medium- and long-term actions to address the
factors underlying violent conflict), including DDR programs; building the public institutions that provide
security, transitional justice and reconciliation; and providing basic social services
United States
United States Department of State: aids postconflict states in establishing the basis for a lasting peace, good
governance and sustainable development
United States Department of Defense: assists with reconstruction, including humanitarian assistance, public
health, infrastructure, economic development, rule of law, civil administration and media; and stabilization,
including security forces, communication skills, humanitarian capabilities and area expertise
United States Agency for International Development: performs immediate interventions to build momentum in
support of the peace process including supporting peace negotiations; building citizen security; promoting
reconciliation; and expanding democratic political processes
[17]
United States Institute of Peace:
Nongovernmental organizations
Alliance for Peacebuilding: Washington D.C.-based nonprofit that works to prevent and resolve violent conflict
through collaboration between government, intergovernmental organizations and nongovernmental organizations;
and to increase awareness of peacebuilding policies and best practices
Catholic Relief Services: Baltimore-based Catholic humanitarian agency that provides emergency relief
post-disaster or post-conflict and encourages long-term development through peacebuilding and other activities
Conciliation Resources: London-based independent organisation working with people in conflict to prevent
violence and build peace.
Crisis Management Initiative: Helsinki-based organization that works to resolve conflict and build sustainable
peace by bringing international peacebuilding experts and local leaders together
Initiatives of Change: global organization dedicated to "building trust across the world's divides" (of culture,
nationality, belief, and background), involved in peacebuilding and peace consolidation since 1946
[18]
and
currently in the Great Lakes area of Africa, Sierra Leone and other areas of conflict.
International Alert: London-based charity that works with people affected by violent conflict to improve their
prospects for peace and helps shape and strength peacebuilding policies and practices
International Crisis Group: Brussels-based nonprofit that gives advice to governments and intergovernmental
organizations on the prevention and resolution of deadly conflict
Interpeace: Geneva-based nonprofit and strategic partner of the United Nations that works to build lasting peace
by following five core principles that put people at the center of the peacebuilding process
Jewish-Palestinian Living Room Dialogue Group: Since 1992 models and supports relationships among
adversaries, while creating how-to documentary films. From 2003-2007, with Camp Tawonga brought hundreds
of adults and youth from 50 towns in Palestine and Israel to successfully live and communicate together at the
Palestinian-Jewish Family Peacemakers CampOseh Shalom - Sanea al-Salam
[19]
Peace Direct: London-based charity that provides financial and administrative assistance to grassroots
peacebuilding efforts and increases international awareness of both specific projects and grassroots peacebuilding
in general;
Saferworld: UK-based independent international organisation working to prevent violent conflict and build safer
lives;
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Seeds of Peace: New York City-based nonprofit that works to empower youth from areas of conflict by inviting
them to an international camp in Maine for leadership training and relationship building;
United Network of Young Peacebuilders (UNOY Peacebuilders): The Hague-based network of young leaders and
youth organizations that facilitates affiliated organizations' peacebuilding efforts through networking, sharing
information, research and fundraising
Tuesday's Children: New York-based organization that brings together teens, ages 1520, from the New York
City area and around the world who share a common bondthe loss of a family member due to an act of
terrorism. Launched in 2008, Project COMMON BOND has so far helped 308 teenagers from 15 different
countries and territories turn their experiences losing a loved one to terrorism into positive actions that can help
others exposed to similar tragedy. Participants share the vision of the program to Let Our Past Change the
Future.
Karuna Center for Peacebuilding: U.S.-based international nonprofit organization that leads training and programs
in post-conflict peacebuilding for government, development institutions, civil society organizations, and local
communities
Nonviolent Peaceforce: Brussels-based nonprofit that promotes and implements unarmed civilian peacekeeping as
a tool for reducing violence and protecting civilians in situations of violent conflict
Research and academic institutes
United States Institute of Peace permanent headquarters in Washington D.C.
Center for Justice and Peacebuilding: academic
program at Eastern Mennonite University;
promotes peacebuilding, creation care,
experiential learning, and cross-cultural
engagement; teachings are based on Mennonite
Christianity
Center for Peacebuilding and Development:
academic center at American University's
School of International Service; promotes
cross-cultural development of research and
practices in peace education, civic
engagement, nonviolent resistance, conflict resolution, religion and peace, and peacebuilding
Irish Peace Institute: promotes peace and reconciliation in Ireland and works to apply lessons from Ireland's
conflict resolution to other conflicts
Joan B. Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies: degree-granting institute at the University of Notre Dame;
promotes research, education and outreach on the causes of violent conflict and the conditions for sustainable
peace
United States Institute of Peace: non-partisan federal institution that works to prevent or end violent conflict
around the world by sponsoring research and using it to inform actions
University for Peace: international institution of higher education located in Costa Rica; aims to promote peace by
engaging in teaching, research, training and dissemination of knowledge necessary for building peace
Role of women
Women have traditionally played a limited role in peacebuilding processes even though they often bear the
responsibility for providing for their families' basic needs in the aftermath of violent conflict. They are especially
likely to be unrepresented or underrepresented in negotiations, political decision-making, upper-level policymaking
and senior judicial positions. Many societies' patriarchal cultures prevent them from recognizing the role women can
play in peacebuilding.
[20]
However, many peacebuilding academics and the United Nations have recognized that
Peacebuilding
7
women play a vital role in securing the three pillars of sustainable peace: economic recovery and reconciliation,
social cohesion and development and political legitimacy, security and governance.
[21]
At the request of the Security Council, the Secretary-General issued a report on women's participation in
peacebuilding in 2010. The report outlines the challenges women continue to face in participating in recovery and
peacebuilding process and the negative impact this exclustion has on them and societies more broadly. To respond to
these challenges, it advocates a comprehensive 7-point action plan covering the seven commitment areas: mediation;
post-conflict planning; financing; civilian capacity; post-conflict governance; rule of law; and economic recovery.
The action plan aims to facilitate progress on the women, peace and security agenda. The monitoring and
implementation of this action plan is now being led jointly by the Peacebuilding Support Office and UN Women. In
April 2011, the two organizations convened a workshop to ensure that women are included in future post-disaster
and post-conflict planning documents. In the same year, the PBF selected seven gender-sensitive peacebuilding
projects to receive $5 million in funding.
Porter discusses the growing role of female leadership in countries prone to war and its impact on peacebuilding.
When the book was written, seven countries prone to violent conflict had female heads of state. Ellen
Johnson-Sirleaf of Liberia and Michelle Bachelet of Chile were the first female heads of state from their respective
countries and President Johnson-Sirleaf was the first female head of state in Africa. Both women utilized their
gender to harness "the power of maternal symbolism - the hope that a woman could best close wounds left on their
societies by war and dictatorship."
[22]
Ongoing efforts
Ongoing UN PBC and PBF projectsOngoing UN PBF projects
The UN Peacebuilding Commission works in
Burundi, Central African Republic, Guinea,
Guinea-Bissau, Liberia and Sierra Leone and
the UN Peacebuilding Fund funds projects in
Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad,
Comoros, Cte d'Ivoire, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, Guinea, Guinea Bissau,
Guatemala, Haiti, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan,
Lebanon, Liberia, Nepal, Sierra Leone,
Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, South Sudan,
Timor-Leste and Uganda. Other UN
organizations are working in Haiti (MINUSTAH),
[23]
Lebanon,
[24]
Afghanistan, Kosovo and Iraq.
The World Bank's International Development Association maintains the Trust Fund for East Timor in Timor-Leste.
The TFET has assisted reconstruction, community empowerment and local governance in the country.
[25]
As part of the War in Afghanistan and the War in Iraq, the United States has invested $104 billion in reconstruction
and relief efforts for the two countries. The Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund alone received $21 billion during
FY2003 and FY2004.
[26]
The money came from the United States Department of State, United States Agency for
International Development and the United States Department of Defense and included funding for security, health,
education, social welfare, governance, economic growth and humanitarian issues.
[27]
Civil society organisations sometimes even are working on Peacebuilding themselves. This for example is the case in
Kenya, reports the magazine D+C Development and Cooperation
[28]
. After the election riots in Kenya in 2008, civil
society organisations started programmes to avoid similar disasters in the future, for instance the Truth, Justice and
Reconciliation Commission (TJRC) and peace meetings organised by the church and they supported the National
Cohesion and Integration Commission.
Peacebuilding
8
Results
In 2010, the UNPBC conducted a review of its work with the first four countries on its agenda. An independent
review by the Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting also highlighted some of the PBC's early successes and challenges.
Criticisms
Implementation
Barnett et al. criticizes peacebuilding organizations for undertaking supply-driven rather than demand-driven
peacebuilding; they provide the peacebuilding services in which their organization specializes, not necessarily those
that the recipient most needs.
[29]
In addition, he argues that many of their actions are based on organizations
precedent rather than empirical analysis of which interventions are and are not effective. More recently, Ben Hillman
has criticized international donor efforts to strengthen local governments in the wake of conflict. He argues that
international donors typically do not have the knowledge, skills or resources to bring meaningful change to the way
post-conflict societies are governed.
[30][31]
Perpetuation of cultural hegemony
Many academics argue that peacebuilding is a manifestation of liberal internationalism and therefore imposes
Western values and practices onto other cultures. Mac Ginty states that although peacebuilding does not project all
aspects of Western culture on to the recipient states, it does transmit some of them, including concepts like
neoliberalism that the West requires recipients of aid to follow more closely than most Western countries do.
[32]
Barnett also comments that the promotion of liberalization and democratization may undermine the peacebuilding
process if security and stable institutions are not pursued concurrently.
[33]
Richmond has shown how 'liberal
peacebuilding' represents a political encounter that may produce a post-liberal form of peace. Local and international
actors, norms, institutions and interests engage with each other in various different contexts, according to their
respective power relations and their different conceptions of legitimate authority structures.
[34]
Notes
[1] Coning, C. 2013. Understanding Peacebuilding as Essentially Local. Stability: International Journal of Security and Development 2(1):6,
DOI: http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 5334/ sta. as
[2] [2] Keating XXXIV
[3] [3] Barnett 36
[4] [4] Barnett 43
[5] [5] Barnett 53
[6] [6] Sandole 92, 101
[7] [7] Sandole 35
[8] [8] Keating XXXVII
[9] [9] Sandole 13-14
[10] [10] Sandole 12
[11] [11] Barnett et al 49-50
[12] [12] Mac Ginty 212
[13] Mac Ginty 54; Mac Ginty, R. 2012. Against Stabilization. Stability: International Journal of Security and Development 1(1):20-30, DOI:
http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 5334/ sta.ab
[14] [14] Barnett et al. 38
[15] [15] Barnett et al. 43
[16] ADE, Thematic Evaluation of European Commission Support to Conflict Prevention and Peace-building, Evaluation for the Evaluation Unit
of DEVCO, October 2011, http:/ / ec.europa.eu/ europeaid/ how/ evaluation/ evaluation_reports/ 2011/ 1291_docs_en. htm<>
[17] [17] Barnett et al. 38-40
[18] Edward Luttwak "Franco-German Reconciliation: The overlooked role of the Moral Re-Armament movement", in Douglas Johnston and
Cynthia Sampson (eds.), Religion, the Missing Dimension of Statecraft, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp37-63.
[19] Peacemaker Camp 2007, website (http:/ / traubman. igc. org/ camp2007. htm)
Peacebuilding
9
[20] [20] Porter 190
[21] [21] Porter 184
[22] [22] Porter 185
[23] [23] Keating 120
[24] [24] Mac Ginty 180
[25] [25] Keating XLII-XLIII
[26] [26] Tarnoff 14
[27] [27] Tarnoff 2
[28] http:/ / www.dandc. eu/ articles/ 220704/ index. en. shtml
[29] [29] Barnett 48
[30] [30] [http://crawford.anu.edu.au/pdf/staff/ben_hillman/2013/The-Policymaking-Dimension-of-Post-conflict-governance.pdf
[31] [31] [http://crawford.anu.edu.au/pdf/staff/ben_hillman/2013/PUBLIC-ADMINISTRATION-REFORM-IN-POST-CONFLICT-SOCIETIES.pdf
[32] [32] Mac Ginty 38
[33] [33] Barnett 51
[34] Oliver P Richmond, A Post-Liberal Peace, Routledge, 2011
References
Barnett, Michael; Kim, Hunjoon; O'Donnell, Madalene; Sitea, Laura (2007). "Peacebuilding: What Is in a
Name?". Global Governance 13: 3558.
Keating, Tom; Knight, W., eds. (2004). Canada: United Nations University Press and The University of Alberta
Press. ISBN92-808-1101-0. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Mac Ginty, Roger (2011). International Peacebuilding and Local Resistance. United Kingdom: Palgrave
Macmillan. ISBN978-0-230-27376-4.
Porter, Elisabeth (2007). Peacebuilding: Women in International Perspective. Oxon, UK: Routledge.
ISBN978-0-415-39791-9.
Richmond, Oliver (2011). A Post-Liberal Peace. UK: Routledge.
Sandole, Dennis (2010). Peacebuilding. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. ISBN978-0-7456-4165-2.
Schirch, Lisa (2006) Little Book of Strategic Peacebuilding. PA: Good Books.
Schirch, Lisa (2013) Conflict Assessment & Peacebuilding Planning. CO: Lynn Reinner Press.
Tarnoff, Curt; Marian L. Lawson (2011). Foreign Aid: An Introduction to U.S. Programs and Policy (Technical
report). Congressional Research Service. R40213.
External links
United Nations Peacebuilding Commission (http:/ / www. un. org/ peace/ peacebuilding/ )
United Nations Rule of Law: Peacebuilding (http:/ / www. unrol. org/ article. aspx?article_id=27), on the
relationship between peacebuilding, the rule of law and the United Nations.
Building Cultures of Peace: Transdisciplinary Voices of Hope and Action (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ title/
building-cultures-of-peace-transdisciplinary-voices-of-hope-and-action/ oclc/ 435734902), Elavie
Ndura-Oudraogo and Randall Amster (eds.), UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009.
Peace, Peacebuilding, Peacemaking, in: Berghof Glossary on Conflict Transformation (http:/ / www.
berghof-foundation. org/ images/ uploads/ berghof_glossary_2012_10_peace_peacebuilding_peacemaking. pdf).
Berlin, Germany: Berghof Foundation. 2012. pp.5964. ISBN978-3-941514-09-6. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
Article Sources and Contributors
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