Design of Casting

Lecture 13 and lecture 14

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Pouring temperature refers to the initial
temperature of the molten metal used for the
casting as it is poured into the mold. This
temperature will obviously be higher than the
solidification temperature of the metal. The
difference between the solidification
temperature and the pouring temperature of the
metal is calledthe superheat.
Volumetric rate in which the liquid metal is introduced into the mold. Pouring
rate needs to be carefully controlled during the metal casting operation, since it
has certain effects on the manufacture of the part. If the pouring rate is too fast,
then turbulence can result. If it is too slow, the metal may begin to solidify before
fillingthe mold.
Turbulence is inconsistent and irregular variations in the speed and direction of
flow throughout the liquid metal as it travels though the casting. The random
impacts caused by turbulence, amplified by the high density of liquid metal, can
cause mold erosion. An undesirable effect in the manufacturing process of
metal casting, mold erosion is the wearing away of the internal surface of the
mold. It is particularly detrimental if it occurs in the main cavity, since this will
change the shape of the casting itself. Turbulence is also bad because it can
increase the formation of metal oxides which may become entrapped, creating
porosityin the solidcasting.
Pouring is a key element in the manufacturing process of metal casting and the main
goal of pouring is to get metal to flowinto all regions of the mold before solidifying. The
properties of the melt in a casting process are very important. The ability of a particular
casting melt to flowinto a mold before freezing is crucial in the consideration of metal
castingtechniques. This abilityis termedthe liquidmetals fluidity.
In manufacturing practice, the relative fluidity of a certain metal casting melt can be
quantified by the use of a spiral mold. The geometry of the spiral mold acts to limit the
flowof liquid metal through the length of its spiral cavity. The more fluidity possessed by
the molten metal, the farther into the spiral it will be able to flow before hardening. The
maximum point the metal reaches upon the casting's solidification may be indexed as
that melts relative fluidity.
Figure Spiral MoldTest
Increase the superheat: If a melt is at a higher temperature relative to its freezing point,
it will remain in the liquid state longer throughout the metal casting operation, and hence
its fluidity will increase. However, there are disadvantages to manufacturing a metal
casting with an increased superheat. It will increase the melts likelihood to saturate
gases, and the formation of oxides. It will also increase the molten metals ability to
penetrate into the surface of the mold material.
-Choose an eutectic alloy, or pure metal: When selecting a manufacturing material,
consider that metals that freeze at a constant temperature have a higher fluidity. Since
most alloys freeze over a temperature range, they will develop solid portions that will
interfere with the flow of the still liquid portions, as the freezing of the metal casting
occurs.
-Choose a metal with a higher heat of fusion: Heat of fusion is the amount of energy
involved in the liquid-solid phase change. With a higher heat of fusion, the solidification
of the metal castingwill take longer andfluiditywill be increased.
How to increase fluidity
Shrinkages during solidification and cooling
Most materials
are less dense in their liquid
state than in their solid state,
and more dense at lower
temperatures in general. Due
to this nature, a metal casting
undergoing solidification will
tendto decrease in volume.
Gray cast iron
expands upon
solidification due to phase
changes
Most materials are less dense in their liquid state than in their solid state, and
more dense at lower temperatures in general. Due to this nature, a metal casting
undergoing solidification will tend to decrease in volume. During the manufacture
of a part by casting this decrease in volume is termed shrinkage. Shrinkage of
the castingmetal occurs in three stages:
Figure:10
1. Decreased volume of the material as it goes down from Pouring Temperature to
freezing temperature .
Shrinkages during solidification and cooling
2. Decreased volume of the material due to solidification.
3. Decreased volume of the material as it goes from freezing temperature to room
temperature.
When designing a setup for manufacturing a part by metal casting, risers are almost
always employed. As the metal casting begins to experience shrinkage, the mold will
need additional material to compensate for the decrease in volume. This can be
accomplished by the employment of risers. Risers are an important component in the
casting's gating system. Risers, (sometimes called feeders), serve to contain additional
molten metal. During the metal's solidification process, these reservoirs feed extra
material into the casting as shrinkage is occurring. Thus, supplying it with an adequate
amount of liquid metal. A successful riser will remain molten until after the metal casting
solidifies. In order to reduce premature solidification of sections within the riser, in many
manufacturing operations, the tops of open risers may be covered with an insulating
compound, (such as a refractory ceramic), or an exothermic mixture.
Porosity:
One of the biggest problems caused by shrinkage, during the manufacture of a cast
part, is porosity. It happens at different sites within the material, when liquid metal can
not reach sections of the metal casting where solidification is occurring. As the isolated
liquidmetal shrinks, a porous or vacant regiondevelops.
Development of these regions can be prevented during the manufacturing operation,
by strategically planning the flow of the liquid metal into the casting through good
mold design, and by the employment of directional solidification.
Consider V/A Ratios:
In casting manufacture, V/A ratio stands for volume to surface area or
mathematically (volume/surface area). When solidification of a casting begins a thin
skin of solid metal is first formed on the surface between the casting and the mold
wall. As solidification continues the thickness of this skin increases towards the
center of the liquid mass. Sections in the casting with low volume to surface area
will solidify faster than sections with higher volume to surface area. When
manufacturing a part by metal casting consideration of the of V/A ratios is critical in
avoidingpremature solidificationof the castingand the formationof vacancies.
Heat Masses:
Avoid large heat masses in locations distant to risers. Instead, locating sections of
the casting with low V/A ratios further away from the risers will insure a smooth
solidification of the casting.
Sections of the Casting:
The flowof material is very important to the manufacturing process. Do not feed
a heavysectionthrougha lighter one.
Be Careful With Consideration To
L,T,V,Y and + junctions:
Due to the nature of the geometry
of these sections it is likely that they
will contain an area where the
metal casting's solidification is
slower than the rest of the junction.
These hot spots are circled in red in
Figure. They are located such that
the material around them, which will
undergo solidification first, will cut
off the hot spots from the flow of
molten metal. The flow of casting
material must be carefully
considered when manufacturing
such junctions. If there is some
flexibility in the design of the metal
casting and it is possible you may
want to think about redesigning the
junction. Some possible design
alternatives are shown in Figure .
These should reduced the
likelihood of the formation of hot
spots.
Prevent Planes of Weakness:
When metal castings solidify, columnar grain structures tend to develop, in the
material, pointing towards the center. Due to this nature, sharp corners in the
casting may develop a plane of weakness. By rounding the edges of sharp
corners this can be prevented.
Reduce Turbulence:
When manufacturing a metal casting, turbulence is always a factor in our flowof molten
metal. Turbulence, as covered earlier in the pouring section, is bad because it can trap
gases in the casting material and cause mold erosion. Although not altogether
preventable in the manufacturing process, turbulence can be reduced by the design of a
gating systemthat promotes a more laminar flowof the liquid metal. Sharp corners and
abrupt changes in sections within the metal casting can be a leading cause of
turbulence. Their affect can be mitigated by the employment of radii.
Connection Between Riser
and Casting Must Stay Open:
Riser design is very important in
metal casting manufacture. If
the passage linking the riser to
the metal casting solidifies
before the casting, the flow of
molten metal to the casting will
be blocked and the riser will
cease to serve its function. If
the connection has a larger
cross sectional area it will
decrease its time to freeze.
Good manufacturing design,
however, dictates that that we
minimize this cross section as
much as possible to reduce the
waste of material in the casting
process. By making the
passageway short we can keep
the metal in its liquid state
longer since it will be receiving
more heat transfer from both
the riser and the casting.
Ingate Design:
The ingate is another aspect of manufacturing design that relates to the flow of metal
through the casting's system. The ingate, (Figure ) is basically where the casting
material enters the actual mold cavity. It is a crucial element, and all other factors of the
metal casting's mold design are dependent on it. In the location next to the sprue base
the cross sectional area of the ingate is reduced (choke area). The cross sectional
reduction must be carefully calculated. The flow rate of casting material into the mold
can be controlled accurately in this way. The flowrate of the casting metal must be high
enough to avoid any premature solidification. However, you want to be certain that the
flow of molten material into the mold does not exceed the rate of delivery into the
pouring basin and thus ensure that the casting's gating system stays full of metal
throughout the manufacturingprocess.
Use of Chills:
As mentioned earlier directional solidification is very important to the manufacture of a part during the
metal casting process, in order to ensure that no area of the casting is cut off from the flow of liquid
material before it solidifies. To achieve directional solidification within the metal casting, it is important to
control the flowof fluid material and the solidification rate of the different areas of the metal casting. With
respect to the solidification of the metal casting's different sections, regulation of thermal gradients is
the key. Sometimes we may have an area of the metal casting that will need to solidify at a faster rate in
order to ensure that directional solidification occurs properly. Manufacture planning, and design of flow
and section locations within the moldmay not be sufficient. To accelerate the solidification of a section like
this in our casting, we may employ the use of chills. Chills act as heat sinks, increasing the cooling rate in
the vicinity where they are placed. Chills are solid geometric shapes of material, manufactured for this
purpose. They are placed inside the mold cavity before pouring. Chills are of two basic types. Internal
chills are located inside the mold cavity and are usually made of the same material as the casting. When
the metal solidifies the internal chills are fused into the metal casting itself. External chills are located just
outside of the casting. External chills are made of a material that can remove heat fromthe metal casting
faster than the surrounding mold material. Possible materials for external chills include iron, copper, and
graphite. Figure demonstrates the use of the two types of chills to solve the hot spot problemin a +and T
junction.
Prediction of Solidification Time: Chvorinov's
Rule.
The amount of heat that must be removed from a casting to cause it to
solidify i s directl y proportional to the amount of superheating and the
amount of metal in the casting, or the casting volume. Conversel y, the
ability to remove heat from a casting is directly related to the amount of
exposed surface area through which the heat can be extracted and the
insulating value of the mould. These observations are reflected in
Chvorinov's rule, which states that t
s
, the total solidification time, can be
computed by:
t
s
= B (V/A)
n
where n = 1.5 to 2.0
The total solidification time is the time from pouring to the completion of
solidification; V is the volume of the casting; A is the surface area; and B i s
the mould constant, which depends on the characteristics of the metal
being cast (its density, heat capacity, and heat of fusion), the mould
material (its density, thermal conductivity, and heat capacity), the mould
thickness, and the amount of superheat.
The minimum size of a riser can be calculated from Chvorinov's rule by
setting the total solidification time for the riser to be greater than the total
solidification time for the casting. Since both will receive the same metal and
are in the same mould, the mould constant, B, will be the same for both
regions. Assuming n = 2, and a safe difference in solidification time of 25% (the
riser takes 25% longer to solidify than the casting), we can write this condition
as:
t
riser
= 1.25 t
casting
( V/ A)
2
riser
= 1.25 (V/ A)
2
casting
Calculation of the riser size then requires the selection of a riser geometry
(generally cylindrical) and specification of a height-to-diameter ratio, so that the
riser side of the equation will have only one unknown. For a cylinder of diameter
D and height H:
V = D
2
H / 4
A = DH + 2 ( D
2
/ 4)
Specifying the riser height as a function of the diameter enables the V/ A ratio to
be written as a simple expression with one unknown, namely, D. The VIA ratio
for the casting can be calculated from its particular geometry.
CALCULATION OF RISER SIZE
The riser must satisfy both of the following two requirements:
Heat transfer criteria
M
C
: M
N
: M
R
=1 : 1.1 : 1.2 (1)
where M
R
, M
C
and M
N
are modulus of riser, modulus of casting, and modulus of the
neck of riser at the junction of casting respectively.
Feed volume criterion
V
R
V
C
/ ( - ) (2)
where is the efficiency of the feeder, is the solidification shrinkage, and V
R
and
V
C
are volume of Riser and casting respectively.
Metal utilisation of risers of various forms moulded in sand. The (a) cylindrical and (b) hemospherical
heads have been treated with normal feeding compounds; (c) the efficiency of the reverse tapered
heads depends on detailed geometry; (d) shows an exothermic sleeve.
In normal conditions, there is a
limit to how far a Riser can feed
along a flow path. Up to this
distance from riser, the casting
will be sound. Beyond this
distance the casting will exhibit
porosity.
FEEDING DISTANCE
Mould Filling Phenomenon
The fluidity as defined by the foundry community is different that defined by
physicists (as the reciprocal of viscosity). The casting fluidity is driven by
metallostatic pressure and hindered by: viscosity and surface tension of molten
metal, heat diffusivity of mould, back pressure of air in mould cavity and friction
betweenthe metal-mouldpair.
Metallostatic head: The metallostatic pressure is givenby g h where is the
metal density and h is the height of liquid metal column above the filling point. A higher
metallostatic pressure gives higher velocityof moltenmetal, and therebyhigher fluidity.
Viscosity: Viscosity depends on the metal family, composition and the instantaneous
temperature. For most metals, the viscosity at the pouring temperature is close to that
of water (1 centistoke); aluminum: 1.2 and iron: 0.9 centistokes. In comparison, the
viscosityof typical mineral oils is about 600.
Surface tension: For a flat plate of thickness t, the relation between head, thickness
and surface tension is given by: g h = / t, where is the surface
tension. At the pouring temperature, the surface tension of aluminum and iron is 0.5
and 0.9 N/m respectively; similar to mercury at room temperature (0.46 N/m), but
higher than water (0.07 N/m).
Heat diffusivity: Moulds with high heat diffusivity transfer heat faster from the molten
metal, causing it to freeze earlier and stop flowing. It is given by (K
m

m
C
m
),
where K
m
is thermal conductivity,
m
is density and C
m
is specific heat of the mould
material.
Back Pressure: As molten metal advances in the mould, the back pressure of air that is
being compressed in the cavity ahead effectively reduces the metallostatic pressure,
and thus hinders filling. The back pressure depends on the cavity volume, mould
permeabilityand the velocityof the advancingfront. Ventinghelps.
Friction: The rough surface of sand mould hinders metal flow. Thus mould coating
(usually water based, containing silica flour and graphite) reduces the friction between
the metal and mould, contributing to higher fluidity. In general, fluidity of pure metals is
higher than alloys.
Turbulence implies irregular, fluctuating flow with disturbances.
It is observed when: (1) inertia forces (which make the fluid continue in the same
direction), are much higher than the drag forces (which tend to stop the fluid motion),
and (2) there are obstructions in the path of flow, such as a sharp corner or a change
of section thickness. The drag forces include those caused by viscosity and surface
tension. The viscous forces mainly operate in the bulk of the liquid metal, whereas
surface tension forces operate near the mould wall. Thus we have two types of
turbulence: bulk and surface.
Bulk turbulence is quantified by Reynolds number Re, which is the ratio of inertia to
viscous pressure in a fluid. It is givenby V d / where is the density, is the
viscosity and V is the velocity of the liquid; d is a characteristic dimension of the flow
path. If Re is more than 20000, then the flowis usuallyturbulent.
Surface turbulence is quantified by the Weber number We, which is the ratio of inertia
to surface tension pressure in a fluid. It is given by V
2
r / where r is the
radius of curvature of the free liquid surface. For We is less than 1, surface turbulence
is absent. When it is 100 or more, surface turbulence is prominent, leading to violent
mixing of surface layers with the bulk of the moltenmetal.
Gating System and Types
The main objective of a gating systemis to lead clean molten metal poured from ladle to
the casting cavity, ensuring smooth, uniform and complete filling. Clean metal implies
preventing the entry of slag and inclusions into the mould cavity, and minimizing surface
turbulence. Smooth filling implies minimizing bulk turbulence. Uniformfilling implies that
all portions of the casting fill in a controlled manner, usually at the same time. Complete
fillingimplies leadingmoltenmetal to thinand end sections with minimumresistance.
Major elements of a gating system
Optimal Filling Time
The higher limit of fillingtime (slowest filling) is governed by the needto avoid
premature freezing in thin sections before complete filling. The lower limit of the filling
time (fastest filling) is governed by the onset of surface turbulence. The correct filling
time lies somewhere in between, and is a function of cast metal, weight, minimum
sectionthickness and pouringtemperature.
Several empirical equations for determining the correct filling time for major metals
have been developed by casting researchers, based on experimental investigations.
The filling
time
f
is expressed as a function of casting weight W in kg, section
thickness t in mm and fluidity length L
f
in mm. A generalized equation for
filling time can be written as:

f
= K
0
(K
f
L
f
/ 1000 ) ( K
s
+ K
t
t / 20 ) ( K
w
W)P
There are five coefficients: K
0
is an overall coefficient, and K
f
, K
s
, K
t
, K
w
are the coefficients for fluidity, size, thickness and weight, respectively. For
grey iron the following values may be used: K
0
= 1.0, K
f
= 1.0, K
s
= 1.1 (for
castings of size 100-1000 mm), K
t
= 1.4 (for wall thickness up to 10 mm),
K
w
= 1 and P = 0.4. Based on individual experience, an expert casting
engineer can set the values of the coefficients for each metal-process
combination. These form a valuable part of the knowledge base of a
foundryspecializingin specific castings.
Gating Ratio:
It is given by A
s
:A
r
:A
g
where A
s
, A
r
, A
g
are the cross-
sectional areas of sprue exit, runner(s) and ingate(s). If
multiple runners and ingates are present, the total area (of all
runners, or all ingates, respectively) must be considered. A
converging diverging system, where the ingate area is more
than the sprue exit area, is to be preferred. This ensures that
the metal slows down (thereby reducing turbulence-related
problems). Examples of such gating ratios include: 1:2:1.5 for
ferrous and 1:4:4 for nonferrous metals. Higher values of
ingate area may be used (such as 1:4:8) to further reduce the
velocity of molten metal through the ingates to within the
recommended range, as long as flow separation (and thereby
air aspiration) is avoided.
Gating Element Design
The gating systemcan be designed to fill a given casting in a predetermined time, by
keeping a constant level of liquid metal in the pouring basin during pouring, to achieve
a controlled rate of flowthrough the choke. The choke is the smallest cross-section in
the gating systemthat controls the flowrate of molten metal. The element (sprue exit,
runners or ingates) with the smallest value in the gatingratio is consideredthe choke.
The choke area A
c
is given by: A
c
= W/ (
c

f
V
c
)
Where, W is the total casting weight (including risers and gating channels),
c
is the
metal density,
f
is the total filling time and V
c
is the choke velocity.
The choke velocityis given by: V
c
= V
p
+ c
f
(2 g H)
where H is the metallostatic pressure head, given by the vertical distance between the
liquid level in pouring cup and the centerline of the choke. The value of pouring velocity
V
p
is non-zero, if poured from a height or if bottom pouring ladles are used. The friction
factor c
f
within the gating system depends on its geometry and surface finish, and
ranges between 0.6-0.9.
During actual filling, the metallostatic pressure head gradually decreases after the
molten metal starts rising above the level of choke. Thus the average value of actual
choke velocity is less than the one used above, leading to slower filling. This can be
compensatedby estimatingthe actual fillingtime and then correctingthe choke area.
The cross-sectional area of sprue exit, runners and ingates, is initially determined
based on the choke area, gating ratio and the number of individual elements. Then
the sectional area of individual elements, as well as their shape and dimensions are
determinedas follows:
Sprue: It usually has a circular cross-section, which minimizes turbulence and heat
loss. The cross-sectional area at the sprue exit or bottom is calculated from the
choke area and
gating ratio. The area of the sprue top should be calculated using
mass and energy balance equations, to prevent flow separation in
the sprue.
Essentially, A
1
H
1
= A
2
H
2
Where, H
1
and H
2
are the metallostatic pressure head at the top and
bottom of the sprue, respectively; A
1
and A
2
being the respective
cross-sectional areas. The ideal sprue must be larger at the top and
smaller at the bottom. Since this leads to an undercut, such a sprue
can not be created by the pattern during moulding operations, and
must be formed by a core. If this is not economical, then the choke
can be created in the beginning of runner.
Sprue well: It arrests the free fall of molten metal through the sprue and turns it by a right angle
towards the runner. It must be designed to minimize turbulence and air aspiration. The
recommended shape of a sprue well is cylindrical, with diameter twice that of sprue exit and depth
twice that of runner. A fillet between the well and runner will facilitate smooth transfer of molten
metal.
Runner: The main function of the runner is to slowdown the molten metal, which speeds up during
its free fall through the sprue, andtake it to all the ingates. This implies that the total cross-sectional
area of runner(s) must be greater than the sprue exit. In general, a ratio of 1:2 is recommended. A
much higher ratio (such as 1:4) may lead to flowseparation in the runner. The second implication is
that the runner must fill completely before letting the molten metal enter the ingates. Finally, in
casting where more than one ingate is present, the runner cross-section area must be reduced
after eachingate connection(by anamount equal to the area of that ingate), to ensure uniformflow.
Ingate: The ingate leads the molten metal fromthe gating systemto the mould cavity. A number of
conflictingrequirements apply to the designof ingates, as listedbelow.
1. Ingate section must be designed to reduce the metal velocity belowthe critical limit. This implies
that in general, the ingate area must be more thanthe sprue exit (choke).
2. Ingate must be easy to fettle. This implies a smaller cross-section, preferably a flat section
(against a square one), is preferred.
3. Ingate must not lead to a local hot spot. This implies that the ingate modulus (ratio of volume to
coolingsurface area) must be smaller thanthat of the connectedsection.
4. Flow of molten metal through an ingate (and therefore its cross-sectional area) must be
proportional to the volume of the connectedcastingregion.
The number, shape (aspect ratio) and dimensions of ingates must be carefully designed to optimize
the above requirements.