Products from calcium carbonate

For your exam, you need to know how calcium hydroxide is obtained from calcium
carbonate.
Making calcium oxide
If calcium carbonate is heated strongly, it breaks down to form calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide. Calcium oxide is yellow when hot, but white when cold.
Here are the equations for this reaction:
calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
CaCO
3
CaO + CO
2

This is a thermal decomposition reaction.
Making calcium hydroxide
Calcium oxide reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide, which is an alkali. Here are the
equations for this reaction:
calcium oxide + water calcium hydroxide
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
A lot of heat is produced in the reaction, which may even cause the water to boil.
Uses of limestone
Limestone is a type of rock, mainly composed of calcium carbonate. Limestone is quarried
(dug out of the ground) and used as a building material. It is also used in the manufacture
of cement, mortar and concrete.
Reactions with acids
Carbonates react with acids to produce carbon dioxide, a salt and water. For example:
calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid carbon dioxide + calcium chloride +
water
CaCO
3
+ 2HCl CO
2
+ CaCl
2
+ H
2
O
Since limestone is mostly calcium carbonate, it is damaged by acid rain. Sodium carbonate,
magnesium carbonate, zinc carbonate and copper carbonate also react with acids: they fizz
when in contact with acids, and the carbon dioxide released can be detected using
limewater.
The main advantages and disadvantages of the limestone industry
Advantages Disadvantages
Limestone is a valuable natural resource, used to make things
such as glass and concrete.
Limestone quarries are visible from long distances and may
permanently disfigure the local environment.
Limestone quarrying provides employment opportunities that
support the local economy in towns around the quarry.
Quarrying is a heavy industry that creates noise and heavy
traffic, which damages people's quality of life.
Reactivity and extraction method
Metals (in decreasing order of reactivity) Method of extraction
potassium
sodium
calcium
magnesium
aluminium
extract by electrolysis
carbon
zinc
iron
tin
lead
extract by reaction with carbon or carbon monoxide
hydrogen
copper
silver
gold
platinum
extracted in various ways
The method of extraction of a metal from its ore depends on the metal's position
in the reactivity series.
Gold, because it is so unreactive, is found as the native metal and not as a compound. It
does not need to be chemically extracted from its ore, but chemical reactions may be
needed to remove other elements that might contaminate the metal.
Pure copper, gold, iron and aluminium are too soft for many uses. They are mixed with
other similar metals to make them harder for everyday use. For example:
brass, used in electrical fittings, is 70 percent copper and 30 percent zinc
18 carat gold, used in jewellery, is 75 percent gold and 25 percent copper and other
metals
duralumin, used in aircraft manufacture, is 96 percent aluminium and 4 percent
copper and other metals.
Steel
Carbon is removed from molten iron by blowing oxygen into it. The oxygen reacts
with the carbon, producing carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, which escape from
the molten metal. Enough oxygen is used to achieve steel with the desired carbon
content. Other metals are often added, such as vanadium and chromium, to produce
alloys with properties suited to specific uses.
Distillation process to separate ethanol from water

Step 3 - the water left evaporates, cools, then condenses
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The mixture is heated in a flask. Ethanol has a lower boiling point than water so it
evaporates first. The ethanol vapour is then cooled and condensed inside the condenser to
form a pure liquid.
The thermometer shows the boiling point of the pure ethanol liquid. When all the ethanol
has evaporated from the solution, the temperature rises and the water evaporates.
This is the sequence of events in distillation:
heating evaporating cooling condensing
As you go up the fractionating column, the hydrocarbons have:
lower boiling points
lower viscosity (they flow more easily)
higher flammability (they ignite more easily).
This means that in general hydrocarbons with small molecules make better fuels than
hydrocarbons with large molecules.
Testing for unsaturation
Bromine water is a dilute solution of bromine, normally orange-brown in colour. It becomes
colourless when shaken with an alkene, but its colour remains the same when it is shaken
with alkanes.
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The bromine water test is a test for unsaturation.
Examples of polymers and their uses
Polymer Typical use
polythene plastic bags and bottles
Polymer Typical use
polypropene crates and ropes
polychloroethene water pipes and insulation on electricity cables

Polymers have properties that depend on the chemicals they are made from, and the
conditions in which they are made. For example, there are two main types of poly(ethene):
LDPE, low-density poly(ethene), is weaker than HDPE, high-density poly(ethene),
and becomes softer at lower temperatures.
Modern polymers have many uses, including:
new packaging materials
waterproof coatings for fabrics (such as for outdoor clothing)
fillings for teeth
dressings for cuts
hydrogels (for example for soft contact lenses and disposable nappy liners)
smart materials (for example shape memory polymers for shrink-wrap
Making ethanol from ethene and steam
Ethanol can be made by reacting ethene (from cracking crude oil fractions) with
steam. A catalyst of phosphoric acid is used to ensure a fast reaction.
ethene + steam ethanol
C
2
H
4
+ H
2
O C
2
H
5
OH
Notice that ethanol is the only product. The process is continuous as long as
ethene and steam are fed into one end of the reaction vessel, ethanol will be
produced. These features make it an efficient process, but there is a problem. Ethene
is made from crude oil, which is a non-renewable resource. It cannot be replaced
once it is used up and it will run out one day.
Fermentation
Sugar from plant material is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide by
fermentation. The enzymes found in single-celled fungi (yeast) are the natural
catalysts that can make this process happen.
C
6
6H
12
O
6
2C
2
H
5
OH + 2CO
2

Unlike ethene, sugar from plant material is a renewable resource.
Emulsifiers- Higher tier
Emulsifier molecules have two different ends:
a hydrophilic end - 'water-loving' - that forms chemical bonds with water but not with
oils
a hydrophobic end - 'water-hating' - that forms chemical bonds with oils but not with
water.
Lecithin is an emulsifier commonly used in foods. It is obtained from oil seeds and is a
mixture of different substances. A molecular model of one of these substances is seen in the
diagram.

Emulsifier molecules
The hydrophilic 'head' dissolves in the water and the hydrophobic 'tail' dissolves in the oil.
In this way, the water and oil droplets become unable to separate out.
Double bonds and hydrogenation
Bromine water test
Unsaturated vegetable oils contain double carbon-carbon bonds. These can be detected
using bromine water (just as alkenes can be detected). Bromine water becomes colourless
when shaken with an unsaturated vegetable oil, but it stays orange-brown when shaken
with a saturated vegetable fat.
Bromine water can also be used to determine the amount of unsaturation of a vegetable oil.
The more unsaturated a vegetable oil is, the more bromine water it can decolourise.
Hydrogenation- Higher tier
Saturated vegetable fats are solid at room temperature, and have a higher melting point
than unsaturated oils. This makes them suitable for making margarine, or for commercial
use in the making of cakes and pastry. Unsaturated vegetable oils can be hardened by
reacting them with hydrogen, a reaction called hydrogenation.
During hydrogenation, vegetable oils are reacted with hydrogen gas at about 60C. A nickel
catalyst is used to speed up the reaction. The double bonds are converted to single bonds in
the reaction. In this way unsaturated fats can be made into saturated fats they are
hardened.

The structure of part of a fatty acid
Now try a Test Bite.
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Activity
Examples of sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rocks contain rounded grains in layers. Examples of sedimentary rock are:

Sedimentary rocks like sandstone have layers
chalk
limestone
sandstone
shale.
The oldest layers are at the bottom and the youngest layers are at the top. Sedimentary
rocks may contain fossils of animals and plants trapped in the sediments as the rock was
formed. Sedimentary rocks are often quite soft and are susceptible to erosion.
Examples of sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rocks contain rounded grains in layers. Examples of sedimentary rock are:

Sedimentary rocks like sandstone have layers
chalk
limestone
sandstone
shale.
The oldest layers are at the bottom and the youngest layers are at the top. Sedimentary
rocks may contain fossils of animals and plants trapped in the sediments as the rock was
formed. Sedimentary rocks are often quite soft and are susceptible to erosion.
Examples of sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rocks contain rounded grains in layers. Examples of sedimentary rock are:

Sedimentary rocks like sandstone have layers
chalk
limestone
sandstone
shale.
The oldest layers are at the bottom and the youngest layers are at the top. Sedimentary
rocks may contain fossils of animals and plants trapped in the sediments as the rock was
formed. Sedimentary rocks are often quite soft and are susceptible to erosion.
Examples of sedimentary rock
Sedimentary rocks contain rounded grains in layers. Examples of sedimentary rock are:

Sedimentary rocks like sandstone have layers
chalk
limestone
sandstone
shale.
The oldest layers are at the bottom and the youngest layers are at the top. Sedimentary
rocks may contain fossils of animals and plants trapped in the sediments as the rock was
formed. Sedimentary rocks are often quite soft and are susceptible to erosion.
Formation of metamorphic rock

Slate quarry, Cullipool
Metamorphic rock has been subjected to tremendous heat and / or pressure, which caused
it to change into another type of rock. It is usually resistant to weathering and erosion and
is therefore very hard wearing.
Examples of metamorphic rock
Examples include marble - which originates from chalk or limestone, slate - which originates
from clay, and schists formed from sandstone or shale (sedimentary rocks).
Advantages and disadvantages of various building materials
Limestone, cement and mortar slowly react with carbon dioxide dissolved in rainwater, and
wear away. This damages walls made from limestone, and it leaves gaps between bricks in
buildings. These gaps must be filled in or "pointed". Pollution from burning fossil fuels
makes the rain more acidic than it should be, and this rain makes these problems worse.
Concrete is easily formed into different shapes before it sets hard. It is strong when
squashed, but weak when bent or stretched. However, concrete can be made much stronger
by reinforcing it with steel. Some people think that concrete buildings and bridges are
unattractive.
Glass is usually brittle and easily shattered, but toughened glass can be used for windows.
While glass is transparent and so lets light into a building, the use of too much glass can
make buildings very hot in the summer.
Uses of calcium oxide
Limestone can be broken down using heat to produce calcium oxide, which has lots of uses.
Add water and a vigorous exothermic reaction takes place. This forms calcium
hydroxide.
Calcium hydroxide is soluble in water and forms a solution known as limewater which is
used to test for carbon dioxide.
Calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide and calcium carbonate can be used to neutralise soil
acidity.
Calcium carbonate can be used to remove acidic gases from coal-fired power station
chimneys reducing harmful emissions and acid rain.
The main advantages and disadvantages of the limestone industry
Advantages Disadvantages
Limestone is a valuable natural resource, used to make things
such as glass and concrete.
Limestone quarries are visible from long distances and may
permanently disfigure the local environment.
Limestone quarrying provides employment opportunities that
support the local economy in towns around the quarry.
Quarrying is a heavy industry that creates noise and heavy
traffic, which damages people's quality of life.
Some common transition metals and the colours of their precipitates.
transition metal colour of precipitate
iron(II) green - turns orange-brown when left standing
iron(III) orange-brown
copper pale blue
zinc white
Example of a precipitation reaction
How could you tell if an unknown substance contained iron(II) nitrate or iron(III) nitrate?
You would add a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution. If you got a dark green precipitate
it would show that the unknown substance was iron(II) nitrate; if you got an orange-brown
precipitate it would show that the unknown substance was iron(III) nitrate.
Note that it is the metal that determines the colour, so you would get the same result
whether you used zinc chloride or zinc nitrate - a white precipitate in this example.
What are acids?

Corrosive

Irritant
All acids:
have a low pH (1-6) the lower the number the stronger the acid
react with bases to form neutral compounds
are corrosive when they are strong
are an irritant when they are weak.
Metal hydroxides
Metal hydroxides, such as sodium hydroxide, usually dissolve in water to form clear,
colourless solutions. When an acid reacts with a metal hydroxide, the only products formed
are a salt plus water. Here is the general word equation for the reaction:
acid + metal hydroxide a salt + water
You usually observe these things during the reaction:
there is a temperature rise
the pH of the reaction mixture changes
Metal carbonates
Although sodium carbonate can dissolve in water, most metal carbonates are not
soluble. Calcium carbonate (chalk, limestone and marble) is like this. When an acid
reacts with a metal carbonate, the products formed are a salt plus water, but carbon
dioxide is also formed. Here is the general word equation for the reaction:
acid + metal carbonate a salt + water + carbon dioxide
You usually observe bubbles of gas being given off during the reaction. You can show
that the gas is carbon dioxide by bubbling it through limewater: this turns cloudy
white when it reacts with carbon dioxide.
How salts are named
metal involved acid salt
sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to make sodium chloride
potassium hydroxide reacts with sulfuric acid to make potassium sulfate
copper oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to make copper chloride
metal involved acid salt
zinc oxide reacts with sulfuric acid to make zinc sulfate
calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid to make calcium chloride
sodium carbonate reacts with sulfuric acid to make sodium sulfate
Here are the word equations and balanced formulae equations for the reactions
The process of electrolysis
Here is what happens during electrolysis:
Positively charged ions move to the negative electrode during electrolysis. They receive
electrons and are reduced.
Negatively charged ions move to the positive electrode during electrolysis. They lose
electrons and are oxidised.
Many substances are commonly electrolysed, but here are two examples:
Hydrochloric acid
Produces chlorine at the positive electrode
Produces hydrogen at the negative electrode
If the gas produces a squeaky pop from a lighted splint, it is hydrogen
If the gas turns blue litmus paper red then white (bleached) it is chlorine.
Water
Produces oxygen at the positive electrode
Produces hydrogen at the negative electrode
If the gas relights a glowing splint, it is oxygen.
Important uses of products in the chemical industry
Product Test Uses Problems
chlorine damp blue litmus paper turns red (as chlorine is
acidic) then white (chlorine is a bleach)
manufacture of bleach and PVC
(polyvinylchloride) Water treatment
toxic gas
hydrogen lighted splint gives a squeaky pop many uses including as a fuel flammable
sodium
hydroxide
turns red litmus blue cleaning products corrosive
Aluminium does not rust (corrode) because its surface is protected by a natural layer of
aluminium oxide which prevents the metal below from coming into contact with air and
oxygen. Unlike rust, which can flake off the surface of iron and steel objects, the layer of
aluminium oxide does not flake off.
More reactive elements are more likely to oxidise.
Factors influencing the choice of a fuel
The fossil fuels include coal, oil and natural gas. Various factors need to be considered when
deciding how to use a fossil fuel. These include:
the energy value of the fuel in J/g of fuel
the availability of the fuel
how the fuel can be stored
the cost of the fuel
the toxicity of the fuel - whether it is poisonous
any pollution caused when the fuel is used, such as acid rain
how easy it is to use the fuel

Factories can cause air pollution
In general, solids such as coal are easier to store than liquids and gases.
Effects of acid rain
Acid rain reacts with metals and rocks such as limestone. Buildings and statues are
damaged as a result. Acid rain damages the waxy layer on the leaves of trees and makes it
more difficult for trees to absorb the minerals they need for healthy growth. They may die
as a result. Acid rain also makes rivers and lakes too acidic for some aquatic life to survive.
Reducing acid rain
Sulfur dioxide can be removed from waste gases after combustion of the fuel. This happens
in power stations. The sulfur dioxide is treated with powdered limestone to form calcium
sulfate. This can be used to make plasterboard for lining interior walls, so turning a harmful
product into a useful one.

The process of removing sulfur dioxide
Sulfur can be removed from fuels at the oil refinery. This makes the fuel more expensive to
produce, but it prevents sulfur dioxide being produced. You may have noticed 'low sulfur'
petrol and diesel on sale at filling stations.
Greenhouse effect

1. The Suns rays enter the Earths atmosphere
2. Heat is reflected back from the Earths surface
3. Heat is absorbed by greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, and as a result
becomes trapped in the Earths atmosphere.
4. The Earth becomes hotter as a result
Biofuels
Biofuels come from the products of living organisms, such as methane biogas from
decaying manure and sewage. Vegetable oils are also used as fuels for vehicles. Some of
this biodiesel is made from waste cooking oil and rapeseed oil.
Advantages of using biofuels
Biofuels are carbon neutral, which means that they release only as much carbon dioxide
when they burn as was used to make the original oil by photosynthesis.
This helps to reduce global warming.
However, some people are concerned about whether it is ethical to use food crops in this
way, instead of using them to feed hungry people

Making hydrogen
At the moment, most hydrogen is made by reacting steam with coal or natural gas,
which are non-renewable resources.
Hydrogen can also be made by passing electricity through water. Unfortunately, most
electricity is generated using coal and other fossil fuels: any pollution from burning these
fuels just happens at the power station instead of at the vehicle itself.
CRACKING
Cracking allows large hydrocarbon molecules to be broken down into smaller, more
useful hydrocarbon molecules. Fractions containing large hydrocarbon molecules are
vaporised and passed over a hot catalyst. This breaks chemical bonds in the molecules,
and forms smaller hydrocarbon molecules.
Cracking is an example of a thermal decomposition reaction.
Some of the smaller molecules formed by cracking are used as fuels, and some of them
are used to make polymers in plastics manufacture.
Alkenes can act as monomers because they have a double bond:
Ethene can polymerise to form poly(ethene), which is also called polythene.
Propene can polymerise to form poly(propene), which is also called polypropylene.
Different polymers have different properties, so they have different uses. The table below
gives some examples.
Examples of polymers and their uses
polymer use
polyethene plastic bags and bottles
polypropene crates and ropes
polychloroethene water pipes and insulation on electricity cables
Polymer problems
One of the useful properties of polymers is that they are unreactive, so they are suitable
for storing food and chemicals safely. Unfortunately, this property makes it difficult to
dispose of polymers.
Complete combustion
Complete combustion needs a plentiful supply of air so that the elements in the fuel react
fully with oxygen.
Fuels such as natural gas and petrol contain hydrocarbons. These are compounds of
hydrogen and carbon only. When they burn completely:
the carbon oxidises to carbon dioxide
the hydrogen oxidises to water (remember that water, H
2
O, is an oxide of hydrogen).
In general, for complete combustion:
hydrocarbon + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Here are the equations for the complete combustion of propane, used in bottled gas:
propane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
Incomplete combustion
Incomplete combustion occurs when the supply of air or oxygen is poor. Water is still
produced, but carbon monoxide and carbon are produced instead of carbon dioxide.
In general for incomplete combustion:
hydrocarbon + oxygen carbon monoxide + carbon + water
The carbon is released as soot. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas, which is one reason
why complete combustion is preferred to incomplete combustion. Gas fires and boilers must
be serviced regularly to ensure they do not produce carbon monoxide.
The Bunsen burner
The Bunsen burner is commonly used in school laboratories to heat chemicals. Its fuel is
natural gas, which is almost pure methane, CH4. Methane is a hydrocarbon. So the Bunsen
burner has an air hole that allows complete or incomplete combustion.
Air hole open
When the air hole is open, air is drawn into the chimney, where it mixes with the natural
gas. This ensures complete combustion:
methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
A very hot, blue flame is produced.

The hottest part of the flame is at the tip of the dark blue cone
Air hole closed
When the air hole is closed the natural gas can only mix with air at the mouth of the
chimney. Incomplete combustion occurs as a result:
methane + oxygen carbon monoxide + carbon + water

The yellow flame is often called the safety flame
A yellow flame is produced, which transfers less heat energy than the blue flame. The
yellow flame is brighter than the blue flame because the specks of carbon glow when
heated.
Formulas of the possible combustion products from hydrocarbon fuels
name formula formed in complete combustion formed in incomplete combustion
carbon dioxide CO2 yes
carbon monoxide CO yes
soot C yes
water H2O yes yes
Some of the common air pollutants and how they are formed
pollutant how it is formed
carbon monoxide incomplete combustion of the fuel in car engines
oxides of nitrogen, NOx formed from the heat and pressures found in a car engine
sulfur dioxide sulfur impurities in the fuel burn
Water vapour went down because:
as the Earth cooled down, most of the water vapour condensed and formed the oceans.
Carbon dioxide went down because:
it was absorbed by plants during photosynthesis
it was locked up in fossil fuels
it dissolved in the oceans.
Nitrogen went up because:
it is not very reactive and, once formed, it is not easily removed from the atmosphere
again.
Oxygen went up because:
it was released by plants during photosynthesis
Waterproof clothing
Nylon has some desirable properties. It does not let ultraviolet light pass through it, and it
is:
tough
lightweight
waterproof.
Unfortunately, nylon does not let water vapour pass through it either. This means nylon
waterproof clothing traps sweat, so that after a while the inside of the clothing becomes wet
and unpleasant to wear.
Gore-Tex
Gore-Tex has the desirable properties of nylon, but is also 'breathable'. It lets water vapour
from sweat pass to the outside, but it stops rain drops from passing to the inside. Clothing
made of Gore-Tex is very useful to hikers and other people who work or play outside.
The construction of Gore-Tex- Higher tier
Teflon is the trade name for a polymer called polytetrafluoroethene, or PTFE. It is very
slippery, so is used to make non-stick coatings for pans. It is also used in Gore-Tex.
Types of food additives
type of additive reason for adding it
antioxidants stop food from reacting with oxygen
colourings improve the colour of food
flavour enhancers improve the flavour of food
emulsifiers help oil and water mix, and not separate out
Additives with an E number have been licensed by the European Union. Some are natural,
some artificial, but they have all been safety tested and passed for use.
Baking powder
Baking powder is used for baking cakes. It contains sodium hydrogencarbonate, which
breaks down when heated to form carbon dioxide gas. The carbon dioxide helps to make the
cake mixture rise, so that it is light and fluffy.
Here are the equations for the reaction:
sodium hydrogencarbonate sodium carbonate + carbon dioxide + water
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Summary of the properties of perfume
property why the property is important
non-toxic does not poison the wearer
does not irritate the skin prevents the wearer from suffering rashes
evaporates easily - very volatile perfume molecules reach the nose easily
property why the property is important
insoluble in water it is not washed off easily
does not react with water avoids the perfume reacting with perspiration
Volatility - Higher tier
Volatile liquids evaporate easily. They readily change from a liquid to a gas. This is because
there are only weak attractive forces between particles in the substance. These forces are
overcome easily, so particles with enough energy can escape from the liquid.
Esters
Esters are chemicals with pleasant smells. They are used in perfumes, and as solvents.
Making esters
Esters occur naturally, but can be made in the laboratory by reacting an alcohol with an
organic acid. A little sulfuric acid is needed as a catalyst. This is the general word equation
for the reaction:
alcohol + organic acid ester + water
For example:
methanol + butanoic acid methyl butanoate + water
The diagram shows how this happens, and where the water comes from:

Making esters
What esters smell like
Different esters have different smells.
alcohol organic acid ester made smell of ester
pentanol ethanoic acid pentyl ethanoate pears
octanol ethanoic acid octyl ethanoate bananas
pentanol butanoic acid pentyl butanoate strawberries
methanol butanoic acid methyl butanoate pineapples
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Paints
Paints are used to decorate surfaces or protect them from damage. A pigment is a coloured
substance used in paint.
Paints contain these ingredients:
a pigment - gives the paint its colour
a binding medium - a liquid polymer that hardens to form a continuous layer when the
paint dries
a solvent - dissolves the binding medium and makes the paint more fluid.
Rocks
The materials used in the construction industry include:
aluminium and iron - metals obtained from ores
brick - made from clay
glass - made from sand
cement and concrete - made using limestone
granite, limestone and marble - rocks mined or quarried from the ground.
Granite is much harder than marble, which is much harder than limestone.
A summary of three common alloys, the metals they contain, and their typical
uses
alloy main metal(s) in alloy typical use
amalgam mercury dental fillings
brass copper and zinc musical instruments, coins, door knockers
solder lead and tin joining electrical wires and components
Iron versus aluminium
Iron and aluminium are used to build cars. They are both malleable - they can be bent or
pressed into shape. The table summarises some differences in their properties.
A summary of the differences between iron and aluminium
property iron aluminium
density high low
magnetic? yes no
corrodes easily? yes no
The main materials used in the manufacture of cars
material typical use reason for use
steel body panels and chassis strong and malleable
copper electrical wiring good conductor of electricity
aluminium body panels and interior fittings lightweight and rust-proof
glass windows transparent
plastics body panels, lights and dashboard tough and easily moulded to desired shape
fibres seats and carpets good heat insulators, and can be woven into fabrics
The Haber process
The raw materials for this process are hydrogen and nitrogen:
hydrogen is obtained by reacting natural gas with steam, or from cracking oil fractions
nitrogen is obtained from the air.
Air is 78 per cent nitrogen and nearly all the rest is oxygen. When hydrogen is burned in air,
the oxygen combines with the hydrogen, leaving nitrogen behind.
In the Haber process, nitrogen and hydrogen react together under these conditions:
a high temperature - about 450C
a high pressure
an iron catalyst.
In addition, any unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are recycled.
The reaction is reversible. In a chemical equation, the symbol is used instead of an
ordinary arrow if the reaction is reversion:
nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
The flow chart shows the main stages in the Haber process.

The Haber process for making ammonia
Manufacturing costs
Different factors affect the cost of making a new substance.
Factors that increase cost include:
high pressures (they increase the cost of the equipment)
high temperatures (they increase the energy costs).
Factors that decrease
catalysts (they increase the rate of reaction)
recycling unreacted starting materials
automating equipment (because fewer people need to be employed, cutting the wage
bill).
The pH scale
pH example substance
strong acidic 0 battery acid
1 stomach acid
2 lemon juice
3 vinegar
4 acid rain
5 black coffee
6 saliva
neutral 7 pure water
8 sea water
9 baking powder
10 milk of magnesia
11 ammonia
12 soapy water
13 bleach
strongly alkaline 14 drain cleaner
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5. Examples of fertilisers, their formula and the essential elements
fertiliser formula essential elements
ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 nitrogen
ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 nitrogen
ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4 nitrogen and phosphorus
potassium nitrate KNO3 potassium and nitrogen
urea (NH2)2CO nitrogen
Making a fertiliser in the lab
The preparation of a fertiliser in a lab involves the following equipment:
a measuring cylinder to measure a particular volume of an alkali solution
a burette to add acid a little at a time until the alkali has been neutralised
a filter funnel to remove solid crystals of fertiliser after evaporating some of the water
from the neutral fertiliser solution.
Eutrophication
A major problem with the use of fertilisers occurs when they are washed off the land
by rainwater into rivers and lakes. The increase of nitrate or phosphate in the water
encourages the growth of algae. The algae form a bloom over the water surface. This
prevents sunlight reaching other water plants, which then die. Bacteria break down
the dead plants and as they respire these bacteria use up the oxygen in the water
causing most other living organisms to die.

Nitrates or phosphates from fertilisers can cause eutrophication in water
Preparation of a fertiliser
Synthetic fertilisers are prepared in the lab by the reaction of an acid with an alkali.
A quantity of alkali is placed in a beaker and a solution of acid is run in until the
solution is neutral. This can be measured with a pH meter or by removing samples
for testing with universal indicator.
The neutral solution of salt is evaporated until crystals form. These are filtered out,
washed and dried in a warm oven.
Products from sodium chloride
The products of the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution have important uses in the
chemical industry.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia and margarine (it is used to harden
vegetable oils).
Chlorine
Chlorine is used to:
kill bacteria in drinking water and swimming pool water
make solvents
make plastics such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
make household bleach.
Sodium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide is used to make soap and household bleach.
Bleach
Household bleach, sodium chlorate, is made when sodium hydroxide and chlorine react
together:
sodium hydroxide + chlorine sodium chloride + water + sodium chlorate
2NaOH + Cl2 NaCl + H2O + NaClO
Household bleach is used to clean and disinfect toilets, drains and kitchen surfaces.
Reducing carbon dioxide in the air
One way to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the air is to burn less fossil fuels.
Unfortunately, we depend on the burning of fossil fuels for heating, electricity generation
and transport. If we are to burn less fossil fuels, we will need alternatives for these essential
activities.
Benefits and problems of using fossil fuels for motor vehicles
benefits problems
biofuel renewable
made from plants that absorb carbon dioxide as they
grow
still releases carbon dioxide when burnt
-more land needed to grow sufficient amounts of plants to use for
fuel
electricity do not produce waste gases when used often comes from power stations that burn fossil fuels
short range before needing to be recharged
recharging takes a long time
Use of nanoparticles
Nanoparticles are used in products that are currently available.
sports equipment: nanoparticles are added to materials to make them stronger whilst
often being lighter. They have been used in tennis rackets, golf clubs and shoes
clothing: silver nanoparticles have been added to socks. This stops them from
absorbing the smell of sweaty feet as the nanoparticles have antibacterial properties
healthcare: nanoparticles are used in sunscreens. They offer protection and can be
rubbed in so there are no white marks.
Harmful effects
There are some concerns that nanoparticles may be toxic to people. They may be able to
enter the brain from the bloodstream and cause harm. Some people think more tests should
take place before nanoparticles of a material are used on a wider scale.
Properties and uses of nanoparticles
Nanoparticles have a very large surface area compared with their volume, so they are
often able to react very quickly. This makes them useful as catalysts to speed up reactions.
They can, for example, be used in self-cleaning ovens and windows.
Nanoparticles also have different properties to the same substance in normal-sized pieces.
For example, titanium dioxide is a white solid used in house paint and certain sweet-coated
chocolates. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles are so small that they do not reflect visible light,
so cannot be seen. They are used in sun screens to block harmful ultraviolet light without
appearing white on the skin.
In addition to new cosmetics such as sun screens and deodorants, nanoscience may lead to
the development of:
New catalysts
New coatings
New computers
Stronger and lighter building materials
Sensors that detect individual substances in tiny amounts
Changing concentration or pressure
If the concentration of a dissolved reactant is increased, or the pressure of a reacting gas is
increased:
There are more reactant particles in the same volume
There is a greater chance of the particles colliding
The rate of reaction increases
Changing particle size
If a solid reactant is broken into small pieces or ground into a powder:
Its surface area is increased
More particles are exposed to the other reactant
There is a greater chance of the particles colliding
The rate of reaction increases
Changing the temperature
If the temperature is increased:
The reactant particles move more quickly
More particles have the activation energy or greater
The particles collide more often, and more of the collisions result in a reaction
The rate of reaction increases
Using a catalyst
Catalysts increase the rate of reaction without being used up. They do this by lowering the
activation energy needed. With a catalyst, more collisions result in a reaction, so the rate of
reaction increases. Different reactions need different catalysts.
Catalysts are important in industry because they reduce costs.
Aluminium extraction
Aluminium is the most abundant (found in large quantities) metal on Earth. But it is
expensive, largely because of the amount of electricity used up in the extraction process.
Aluminium ore is called bauxite. The bauxite is purified to yield a white powder -
aluminium oxide - from which aluminium can be extracted.
The extraction is done by electrolysis. But first the aluminium oxide must be melted so that
electricity can pass through it. Aluminium oxide has a very high melting point (over 2000C)
so it would be expensive to melt it. Instead, it is dissolved in moltencryolite - an aluminium
compound with a lower melting point than aluminium oxide. The use of cryolite reduces
some of the energy costs involved in extracting aluminium.

The diagram shows an aluminium oxide electrolysis tank. Both the negative electrode
(cathode) and positive electrode (anode) are made of graphite, a form of carbon.
Aluminium metal forms at the negative electrode and sinks to the bottom of the tank,
where it is tapped off.
Oxygen forms at the positive electrodes. This oxygen reacts with the carbon of the positive
electrodes, forming carbon dioxide, and they gradually burn away. As a result, the positive
electrodes have to be replaced frequently. This adds to the cost of the process.
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Properties of ionic compounds
High melting and boiling points - Ionic bonds are very strong - a lot of energy is
needed to break them. So ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.
Conductive when liquid - Ions are charged particles, but ionic compounds can only
conduct electricity if their ions are free to move. Ionic compounds do not conduct
electricity when they are solid - only when dissolved in water or melted.
Properties of ionic compounds
Ionic compound Properties
Sodium chloride,
NaCl
High melting point: 800C
Non-conductive in its solid state, but when dissolved in water or molten NaCl will conduct electricity.
Magnesium
oxide, MgO
Higher melting point than sodium chloride: around 2,800C. This is because its Mg
2+
and O
2-
ions have a greater
number of charges, so they form stronger ionic bonds than the Na
+
and Cl
-
ions in sodium chloride.
Because magnesium oxide stays solid at such high temperatures, it remains non-conductive. It is used for high-
temperature electrical insulation.
Soluble and insoluble salts
Soluble Insoluble
Soluble Insoluble
All nitrates None
Most sulfates Lead sulfate, barium sulfate and calcium sulfate
Most chlorides, bromides and iodides Silver chloride, silver bromide, silver iodide, lead chloride, lead bromide,
lead iodide
Sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, ammonium
carbonate
Most other carbonates
Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonium
hydroxide
Most other hydroxides
Making an insoluble salt
You can see from the table above that silver chloride is insoluble. To make it, you need a
soluble silver salt and a soluble chloride salt. Silver nitrate and sodium chloride are both
soluble. When mixing their solutions together, the result is insoluble silver chloride and
soluble sodium nitrate.
The silver chloride appears as tiny particles suspended in the reaction mixture: it forms a
precipitate. The precipitate can be filtered, washed with water on the filter paper and then
dried in an oven.
Here are the word and balanced formulae equations for the reaction:
silver nitrate (soluble) + sodium chloride (soluble) silver chloride (insoluble) +
sodium nitrate (soluble)
AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3
Uses of insoluble salts

Barium is used to emphasize organs in x-rays
Barium sulfate is an example of an insoluble salt. It is used with patients in order to help
diagnose problems with the intestine. Like bone and metal, barium sulfate shows up on an
x-ray. A 'barium meal' is given to a patient and they are then x-rayed. The barium sulfate
will show up the shapes of the intestine. Doctors can then tell if there are any problems
such as growths or lumps.
Barium sulfate is toxic but it is safe to use because it is insoluble (does not dissolve). This
prevents it from entering the blood.
Flame tests
Metals change the colour of a flame when they are heated in it. Different metals give
different colours to the flame, so flame tests can be used to identify the presence of a
particular metal in a sample. This is how you would carry out a typical flame test:
1. Dip a clean flame test loop in the sample solution
2. Hold the flame test loop at the edge of a Bunsen burner flame
3. Observe the changed colour of the flame, and decide which metal it indicates
4. Clean the loop in acid and rinse with water, then repeat steps 1 to 3 with a new
sample
Different colours
Some common metals and their flame test colours
Metal Flame test colour
Barium Pale green
Calcium Yellow-red
Copper Green-blue
Lithium Red
Sodium Orange
Potassium Lilac
Example
Flame tests are useful for confirming the results of a precipitate test. For example, an
unknown solution that produced a pale blue precipitate with sodium hydroxide solution, and
a green-blue flame test, must contain a copper compound.
To identify an alkali metal, a flame test must be used instead of a sodium hydroxide
precipitate test. This is because the alkali metals do not form precipitates with sodium
hydroxide.
Testing for halide ions

A test using silver nitrate
The halogens are the elements in group 7 of the periodic table, like chlorine, bromine and
iodine. Their ions are called halide ions.
You can test to see if a solution contains chloride, bromide or iodide ions by using silver
nitrate. If silver nitrate solution is added to a sample of water containing halide ions the
silver halide is precipitated. This is because the silver halides are all insoluble in water.
The results look like this:
Silver chloride is a white precipitate
Silver bromide is a cream precipitate
Silver iodide is a pale yellow precipitate
Fractional distillation of liquid air
You need to be able to explain how nitrogen and oxygen are obtained from the air.
About 78 per cent of the air is nitrogen and 21 per cent is oxygen. These two gases can be
separated by fractional distillation of liquid air.
Liquefying the air

Fractional distillation
Air is filtered to remove dust, and then cooled in stages until it reaches 200C. At this
temperature it is a liquid. We say that the air has been liquefied.
Here's what happens as the air liquefies:
1. Water vapour condenses, and is removed using absorbent filters
2. Carbon dioxide freezes at 79C, and is removed
3. Oxygen liquefies at 183C
4. Nitrogen liquefies at 196C
The liquid nitrogen and oxygen are then separated by fractional distillation.
Properties of the groups:
Alkali metals are reactive, soft metals with low densities
Transition metals are unreactive and many have everyday uses
Halogens are reactive non-metals that form coloured vapours
Noble gases are unreactive non-metals. All gases fall in to this category
Bonding summary

Type of
bond
Ionic Simple covalent Giant covalent Metallic
How the
bond is
formed
Ions formed between a
metal and a non-metal
Shared pair of electrons
between non-metals
Shared pair of electrons
between non-metals
forming a giant structure
Formed between metals.
Has a 'sea' of delocalised
electrons
Example Sodium chloride Bromine, water Diamond Copper
Diagram




Melting and
boiling
points
High Low High Usually high - except
mercury
Solubility Many dissolve Some dissolve Insoluble Insoluble
Conduc-
tivity of
elec- tricity
Conducts as a liquid or in
solution. Does not conduct
as a solid
Do not conduct Most do not conduct except
graphite and buckminster-
fullerene
Conducts as a solid or a
liquid
Why does the reactivity increase down the group? Higher tier
All alkali metals have one electron in the outer shell. In a reaction, this electron is lost and
the alkali metal forms a +1 ion. As you go down group 1, the number of electron shells
increases lithium has two, sodium has three etc. Therefore, the outermost electron gets
further from the nucleus. The attraction from the positive nucleus to the negative electron is
less. This makes it easier to remove the electron and makes the atom more reactive.
Exothermic reactions
These are reactions that transfer energy to the surroundings. The energy is usually
transferred as heat energy, causing the reaction mixture and its surroundings to become
hotter. The temperature increase can be detected using a thermometer. Some examples of
exothermic reactions are:
Burning (combustion)
Neutralisation reactions between acids and alkalis
The reaction between water and calcium oxide
Explosions
Endothermic reactions
These are reactions that take in energy from the surroundings. The energy is usually
transferred as heat energy, causing the reaction mixture and its surroundings to get colder.
The temperature decrease can also be detected using a thermometer. Some examples of
endothermic reactions are:
Electrolysis
The reaction between ethanoic acid and sodium carbonate
Photosynthesis
The reaction between ammonium nitrate and water
The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate in a blast furnace
Factors affecting the rates of reaction
You will be expected to remember the factors that affect the rate of reactions, and to plot or
interpret graphs from rate experiments.
How to increase the rate of a reaction
The rate of a reaction increases if:
The temperature is increased
The concentration of a dissolved reactant is increased
The pressure of a reacting gas is increased
Solid reactants are broken into smaller pieces
A catalyst is used

Rate of reaction and changing conditions
Explaining losses
Few reactions give a 100 per cent yield. The reasons that this happens are:
Incomplete reactions not all reactions completely finish
Losses during the practical
Unwanted by-products being produced
Effect of temperature
The rate of a chemical reaction can be changed by altering the temperature. If the
temperature is increased:
The reactant particles move more quickly
They have more energy
The particles collide more often, and more of the collisions are successful
The rate of reaction increases
Effect of concentration and pressure
The rate of a chemical reaction can be changed by altering the concentration of a reactant
in solution, or the pressure of a gaseous reactant. If the concentration or pressure is
increased:
The reactant particles become more crowded
There is a greater chance of the particles colliding
The rate of reaction increases
Effect of surface area
The rate of a chemical reaction can be raised by increasing the surface area of a solid
reactant. This is done by cutting the substance into small pieces, or by grinding it into a
powder. If the surface area of a reactant is increased:
More particles are exposed to the other reactant
There are more collisions
The rate of reaction increases
Explosions
An explosion is a very fast reaction which releases a large volume of gaseous
products. There is a danger of explosion in factories that handle powdered flammable
substances. These substances include custard powder, flour and powdered sulfur.

Catalyst Reaction catalysed
Iron Making ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen
Platinum Making nitric acid from ammonia
Vanadium(V) oxide Making sulfuric acid
Calorimetry
Measuring heat transfers is called calorimetry. The diagram shows a simple calorimetry
experiment to measure the heat energy released from burning fuel. You should be able to
recognise and label apparatus like this:

Calorimetry
In a typical calorimetry experiment:
1. Cold water is measured into a copper calorimeter - a small metal can
2. The starting temperature of the water is recorded
3. The water is heated using the flame from the burning fuel
4. The final temperature of the water is recorded
The spirit burner containing the fuel is usually weighed before and after the experiment. In
this way, the mass of the fuel burned can be found.
Fair testing
When comparing different fuels, it is important to carry out a fair test. Several variables
should be kept constant, including:
The mass - or volume - of water used
The starting temperature of the water
The temperature increase
The distance of the flame from the calorimeter
More reliable results can be obtained by repeating the experiment many times. The biggest
source of error in calorimetry is usually unwanted heat loss to the surroundings. This can be
reduced by insulating the sides of the calorimeter and adding a lid.
Comparing processes - Higher tier
You should be able to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each type of process,
given relevant information. The table summarises some of the advantages and
disadvantages of continuous and batch processes.

Factor Continuous Batch
Cost of factory equipment High Low
Rate of production High Low
Shut-down times Rare Often
Workforce Few people needed Many people needed
Ease of automation Relatively easy Relatively difficult
Examples of displacement reactions
Halogen Metal halide The most reactive halogen Reaction
Chlorine Sodium bromide Chlorine Chlorine + sodium bromide sodium chloride + bromine
Chlorine Sodium iodide Chlorine Chlorine + sodium iodide sodium chloride + iodine
Bromine Sodium chloride Chlorine No reaction
Bromine Sodium iodide Bromine Bromine + sodium iodide sodium bromide + iodine
Iodine Sodium chloride Chlorine No reaction
Iodine Sodium bromide Bromine No reaction
The compounds of transition metals are often coloured.
Copper compounds are blue
Iron(II) compounds are light green
Iron(III) compounds are orange/brown
Iron is a catalyst in the Haber process
Nickel is a catalyst used in the manufacture of margarine

Superconductors

Maglev trains are held just above the tracks by powerful superconducting electromagnets.
At low temperatures, some metals can become superconductors. They will have little or no
electrical resistance. For example, mercury is a liquid metal. It solidifies at 38.8 C and
becomes a superconductor at 268.8 C.
Superconductors have potential benefits, including:
Power transmission without losses
Super-fast electronic circuits
Powerful electromagnets
Superconducting electromagnets are used in hospital MRI scanners for example.
Drawbacks - Higher tier
At the moment, superconductors only work at very low temperatures. They have to be kept
very cold with liquid nitrogen or liquid helium. A lot of work is going into developing
superconductors that will work at normal temperatures. Until this happens, their uses will be
limited.
Water - Higher tier
Some soluble substances are not removed by the treatment processes. For example, nitrate
fertilisers applied to farmland may be washed into rivers and lakes. Nitrates can be
poisonous, particularly for young people or if they are in high concentrations, so care has to
be taken to limit nitrates getting into water sources.
Distillation of sea water
In principle, distillation can be used to make large volumes of fresh water from sea water.
However, it takes a lot of energy to boil water for this process. This would make the fresh
water produced much more expensive than water from traditional sources. In addition,
there are problems disposing of the salt-rich waste water left over by the process. However,
distillation is used in hot countries such as Saudi Arabia.
The benefits and drawbacks of hard water
You need to be able to evaluate the environmental, social and economic aspects of water hardness.
Hard water has some benefits compared to soft water. For example, the dissolved calcium
compounds in hard water:
can improve the taste of the water
are good for the development and maintenance of bones and teeth
can help to reduce heart disease
But hard water also has some drawbacks compared to soft water. For example:
More soap is needed to produce lather, which increases costs. This happens with temporary or
permanent hardness.
The scum produced is unsightly - spoiling the appearance of baths and shower screens, for
example.
Temporary hardness can reduce the efficiency of kettles and heating systems. This is because
limescale (a solid containing calcium carbonate) is produced when the water is heated. It
coats the heating element in kettles, and the inside of boilers and hot water pipes. This means
more energy is needed to heat the water, again increasing costs. Pipes may become blocked
by limescale - causing the heating system to break down.
Softening hard water
The damaging effect that hard water can have means that it may be beneficial to soften the water.
Methods for softening hard water involve the removal of calcium ions and magnesium ions from the
water.
There are two methods for softening hard water:
adding sodium carbonate to the water
using ion exchange columns
WATER PURIFICATION
The water is then passed into a sedimentation tank. Aluminium sulfate is added to clump tiny
particles together to make larger particles, which settle out more easily. The water is then passed
through a fine filter, such as carbon granules, to remove very small particles.

Water is purified by filtration, sedimentation and the addition of chlorine
Chlorinating the water
Chlorine is added to drinking water to sterilise it. The chlorine kills microbes - including microbes
that cause potentially-fatal diseases such as typhoid, cholera and dysentery.
Testing water purity
The purity of water can be tested by:
measuring its boiling point
evaporating it (to dryness) on an evaporating dish
Pure water boils at 100C, but its boiling point increases as the concentration of dissolved salts
increases.
Pure water will leave no solids behind when it is evaporated, whereas impure water will leave solids
behind on the evaporating dish.
AMMONIA AND HABER PROCESS
Stages of the Haber process

Part of the equipment used in the Haber process
Stage
1
Having obtained the hydrogen and nitrogen gases (from natural gas and the air respectively), they are pumped into
the compressor through pipes.
Stage
2
The gases are pressurised to about 200 atmospheres of pressure inside the compressor.
Stage
3
The pressurised gases are pumped into a tank containing beds of iron catalyst at about 450C. In these conditions,
some of the hydrogen and nitrogen will react to form ammonia.
Stage
4
The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen, together with the ammonia, pass into a cooling tank. The cooling tank
liquefies the ammonia, which can be removed into pressurised storage vessels.
Stage
5
The unreacted hydrogen and nitrogen gases are recycled by being fed back through pipes to pass through the hot
iron catalyst beds again.
Read on if you're taking the higher paper.
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Properties of methanol, ethanol and propanol
The alcohols methanol, ethanol and propanol all have the following properties:
1. They are colourless liquids that dissolve in water to form a neutral solution (pH7).
2. They react with sodium to produce hydrogen and a salt. For example:
ethanol + sodium hydrogen + sodium ethoxide
This reaction is similar but less vigorous to the reaction of water with sodium. This is due to
the similarity in structure between water and the OH group in alcohols.
3. They burn in the air, releasing energy and producing carbon dioxide and water.
Properties of carboxylic acids
Carboxylic acids have the following properties:
1. They dissolve in water to produce acidic solutions (pH less than 7).
2. They react with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide and a salt and water. For example:
calcium carbonate + ethanoic acid calcium ethanoate + water + carbon dioxide
3. They all react with alcohols, in the presence of an acid catalyst, to form esters. For example:
ethanol + ethanoic acid ethyl ethanoate + water
Here are three examples:
Name of alcohol Name of carboxylic acid Name of ester
Ethanol Propanoic acid Ethyl propanoate
Butanol Methanoic acid Butyl methanoate
Pentanol Ethanoic acid Pentyl ethanoate
Some common transition metals and the colours of their precipitates
Transition metal ion Colour of precipitate
Al
3+
white
Ca
2+
white
Cu
2+
blue
Fe
2+
green
Fe
3+
brown
Comparing methods of ethanol production
Fermentation of carbohydrates Reacting ethene with steam
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Renewable (uses available
crops)
Large areas of land needed
Less land
needed
Non-renewable (uses crude oil)
Low amounts of energy needed
Carbon dioxide is produced as a by-
product
No by-products
Higher amounts of energy
needed
Little technology needed Slow process Fast process More technology needed
Ethanol produced by fermentation of carbohydrates also only produces a low concentration of ethanol.
Further processing (known as distillation) is often needed.
Properties of esters
They are soluble (dissolve) in organic solvents.
They are also good solvents.
They range from colourless, volatile liquids to waxy solids.
They have strong odours.
Their solubility in water decreases as their chains become longer (possess more carbon
atoms).
Uses of esters
Some esters are used in perfumes due to their strong, pleasant smell.
Some are used as fruit flavourings in cooking ingredients.
Some are used in cosmetics.
Making ethanol Higher tier
The table below summarises of some of the advantages and disadvantages of making ethanol by
fermentation or by hydration of ethene.
Feature of process Fermentation Hydration of ethene
Conditions used warm, normal pressure high temperature, high pressure
Type of process batch (stop-start) continuous (runs all the time)
Sustainability uses renewable resources (glucose from plants) uses non-renewable resources (ethene from crude oil)
Purification low purity needs fractional distillation high purity no by-products are made
Percentage yield low about 15% high around 100%
Atom economy medium 51% maximum 100%
Which method of making ethanol is the best?
Both have pros and cons although the method using the hydration of ethane can be run continuously,
there are no by-products, and it produces a much higher percentage yield. But, in fact, the vast
majority of the worlds ethanol is made by fermentation.
Alcohols Higher tier
The general formula for alcohols is C
n
H
2n
+
1
OH, where n is the number of carbon atoms. For example,
butanol contains four carbon atoms. Its molecular formula is C
4
H
9
OH.
The table below shows the names, molecular formulae and displayed formulae for alcohols containing
up to five carbon atoms.
Number of C atoms Name of alcohol Molecular formula Displayed formula
1 methanol CH3OH

2 ethanol C2H5OH

3 propanol C3H7OH

4 butanol C4H9OH

5 pentanol C5H11OH

Testing for unsaturation
Orange bromine water can be used to test for unsaturation. When it is added to a sample of the fat
or oil:
the bromine water stays orange with a saturated fat or oil
the bromine water goes colourless with an unsaturated fat or oil
This is similar to the test for alkenes (which are unsaturated).
An addition reaction Higher tier
Bromine Br
2
can also be used to test for unsaturation. An addition reaction happens at the carbon-
carbon double bond, producing a dibromo compound. This is colourless, so the observed change is
that the bromine is decolourised.
The Test for Water Vapour (Steam), H
2
O
(g)
.
1) Water vapour has no colour or smell.
2) Water vapour has no effect on moist litmus paper
or moist universal indicator paper - it is neutral.
3) Water vapour puts out a lit splint.

Specific Tests for Water or Water Vapour.
1) Water or its vapour will turn cobalt chloride paper from
blue to pink.
2) Water or its vapour turns
anhydrous copper(II) sulfate crystals from white to blue.
3) Water melts at 0C and boils at 100 C.