Guideline for Exam 1 BSC1005 ONLINE Dr.

Ayala
Chapter 1:
Levels of biological organization (hierarchy)
Atom>Molecule>Cell>Tissue>Organ>Organ
System>Organism>Population>Community>Ecosystem>Biosphere
Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction
In asexual reproduction, genetic information comes from only one parent,
and all offspring are virtually identical. One-celled organisms such as bacteria
reproduce asexually by doubling and then dividing the contents of the cell. In
asexual reproduction, genetic information comes from only one parent, and
all offspring are virtually identical. One-celled organisms such as bacteria
reproduce asexually by doubling and then dividing the contents of the cell.
Properties of living organisms
Organization>Energy Use>Maintenance of internal
consistency>Reproduction, growth,development>Evolution
Taxonomy
o Kingdoms
Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia
o Scientific name: Escherichia coli Escherichia is genus while coli is species
domain:bacteria kingdom:eubacteria
phylum:proteobacteria
class:gamma proteobacteria
order:enterobacteriales
family:enterobacteriaceae
genus:Escherichia
species:E. coli
Steps of scientific method
domain:bacteria kingdom:eubacteria
phylum:proteobacteria
class:gamma proteobacteria
order:enterobacteriales
family:enterobacteriaceae
genus:escherichia
species:E. coli
Identify independent and dependent variables
Indepentent- What the investigater manipulates to determine whether it
influences the phenomenon of interest
Dependent Variable What the investigator measures to determine whether
the independent variable influenced the phenomenom of interest.
Chapter 2:
Anatomy of atom: protons and neutrons (atomic nucleus); electrons in
orbitals (2 electrons per orbitals).
The number of protons always equals the number of electrons in an atom, and that
number is equal to the atomic number. The weight of an atom is determined by the
number of neutrons and protons that are present in the nucleus. Atomic Mass = #
Protons + # Neutrons The atomic mass of carbon = 12 The atomic # of
carbon = 6 = the # of protons # neutrons = Atomic Mass - # protons #
neutrons =12 - 6 = 6
Isotopes
An isotope is any of these different forms of a single element
distinguished by the difference in the # of neutrons. For example,
carbon has three isotopes, designated
12
C (six neutrons),
13
C (seven
neutrons), and
14
C (eight neutrons). The superscript in each
isotope's symbol denotes the mass number.
Ions
An atom or group of atoms that has lost or gained electrons, giving it an electric
charge
Chemical bonds:
o Covalent bond type of chemical bond in which two atoms share
electrons
polar vs. non polar- a covalent bond in which atoms share electrons equally.
Polar a covalent bond in which electrons are attracted more to one atoms
nucleus than to the other.
o Ionic bond- attraction between oppositely charged ions.

o Hydrogen bonds weak chemical bond between opposite partial charges on two
molecules or within one large molecule
Water
o Hydrophobic (non-polar) do not dissolve in water vs. hydrophilic
(polar)-readily dissolve in water o Acids and Bases pH scale- The pH scale
ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 representing a neutral solution such as pure
water (figure 2.16). An acidic solution has a pH lower than 7, whereas an
alkaline, or basic, solution has a pH greater than 7. Note that it is a reverse
scale, in that the higher the H
+
concentration of a solution, the lower its pH.
Thus, 0 represents a strongly acidic solution and 14 represents an extremely
basic one (low H
+
concentration).
o Buffers The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 representing a neutral
solution such as pure water (figure 2.16). An acidic solution has a pH lower
than 7, whereas an alkaline, or basic, solution has a pH greater than 7. Note
that it is a reverse scale, in that the higher the H
+
concentration of a
solution, the lower its pH. Thus, 0 represents a strongly acidic solution and
14 represents an extremely basic one (low H
+
concentration).
4 types of macromolecules Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids.
Dehydration (condensation) vs. hydrolysis chemical reactions - The pH scale
ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 representing a neutral solution such as pure
water (figure 2.16). An acidic solution has a pH lower than 7, whereas an
alkaline, or basic, solution has a pH greater than 7. Note that it is a reverse
scale, in that the higher the H
+
concentration of a solution, the lower its pH.
Thus, 0 represents a strongly acidic solution and 14 represents an extremely
basic one (low H
+
concentration). Hydrolysis reactions break covalent bonds
in polymers by adding water, while dehydration synthesis forms covalent
bonds between monomers by rmoving water: thus the reactions are
opposite.
Carbohydrates
o Sugars; know importance of 4 main polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, chitin,
cellulose) Term: monosaccharide: Def: a sugar that is one five or six
carbon unit, Term: monosaccharide:Def: a sugar that is one five or six
carbon unit, Term: monosaccharide:Def: a sugar that is one five or six
carbon unit
Proteins
o Amino acids; peptide bond; structures - A protein is a chain of monomers
called amino acids. Each amino acid has a central carbon atom bonded to
four other atoms or groups of atoms (figure 2.22a). One is a hydrogen atom;
another is a carboxyl group; a third is an amino group, a nitrogen atom
single-bonded to two hydrogen atoms (NH2); and the fourth is a side chain,
or R group, which can be any of 20 chemical groups., The peptide bond,
which forms by dehydration synthesis, is the covalent bond that links each
amino acid to its neighbor (figure 2.22b). Two linked amino acids form a
dipeptide; three form a tripeptide. Chains with fewer than 100 amino acids
are peptides, and finally, those with 100 or more amino acids are
polypeptides. The four levels of protein structure are distinguished
from one another by the degree of complexity in the polypeptide chain.
The four levels of protein structure are distinguished from one another
by the degree of complexity in the polypeptide chain. The four levels of
protein structure are distinguished from one another by the degree of
complexity in the polypeptide chain. The four levels of protein
structure are distinguished from one another by the degree of
complexity in the polypeptide chain. The four levels of protein
structure are distinguished from one another by the degree of
complexity in the polypeptide chain.
Lipids
o Hydrophobic; fats (triglycerides), phospholipids and sterols - Lipids are
organic compounds with one property in common: they do not dissolve in
water. They are hydrophobic because they contain large areas dominated by
nonpolar carboncarbon and carbonhydrogen bonds, A triglyceride
consists of three long hydrocarbon chains called fatty acids bonded to
glycerol, a three-carbon molecule that forms the triglyceride's backbone.
Although triglycerides do not consist of long strings of similar monomers,
cells nevertheless use dehydration synthesis to produce them (figure 2.19).
Each fatty acid has a carboxyl group, a carbon atom double-bonded to one
oxygen and single-bonded to another oxygen carrying a hydrogen atom.,
Term: sterol:Def: lipid consisting of four interconnected carbon rings

Nucleic Acids
o Nucleotides (components) building block of a nucleic acid, consisting
of a phosphate group, a nitrogenous base, and a fivecarbon sugar
o DNA vs. RNA function and structure- DNA contains A, C, G, and T,
whereas RNA contains A, C, G, and U. DNA's main function is to store genetic
information. One function of RNA is to enable cells to use the protein-encoding
information in DNA. In addition, a modified RNA nucleotide, adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
carries the energy that cells use in many biological functions. ATP,


Chapter 3:
Cells - prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic - prokaryote: Def: a cell that lacks a
nucleus and other membranebounded organelles; bacteria and
archaea, eukaryote: Def: organism composed of one or more cells
containing a nucleus and other membranebounded organelles
Cell theory the ideas that all living matter consists of cells, cells are the
structural and functional units of life, and all cells come from preexisting
cells.
Contribution of scientists (Hooke, van Leuwenhoek, Schleiden/Schwann,
Virchow) Hooke discovered cells, van leu improved lenses to see vast more
things, sc2 proposed the cell theory, German physiologist Rudolf Virchow
added a third component to the cell theory in 1855, when he proposed that
all cells come from preexisting cells.
Ribosomes a structure built of RNA and protein where mRNA anchors
during protein synthesis found in ALL cell types
Cell membranes structure and function - found in ALL cell types
Prokaryotic cells (bacteria) a cell that lacks a nucleus and other membrane
bounded organelles; bacteria and archaea
o Know structure and function of ALL bacterial parts - A rigid cell wall
surrounds the cell membrane of most bacteria, protecting the cell and
preventing it from bursting if it absorbs too much water. , Flagella (singular:
flagellum) are tail-like appendages that enable these cells to move. One or
more flagella are anchored in the cell wall and underlying cell membrane.
Eukaryotic cells (animals, plants, etc.) also study cell diagrams - An astonishing
diversity of other organisms, including humans, belong to domain Eukarya. Our
fellow animals are eukaryotes, as are yeasts, mushrooms, and other fungi. Plants are
also eukaryotes, and so are one-celled protists such as Amoeba and Paramecium.
Despite their great differences in external appearance, all eukaryotic organisms
share many features on a cellular level.
Know structure and function of ALL organelles and parts of animal and plant
cells



Differences between plant cells and animal cells
Plant cells have cell walls made of cellulose; animals cells have
a cell membrane, not a cell wall.
The cell walls of plants contain plasmodesmata - microscopic
channels - that traverse the cell walls of the cells; animal cells contain no
plasmodesmata
Plant cells have a big main vacuole in them; animal cells have
many small vacuoles.
Plant cells contain chloroplasts and use photosynthesis to help
produce food; no animal cell ever contains chloroplasts.
Plant cells are rectangular in shape; animal cells are circular,
irregular or defined shapes depending on the type of cell
Animal cells have a centrosome; plant cells do not.
Animal cells have a cytoskeleton but plant cells do not.
Cilia vs. flagella- in eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are similar in their internal
structure. Both structures move but they differ in their length and how they move.
Cilia are short and move in wave like motions. Flagella are much longer and move
with a whiplike motion.
Cytoskeleton - The cytoskeleton is a structural framework with many functions. It
is a transportation system, and it provides the structural support necessary to
maintain the cell's characteristic three-dimensional shape (figure 3.22). It aids in
cell division and helps connect cells to one another. The cytoskeleton also enables
cellsor parts of a cellto move.
Cell communication - How do plant cells communicate with their neighbors through the wall?
Plasmodesmata (singular: plasmodesma) are channels that connect adjacent cells. They are
essentially tunnels in the cell wall, through which the cytoplasm, hormones, and some of the
organelles of one plant cell can interact with those of another (see figure 3.25). Plasmodesmata are
especially plentiful in parts of plants that conduct water or nutrients and in cells that secrete oils and
nectars.
Plasmodesmata enable cell-to-cell communication and coordination of function
within a plant. These tunnels, however, may also play a role in the spread of disease
within a plant; viruses use them as conduits to pass from cell to cell.
o Plasmodesmata in plant cells vs. intracellular junctions in animal cells
plasmodesmata are tunnels that connect adjacent cell walls. These cells illustrate all
three types of animal cell junctions. Tight junctions fuse neighboring cell
membranes, anchoring junctions form spot welds, and gap junctions allow small
molecules to move between adjacent cells.