Atoms and Molecules

Clearly, there are frxed combining capacitie.s that determine the atomic
ratios and limit the variety of possible molecules. It w'as precisely these
ratios that originally gave rise to the atomic theory in the early 19th cen-
tury. The achievement of the 20th century'r'i'as to explain the phenomena
of valcnce and chemical combination through the quantum theory.
2- +. MOLECULES
Nuclei, small and dense, form the skeleton of molecule5-1hg bricks.
The electrons are the mortar holding the bricks toqether, the flesh on the
bones. Li ght wci ghr and di f f use, t he- cl cct r ons det ei mi ne mol ecul ar si ze,
shape, and reactivity. What, at this point, can we guess about the electri-
cal and geometric structure of molecules?
First there is the cuestion ofhow the clectrons are distributed. For
mol ecul es such as H, b,, N, and F, thc answer i s di ctated bv the most
basic considerations of symmetry. Each structure (the singly bonded
halogen F-F, for example) remains the same whether rotated along the
bond axis or flipped left and right. The two nuclei, both of the same
kind, are indistinguishable and therefore incapable of attracting the elec-
trons unequally. Since the elcctron distribution must respect the sym-
metry of the nuclear frameu,ork, the negative charge spreads out evenly
around and between the nuclei. All these diatomic (having two nuclei),
homonuclear (of like kind) molecules are nonpolar as a result, meaning
that there is no skewing of the elcctronic charge to either end. This re-
sult we demand strictly on the basis of svmmetry, requiring no specific
theory of molecular structure for its justification. Go no further than the
arrangement sketched i n Fi gure 2-12(a);nothi ng el se woul d make sense.
Heteronuclear diatomic molecules, containing tw.o unlikc nuclei,
make for a different storv. One of the nuclei alwavs attracts the electrons
more than the other, u.ri ,., proportionatclv more negative charge accu-
mulates on that end. Ionic bonds like thosc alreadv citcd in NaCl are an
extreme case of unequal sharing. Where the bonding is covalcnt, as u.ith
HCl, the difference in electronegativity creates a skewecl bond and a cor-
respondingly polar molecule. The chlorine side gro\{rs richer in elec-
trons than the hydrogen side
,
leaving a partiallv negative Cl and partially
positive H. This separation of charge gives rise to a dipole moment
(Figure 2-12b)
,
and u,e use a lowercase Greek delta to represent the partial
charges:
gD+-916-.
Triatomic molecules bring another element of choice. Consider
water, HrO, where the singly boncled atoms HOH form a bent structure:
H,O.H
F
eilil{il, q
lolot[r't
iulrlnn[tr|
Mm)lr*
lNlllliu,'r;*,.
i(illLllrfliir,E-
mrlllLJqn
l]lDlrlilUr:
2-4. l4olecules 61
t a)
: : l l 11C
: : ra-i e
j-.
. cn-
: 1 f na
^- '
L- c
:' . rhe
: t -
- l l c ,
.
. : r i -
tr
Frc;unr 2
-
1 2. Symmetry ancl structure in diatomic molccules. (a) Homonuclcar
svstcms: Since both nuclei are the samc, no clistinctions exist for points eithcr ro-
tated around thc bond axis or flipped end to end. Electrons are wrapped uniformly
around thc axis, and thc distribution at one end is alvuavs the mirror imagc of the
other. Neither side accumulates more clcctrons. The molcculc is nonpolar. (b)
Heteronuclear systems: With differcnt nuclci, the molecule now' posscsses two
clearly rccognizablc cnds and one of them attracts electrons at the expcnse of its
neighbor. Thc structure has both an electron-rich negative site (6-) and an elec-
tron-poor positive site (6*): a dipole moment, p.
Here each of the O-H bonds i s pol ar (Od--11or; si nce oxygen i s more
clcctronegative than hydrogen, and the bent configuration gives the mol-
cculc a net dipolc momcnt. The two polar bonds contribute jointly to a
combi necl di pol e al ong the HOH bi sector:
-' :rsi der
: ,r. ture :
o/ - 2. Atoms and Molecules
i ! -r
: .
t : "
t:
i i :
L.
v. '
:
:*
!
;
A molecule of O:C:O,
however,
is nonpolar
despite its polar
g6+:9E-
double bonds. The structure
is linear' and the bond dipoles
cancel out as shown below:
,o-:@-o'
One points
to the right, one points
to the left' and their combined
effect
is nil. That does not mea., the electrons are evenly distributedthroYghout
the linear structure,
which remains skewed u' 6ti-:626+:Ob-'
There is
iust no overall dipole moment for the species,
even though different por-
i i on, of the mol e^cul e
di spl ay unequal concentrati ons
o[ charge'
We should wonder'*(y
tutbott dioxide is linear but water is bent'
given
their similarities
in oih", ways. Both are triatomic
molecules,
and
both contain two ,r.tll"i of one type bonded to another nucleus in the
center. Where they differ, certainiy, is in the particular
mechanism
of
bonding (single.r"rrt,
double)' 'o p"thup'
there is some relationship
be-
tween electronic
structure u"d -ol"t"lar geometry'
W" need to un-
cover it.
The simplest explanation
is to attribute
the shape to repulsive forces
suffered
by th" electrons around the central nucleus' an approach
know-n as
rhe valence-shell
electton-pair
repulsion (
/SEPR)
-model
' According
to
this picture,
th" n"guiiu"ty
'tttu'g"d
clcclron pairs
r'rill *'tlTl':',,"l"ctrical
,"prririo.,,
by mouiig aw"i *"^*1"":i other-as
far a*'av as possible'
Thus
for O:C:O,
the two ,Jt' of doubly bonded pairs
on carbon lie farthest
auart when the C:O bonds stand cliametricallv
oPPgt"q to-form
a linear
;;il.;h.
In H:O:H, by contrast, there are four individually
acting pairs
of electrons around ,h"'o"yg"t'
nucleus: tr'vo bonding pairs
and tu'o lonc
pairs.
All lbur pairs
*ou" t'o-uuoid each otheE and they tat-t do so most cf-
fectively by pointing
toward the corners
of a tetrahedron
as shown in
Fi gure 2-13.
VSEPR's first prediction
for \\"ater is almost corrcct'
The H-O-H
bond angle *'o.,ld b" 109.5o in the forecasted
tetraheclral gcometry,
a
p"r"-"rE,
reasonably
close to the exPerimentally
determined
value of
iO+.S". If one urrrrtt't". further that the tlvo lone pairs
interact more
,trongt,'.,'than
the bonding pairs, then VSEPR theory predicts
a comPres-
sion of the H-O-fi
U"""a ancl a smaller,
more satiifactorv
angle' The
presumed
difference between lone-pair
and bonding-pair
repulsions
is
ascribed
to their respective
environments'
Thc bonding electrons'
shared between nuclei' take up less space and consequentlv
are repelled
less than the more diffuse lone pairs'
] r
-
pol ar
. l i pol es
2-1. Molecules 63
FI cut <E 2-13. Agcomet ri cf i gurevvi t hf ourt ri angul arf aces,
t het et t ahedronpl ays
a leacling role in molecular structure. Herc, each of the four electron pairs in HrO
points to onc of the four vcrtice s of a tctrahedron. Hydrogen atoms occuPy two of
thc sites ($,ith bonding pairs represented by solid rods), whereas the two other ver-
ticcs (r,r.ith lone pairs represented by dots) remain vacant. Such an arrangement, if
realized, rvould produce a molecule bent at the characteristic tetrahedral angle of
109.5o some 5o larger than the actual H-O-H bond angle' Differences in the
rcpulsion betr,r.een lone pairs and bonding pairs account partially for the distortion.
These argumcnts, admittedly incomplete, are consistent with the
obserr.ecl shapes, even if questions still remain. Taken in the whole spirit
of Lervis structures and elcctron-pair bonds, the VSEPR model is to be
appreciated as a tentati\re step tow'ard a more elaborate theory, a rough
guidc rvhich gives us a useful predictive caPability right away. That said,
ir'" .u.r use the method cautiously to guess the geometry of other poly-
atomi c mol ecul es as w' el l .
For example: Three pairs of electrons achieve maximum seParation
bv pointing to the vertices of an equilateral triangle. VSEPR therefore
tells us that boron trifluoride, represented by the Lewis structure
:-.ccl effect
--:-'
rughout
There i s
r:-cl l t por-
. : - i s bent ,
. -l 1t-s, and
r' -t: i n the
:' -l ri i sm
of
: r . hi p be-
. , 1 t o un-
.' r' c forces
-.
Jlo\vn as
-
,
rrding to
. . l cct r i cal
.:i.1.' . Thus
-:. f'arthest
::r a l i near
r,:i ng pai rs
.i t\\o lone
. , most ef-
,
rhou,n in
l r - o- H
r
rl l l Ctl )' r d
, I r al uc of
- l ' . ] t t mof e
,: .omPres-
. , : r gi e. The
:' ' .rl si ons
i s
: . l cCt r onS t
:.- rcpel l cd
2. Atoms and Molecules
should be a trigonal planar
pl ane.
and each F-B-F bond
molecule. It is. The four nuclei lie in one
angl e i s 120o:
Th.
t - *
t l f 1 i
- t
_:
a : : -
- : : :
: t _: :
_-
----
--""'
Note also that BF, is an apparent exception to the octet rule, since
the clcctron configuration places only six electrons around the boron.
Such dcviations from the simple Lewis model are hardly surprising, and
r'r'e shall resolve the difficulty evcntually by using molecular quantum
mechanics. Yct er.en in defcat thc concept of an octet has a measure of
truth, for the cleficient structure porr"r,r"t; special properties precisely
because of its "missing" elcctrons. The boron indeed would benefit ener-
getically bv acquiring thosc electrons, and hence BF, proves to be a
strong Lewis acid: a spccies ready to accept a pair of electrons from
some other sourcc.
Ammoni a, a Lewi s base (an el ectron-pai r donor), i s j ust such a
source. With three bonding pairs and one lone pair, the molecule
adopts a trigonal pyramidal geometry:
lL: i]-iiil
H: N: H
IJ
2-1. 14olecules
65
The four
pairs of elcctrons
are 'rientccr
tetrahecrrally just
as in r,r,ater, but
here only three vertices
of thc tetrahetiron
are actuaily occupied
by nu-
clei. The
"1,.:g:"
sits at the center;
"u.t
orit
"
;i;;^/rilJ5"r.,",_,
"
corner; and the lone
pair remains
unsharccr
at thc fourlh";"Jil,
r.ertex
of the tetrahedron.
The three hl.clrogcns
all lie in
"".
pl;;, ,of,p"a Uu u
ni trogcn,beari ng
the nonbonded
ei ectron
pai r and ready to' .,r-bi .r"
rvith an electron-deficient
Lew.is acid.
BF, and NH,, each har.ing rvhat the other lacks, thcn come together
to form the uni ted.o-pn.rnj
FH
l l
F-F-ry-H
l l
FH
in rvhich the nitrogen
sharcs its ronc
pair to
give boron an octet. with
that fourth
clectrrin
pair, morcor".,
,h" b,rrirr", subsequentll,
u.lopt. o
tetrahedral
configuration
just
as VSEpR predicts:
B'ron,and
nitrogcn
each ha'e fbur bon<ring
pairs, antr norv cach ccntral
atom dirccts its four boncls tor,r.arcl thc corners
o{'a tetrahedron.
, .tt-tlur.geometric
arguments
apph,to central atoms u,ith flve and six
crectron
parrs' as i l l ustratcd.scrccti ' el v
i n Fi gure 2-14. Thebasi c
arrangc_
rrent for fir'e elcctron
pairs is a trigonal
bipyramid,in
rvhich one
ycrtex
'rcs above the ccnter of an equilatJ.l
t.iu.rgte
and one \-crrtex ri", u"lo*,.
For si x
pai r s, t he, shapc i s an oct ahedr o. r , . , ' pl . n"
cont ai ni ng f our ' er t i ccs
'ct
in a square, finished
off again bv onc ad,litionar
'ertcx luo.,,l" urra orr"
rr-1o\\-.
( a)
66 2. Atoms and Molecules
TRI GONAL PLANAR
( d)
t:.-.
TRI GONAL BI PYRAI VI DAL OCTAHEDRAL
Ft cuRE 2-14. VSEPR, a summarv: ori ent at i on of el ect rons about a cent ral
atom. In each configuration, thc pairs of electrons arc f'arthest apart and thus suffer
minimal repulsion. Bonding and lonc pairs both play a role, but sites containing lone
pairs arc not occupied bv atoms. (a) Two pairs: linear. (b) Three: trigonal planar. (c)
Four: tctrahedral. (d) Five: trigonal biptramidal. (c) Six: octahedral. To predict tle
molecular skeleton, place one atom at each vertex assigned to a bonding pair.
2- 5. STOI CHI OMETRY
Vierved at the most basic level, a chemical reaction is a microscopic en-
counter among individual atoms and molecules. Some integral number
of particlcs is transformed to some other number of particles, the event
summarized concisclv by a balance d chemical equatlon such as
2H2+ 02
*
2H2O
The process involves whole species, each a separate entity. Here tr.r,o
molecules of hvdrogen and one molecule of oxygen go in; two molecules
of u,'ater come out.
It is only a rearrangement, with particles neither created nor de-
stroyed. Four hvdrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms go in; four hydro-
gen atoms and tw-o oxygen atoms come out. More precisely: Four
hvdrogen nuclei, tu.o oxygen nuclei, and twenty electrons start out as
molccular hvdrogen and oxygen; the same four hydrogen nuclei, two
(c)
TETBAHEDRAL
(b) How many calcium ions coexist with 0.50'15 g of chloride ions?
From the empirical lbrmula u.e determinc first thc molcs of Cl-, then
the moles of Ca'-, and finally the number of calcium ions:
35. 451
q
Cl
x- - . - - - : i .
=r l . 9gcl
1 mol Cl
1 mol Cl -
t 1 n ) I
I MOI L A
X- X
6. 022 x 1023 i ons
0. 5045 g Cl - x
35. 453 g Cl - 2 mol Cl - mol
=
4. 285 x 1021 Ca2+ i ons
In doing so, we ignore thc vcrl' slight differences in mass bet'ivccn ions
and atoms. A fer,r, more electrons, give or take, will have little effcct on
the calculation.
(c) Hon,mdn)i
Brams
of atomic chlorine are contained in 0.732 mol oJ
calcium chloride? Notice by nou'hor,r'all stoichiometry problems are the
samc grams to moles to atoms in all possible combinations:
2 mol Cl
R2.8 Revi ew and Gui de to Probl ems
0. 732 mol CaCl , x
I mol CaCl ,
(d) lVhat is the percentage chlorine by weight? Onc mole of CaCl,
contains one mole of calcium (40.078
B)
and two moles of chlorine
(1O.906 g). Thei r combi ned formul a u.' ei ght i s 1 10.984 g mol -' :
Weight
o/o
Cl
=
70. 906 g Cl
x 100%
=
63. 888%
110. 984 g CaCl ,
Cal ci um' s rvei ght pcrccntage i s 36.112o/o.
ExR,nr,rprn 2-4. L Si mpl e Mol ecul e: El ectrons, Bonds,
and Geometry
Carbon and h-vdrogen fbrm covalent bonds, not ionic. Compounds con-
taining just these two elcments are called hydrocarbons, many of *'hich
rve knou. as common fuels: methane (700h of natural gas), ethane, ethvl-
ene, acetvl ene, propane, butane, pentane, hexane, heptanc, octane, and
so forth. They exist as indcpendent molecules.
PROsr-sru: A col orl ess, odorl ess, hi ghl )' fl ammabl e gas i s fbund to
have a molecular u'eight of 16.04 g mol-' . Analysis shorvs the material to
be a pure hydrocarbon
,75.0o/o
carbon bv weight. (a) What is the empiri-
cal lbrmula? (b) What is the molecular formula? (c) Drarv a reasonable
Lcrvis structurc for thc molecule. (d) Propose a geometric structure.
-
- - : l ons?
I
t . tncln
Sample Problems R2.9
SoLu.rtoN: Thke some arbi trarl ' amount, say 100 grams'
Si nce
cvery 100 grams
vi ,i l l contai n 75.0 grams
of carbon and 25.0 grams
of
hyclrogen, i,'. .un immediately comPute moles of C and moles of H:
l mol C
TJ . Os CX- =6. 24mol C
o
120l 1qC , . . " .
5
25. 0gHx
l mol H
1. 00794 g H
=
24. 8 mol H
r r - 1 1 I O I 1 S
' l l t C t
O I I
: - :tol oJ
r-,- :rc the
j . 1
: CaCl ,
-
- : : l , r r i ne
- - . : : , 1.
con-
: ,r hich
: . r . r : t hvl -
, : . : : . . ' . and
'
.
,,rrl d
to
: - ' : cr i al t o
-.
. n'rpiri-
-r
.,.otl abl e
- _ - : r a.
(a) l4hat is the empiricalformula? The molar ratio suggestt C-u.z+Hzn.s,
o. CH,
,,
oo,hcn reduced to lorvest terms. Exprcssed as intcgers, thc empir-
ical formula is CHn.
(b7 l4lhat is the molecular
-formula?
The formula rveight for CHo is
16.0+, exactly equal to the moiccular rveight prcviouslv given'
The mol-
ecul ar fbrmui a therefore i s CH* (and the gas i s methane)'
(c) Suggest a Lewis structure. First, understand
.ivhat
a Leu'is struc-
ture is anciivhat it is not. A dot tliagram is not a flau,lcss, complete, or
e\rcn unique description of a svstem's bonds. It is a sketch' a cartoon' a
shorthani \,va)/ to pottruy the gross
distribution of electrons. It sho'uvs
the elcctronr
"ith"i
spread betr,veen nuclei (in pair bonds) or localized on
one nucleus (as lone pairs).
Exactlv how. man_v electrons arc hcre and ho\r' man)' are therc? Why
clo they f"il *h"." they do? What are their energies? Why is 8 such a
special number-but ivhrv, also, are there so many excePtions to the
octet rulc? Expect.ro onr.t"r, from a Lervis structure, for such diagrams
servc onl) to summarize'uvhat rve know-lrom expcrimcnt. The ansrvers,
the reasons, and even more questions
u.ill come, soon enough, from the
quantum theory ofbonding (Chapters 4 through_7)'
Yet after ali that, thc Liu,is structure u,ill still give us the bonding in
a rcadily appreciated, almost graphical
fashion. It survives as a useful,
p"rrrorir,. ..,ay to reducc a complex system to a simple picture. Here is
u-hat to do, step by step:
1 . Ignoring the core, count the total number of valence electrons'
2. Arrange the atoms according to thc connectivitv of the molecule.
Lay
th"em
out to shorv rvhat ii connected to \vhat, who is neighbor
to \\'nom.
3. Distribute the r.alence electrons around the skeleton. Start bv
joining cach of the connected atoms r,vith a single bond, dravving
eithcr a pair of dots or, equivalently' a single dash'
4. Whcre nccessar\., add electrons to complete the valcncc of an-v
atom boncled to the central atom. Hvdrogen takes tr'vo electrons,
R2. 10 Review and Guide to Prcblems
and most of the elements up through argon take eight (but be pre-
pared for exceptions).
5. Usc the remaining electrons, if any, to ensure an octet around thc
central atom. One option is to introduce lone pairs; another, to
employ multiple bonds.
For methane, the bonding is comparatively simple. Carbon, a Group IV
element, contributes four valence electrons, and each of the four hydro-
gen atoms supplies one more to yield a total of eight (step 1). Then,
knowing that H forms one bond and C four, we place thc carbon at the
center (step 2) and draw four single bonds (step 3):
H
I
H- C- H
t\
And, by sheer good luck, rve are clone: Each hydrogen has its full quota
of t'r'r'o electrons; the carbon has its octet; there are no clectrons to spare.
Wc have nothing more to do.
(d) Propose a geometric sftucturc. A molecule of CHo must accom-
modate four bonding electron pairs about the central carbon atom. The
VSEPR model therefore predicts a tetrahedral geometrv. rvith H-C-H
bond angles of 109.5o a]l around. Moreovcr, since nature cannot distin-
guish among the four idcntical hydrogcn atoms, all the C-H boncls must
have the same length and polaritv (skewed slightlv torvard the morc elec-
troncgative carbon). But there is no ovcrall molecular dipole moment,
becausc the four polar bonds (orientcd tetrahedrally) oppose each other
to create a nonpol ar mol ecul c.
The related moleculc CHrCl, also tetrahedral, does har.e a molccu-
l ar di pol e momcnt . Why?
ExemprE 2-5. More Mol ecul es
PRoer-e^.,r: Suggest Lel,vis and VSEPR structures {br the fbllou,ing
speci es: (a) Sul fur tetrafl uori de, SF*. (b,1 Acetvl cne, CrHr. (c) Ni tri c
oxi de, NO. ( d) The ni t r osoni um i on, NO- .
Sol u-rroN: For each system. l av out the atomi c skel eton and di s-
tribute the valcnce electrons in the most plausible r,vay. Then: C)rient the
clectron pairs, nonbonding and bonding alike, in the directions specificd
h; t hc VSEPR model .
(a) SuLfur tetrafluoride, SF
r.
Sulfur, a Group VI atom, has six r.alence
electrons. Fluorine has seven. With 34 electrons to distribute, rvc first
rt
t u
wuLf
a@t
lilIr
T'rt
Tnu ;
nm dll
$urd
- l i . r r '
I ) f C-
-
.:nd thc
: :la'r. tc)
. ' :
' up I V
i r - : : \ ' ( l r o-
' T l
. 1 l l en,
,
rt rt the
- - . . .
quot a
:
- ] r ar c.
' -
- : , - t { ) I 1l -
r . . The
. - e
- H
' : . i i : t t n-
: ' : - l l l Ll st
, : . r ' l ec-
n . : l t n t ,
: . . . . ; t her
] r ' cu-
.
,.,\
l ng
-
\ i r r i c
,,' . : di s-
| -
: , t t he
-
. i t i cd
Sample Problems R2. 1 1
connect each F to the central S with a single bond:
The next step is to complete the octet on each F by adding six clectrons:
There are t\l'o electrons left over from the original 34, evcn though both
sulfur and all four fluorines alread,v have octets. Still, octet rule notr,r'ith-
standing, the 33rd and 34th clectrons shall be assigned to the sulfur, n'hcre
the fifth pair nor'r' contributes to an "expanded octet" of 10 clcctrons:
These five pairs of clectrons (four bonding, one nonbonding) rve expect
to point toward the vcrtices of a trigonal bipl'ramid. Four of the corncrs
r'vill contain fluorinc nuclei, while the fifth lvill rcmain unoccupied.
Sulfur sits at the center, as sho$'n in the drawing belou':
FF
S
FF
r ' DCe
hr st
R2. 1 2 Review and Guicle to Problems
Takc notc as $'ell: Thc nonbonding pair I'alls specihcallv in the trigonal
plane bctvreen the uppcr and lorvcr pvramids, taking up an equatorial po-
sition rather than an axial position on top or bottom. Nominallv spaced
1 20o apart lrom thc trvo other equatorial pairs and 90o apart from thc
trvo axial pairs, a dilflse lonc pair in this configuration suff-crs the rveak-
est repul si ons possi bl e. In gcneral , a ccntral atom surrounded b_v 10
elcctrons rvill prcf'erentiallv house up to three nonbonding pairs in equa,
tori al si tcs.
(b) Acetylene, C
rH r.
After drau'ing three single bonds to obtain thc
skel eton H-C-C-H, u' e have l bur r,al ence el ectrons of the ori gi nal 10
still to deplo-v. Thev go automaticallr, to thc carbons, sincc the t'nl'o hy-
drogcns are alrcaclv satisfied; and therc, betu.een the carbons, thc lbur
cl cctrons make tn' o addi ti onal pai r bonds: H-C=C-H. Thc tri pl c
boncl leaves cach carbon u.ith an octet.
With no lone pairs in the molcculc, VSEPR prcdicts a linear
arrangcmont symmctric about the HCCH axis. The tlr-o C-H bonds,
indistinguishable and s-vmmetric, must har.e the same length.
(c) ,\trric oxirle, NO. Pooling fir,e valcnce electrons from thc nitrogcn
and six from thc oxygen, NO has a total of 11 clcctrons. The sum vields
an odd number, a sct impossiblc tg arrangc into tu,o g.ctc$. We can givc
the octet ei thcr to oxvgen (:N:9) or to ni trogcn (N:O:), but not to
both at thc same time. Such are thc failings of this too-simple model.
Each of thcsc tu'o Leu-is structurcs ofl'crs only a partial representa-
tion of thc bonding in nitrogen oxide. For a more complete interpreta-
ticln, scc the description of molecular orltitals in Chapter 7.
(d) Ifi e ni trosoni um i on, NO+. Thc posi ti vel y charged i on, dcfi ci cnt
bv one el ectron, has a r.al ence of 10. Al l ori .ed an evcn number of el cc-
trons, u' e can sati sfv the octet rul e u,i th thc structure
[:N:Q:]+.
ExR,uprE 2-6. Mol ecul es and Mass:
The Bal ancecl Chemi cal Equati on
From nucl ei and cl cctrons to atoms, from atoms to mol ecul es, from
mol ecul cs to reacti ons--thc l avr. of mass conservati on i s at l ast expressed
in a balanced chcmical equation. A11 the stoichiometric relationships arc
embodiecl rvithin.
PRost.t..M : An uniclentificd compound (relative molecular r,r,cight
=
+6.07) rcacts r.vi th n-rol ecul ar oxvgcn to procl ucc carbon di oxi dc,
r,t,atcr, and n'rolccular nitrogen. Analvsis shorvs that the unknorvn mater-
i al consi sts o{ 26.1 %o carbon, 13.1o/o hvdrogen, and 50.8%o ni trogen bv
mass. (a) What i s i ts mol ecul ar l brmul a? (b) Bri efl v descri be a possi bl e
bonding pattern. (c) Write a balanced equation {br the reaction.
Sorut-tor: Gi r,en the mass perccntages and mol ecul ar rvei ght, rve
knou. hou, to determinc both the empirical and molccular fbrmulas.
) - : i s one
' :
: 1r t hc
\ . rOH
:-U(l i n
: : r , l l e -
LH, ,
'
t
( ) l l -
.
H. . , .
:1.' i ss
32.
33.
3+.
35.
t o .
37.
38.
Exercises Ft2.21
31 ' Further
analvsis shows that the compound described in the preced-
ing exercise ias a molar mass of :o.b g -or-f.-w;"1,
ir"*.r"."
lar formula?
luggest
Levi'is structures
for
!:H6
(.thune) and CrHn (et\lene).
Note that ethylene contains o doubje bond.
Use the VSEPR model to prerlict the arrangemenr
of hydrogen
atoms around each carbon in: (a) CrHu
"
(b) C2H;
Dra-n'Lervis
structures for HF, HCl, HBr, and HL What do you notice?
Show' the LerT' i s structure-fbr
cHucl . what shape does the vsEpR
theory
predict for the molecule?
'
Draw' Ler'vis and vSEPR structures for
pclu
(phosphorus
trichloride).
Drarv Levvis and VSEpR structures for SFu (sulfur hexafluoride).
A molecule
of ozone, Or, contains three oxygen atoms in a bent
configuration:
o
- o- o
Kno'wing
that both O-O bonds are of equal length, draw two
equivalent Lewis structures
to represent the molecule.
All thrce N-O bond lengths in the nitrate ion, NO' are equal. Draw
thrce equi'alcnt
Lewis structures consistent with this obse.i.ation.
The carbonate ion, col-, similar to the nitrate ion, contains three
:x)gens
bound to a central atom, again wit} equai bond lengths.
Drar'r' three equivalcnt Lewis structuies to represent the moleJular
carbonate i on.
Balance the following
equations:
( a) _N, +_H, +_\ H;
( b)
_Hz * _t r *
_HI
(.)
- CH4 +
_
02
------->
_ CO2 +
_
HrO
(,1)
-
coH,n *
- o:
------->
_ Co2 +
_ H2o
39.
+0.
+1