KEEE 2224 Electronic Devices

Week 2:
Fundamentals of Electronic Devices
Lecturer : Dr. Sharifah Fatmadiana Wan Muhd Hatta

To arrange for appointments for small group discussions :
Email: sh_fatmadiana@um.edu.my

Week 2: learning outcomes
By the end of this week, student should be able
to :
1. Describe the mechanism of charge carrier
mechanism
2. Describe on energy band diagrams, density
states band diagram.

2 KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Basic Semiconductor Physics
3
Periodic Table and the Semiconductor Materials
Types of Solids
Atomic Bonding
Imperfections and Impurities
Doping
Electrical Conductions in Solids :
Electron and holes
Energy-band model
Density of States Function
Semiconductor in equilibrium
Charge carriers in Semiconductor
Position of Fermi Energy Level
Carrier Transport
Carrier drift, Carrier Diffusion
Conductivity, Resistivity

KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Band Diagram: Potential vs Kinetic
Energy
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 4
Electrostatic Potential
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 5
Energy Bands
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 6
Basic convention:
E
C

E
v

E
ref

K.E.
P.E.
+E
+V
Kinetic energy:

Potential Energy:
C
E E E K . .

ref C
ref C
E E
q
V
E E qV E P


1
. .
Electric field:
dx
dE
q dx
dV
V
C
1
D 1 in or ,
Electric Field
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 7
Examples of energy band structures:

KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 8
Si GaAs
Based on the energy band structure, semiconductors can be
classified into:
Indirect band-gap semiconductors (Si, Ge)
Direct band gap semiconductors (GaAs)
Direct VS Indirect Bandgaps
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 9
Photogeneration band-diagramatic description:





Momentum and energy conservation:
E
k
E
g

Phonon emission
Phonon absorption
Indirect band-gap Semics.
Virtual
states
E
c

E
V

E
k
Direct band-gap Semics.
E
g

Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function
10 KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
The conduction band in a piece of semiconductor consists of many
available, allowed, empty energy levels. When calculating how many
electrons will fill these, we consider two factors:
How many energy levels are there within a given range of energy,
How likely is it that each level will be populated by an electron.
The likelihood in the second item is given by a probability function
called the Fermi-Dirac distribution function. f(E) is the probability
that a level with energy E will be filled by an electron, and the
expression is:

Density of States
11 KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
for electrons in the conduction band
for holes in the conduction band
The integration of the product of the density of states g(E) and the Fermi-
Dirac distribution function f(E) gives the carrier distribution over the
energy range above or below the bandgap (see next slide)
g(E) gives the
distribution of
energy levels
(states) as a
function of energy.
Density of States
12
Intrinsic semiconductor. (a) Schematic band diagram. (b) Density of
states. (c) Fermi distribution function. (d) Carrier concentration.
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
or g(E)
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 13
The energy band diagram with the position of the
Fermi level E
F
as a function of the doping type
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 14
Boltzmann Approximation
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 15
C
V
Equilibrium Carrier Concentration
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 16
Density of states function
in the CB. If we assume
m*
n=
m
0
, hence at T=300K,
N
c
=2.8x10
19
cm
-3
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 17
Continued Equilibrium Carrier
Concentration
Exercise: Fermi Level
The probability that a state is filled at the conduction band edge (E
c
) is precisely
equal to the probability that a state is empty at the valence band edge (E
v
). Where
is the Fermi level located?
Answer: The Fermi function, f(E), specifies the probability of electrons occupying
states at a given energy E. The probability that a state is empty (not filled) at a
given energy E is equal to 1 f(E). Here we are told
f(E
c
) = 1 f(E
v
)
Since

And,

Hence, we can conclude


or
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 18
Quasi Fermi Level
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 19
Describes the population of electrons separately in the conduction
band and valence band, when their populations are displaced
from equilibrium.
This displacement could be caused by the application of an external
voltage, or by exposure to light of energy , which alter the populations
of electrons in the conduction band and valence band.
The displacement from equilibrium is such that the carrier populations
can no longer be described by a single Fermi level, however it is possible
to describe using separate quasi-Fermi levels for each band.
Example: Quasi Fermi Level
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 20
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 21
Basic Semiconductor Physics
22
Periodic Table and the Semiconductor Materials
Types of Solids
Atomic Bonding
Imperfections and Impurities
Doping
Electrical Conductions in Solids :
Electron and holes
Energy-band model
Density of States Function
Semiconductor in equilibrium
Charge carriers in Semiconductor
Position of Fermi Energy Level
Carrier Transport
Carrier drift, Carrier Diffusion
Conductivity, Resistivity

KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration, n
i
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 23
Intrinsic Fermi Level, E
i
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 24
Charge Carrier Concentration
25
For Si, n
i
= 1e10 cm
-3
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Thermal Equilibrium
26 KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 27
Majority and Minority Carriers
N-type material, the electron is called majority carrier and hole the minority
carrier
P-type material, the hole is called majority carrier and electron the minority
carrier.
Example: Extrinsic Semic
Silicon at T=300K is doped with arsenic atoms
such that the concentration of the electrons is
n
0
=7 x 10
15
cm
-3
.
(a) Find E
c
-E
F
(b) Finc E
F
-E
v
(c) p
o
(d) Which carrier is the minority carrier?
(e) E
v
-E
F
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 28
Anwers
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 29
d) Holes
Example
A new semiconductor is to be designed. The
semiconductor is to be p-type and doped with 5 x 10
15

cm
-3
acceptor atoms. Assume complete ionization and
assume N
d
=0. The effective density of states functions
are N
c
=1.2 x 10
18
cm
-3
and N
v
=1.8 x 10
19
cm
-3
at T=300K
and vary as T
2
. A particular semiconductor device
fabricated with this material requires the hole
concentration to be no greater than 5.08 x 10
15
cm
-3
at
T=350K. What is the minimum bandgap energy
required in this new material?
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 30
Answer
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 31
Basic Semiconductor Physics
32
Periodic Table and the Semiconductor Materials
Types of Solids
Atomic Bonding
Imperfections and Impurities
Doping
Electrical Conductions in Solids :
Electron and holes
Energy-band model
Density of States Function
Semiconductor in equilibrium
Charge carriers in Semiconductor
Position of Fermi Energy Level
Carrier Transport
Carrier drift, Carrier Diffusion
Conductivity, Resistivity

KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Free Carriers in Semiconductors
33
Three primary types of carrier action occur
inside a semiconductor:
drift
diffusion
recombination-generation
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Electron as Moving Particles
34
Where m
n
* is the electron effective mass
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Example: Kinetic Energy of Electron
The initial velocity of an electron is 107 cm/s. If the kinetic
energy of the electron increases by E= 10-12 eV, determine the
increase in velocity. Hint:
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 35
Carrier Effective Mass
36
In an electric field, , an electron or a hole accelerates:
Electron and hole conductivity effective masses:
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Carrier Scattering
37
Mobile electrons and atoms in the Si lattice are
always in random thermal motion.
lattice scattering or phonon scattering
increases with increasing temperature
Average velocity of thermal motion for
electrons: ~107 cm/s @ 300K
Other scattering mechanisms:
deflection by ionized impurity atoms
deflection due to Coulombic force between
carriers
only significant at high carrier concentrations
The net current in any direction is zero, if no electric
field is applied.
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Example: Scattering
Three scattering mechanisms are present in a particular
semiconductor material. If only the first scattering mechanism
were present, the mobility would be
1
=2000 cm
2
/V-s, is only
the second mechanism were present, the mobility would be

2
=1500 cm
2
/V-s and if only the third mechanism were
present, the mobility would be
3
=500 cm
2
/V-s . What is the
net mobility?
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 38
Carrier Drift
When an electric field (e.g. due to an externally applied voltage)
is applied to a semiconductor, mobile charge carriers will be
accelerated by the electrostatic force. This force superimposes
on the random motion of electrons:
39
Electrons drift in the direction opposite to the electric field
(current flows). Hence, because of scattering, electrons in a
semiconductor do not achieve constant acceleration.
However, they can be viewed as quasi-classical particles
moving at a constant average drift velocity Vd.
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 40
Small devices => non-stationary transport
velocity overshoot=> faster devices (smaller transit time)
0
5x10
6
1x10
7
1.5x10
7
2x10
7
2.5x10
7
3x10
7
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
E=1kV/cm
E=4kV/cm
E=10kV/cm
E=20kV/cm
E=40kV/cm
E=100kV/cm
D
r
i
f
t

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y


[
c
m
/
s
]
time [ps]
T = 300 K
Silicon
Velocity overshoot effect
Diffusion
Particles diffuse from regions of higher
concentration to regions of lower concentration
region, due to random thermal motion.
41 KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Diffusion Current
42
D is the diffusion constant, or diffusivity.
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Total Current = Drift + Diffusion
43 KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Einstein Relationship between D and
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 44
Under equilibrium conditions, J
N
= 0 and J
P
= 0
Example : Diffusion Constant
What is the hole diffusion constant in a sample
of silicon with
p
= 410 cm
2
/ V s ?

Answer:
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 45
Whereby kT/q = 26 mV at room temperature with
boltzman constant , k = 1.3806488 10
-23
m
2
kg s
-2
K
-1
,
T=300K, and q= 1.6e19 C.
Basic Semiconductor Physics
46
Periodic Table and the Semiconductor Materials
Types of Solids
Atomic Bonding
Imperfections and Impurities
Doping
Electrical Conductions in Solids :
Electron and holes
Energy-band model
Density of States Function
Semiconductor in equilibrium
Charge carriers in Semiconductor
Position of Fermi Energy Level
Carrier Transport
Carrier drift, Carrier Diffusion
Conductivity, Resistivity

KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Carrier Mobility (Electron Momentum)
47
With every collision, the electron loses momentum
Between collisions, the electron gains momentum
where
mn
= average time between scattering
events
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Carrier Mobility
48 KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Drift Current
49
v
d
t A = volume from which all holes cross plane in time t
p v
d
t A = # of holes crossing plane in time t
q p v
d
t A = charge crossing plane in time t
q p v
d
A = charge crossing plane per unit time = hole current

Hole current per unit area J = q p v
d KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Conductivity
50
The conductivity of
a semiconductor is
dependent on
the carrier
concentrations
and mobilities
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Electrical Resistance
51 KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
EXAMPLE : Resistivity
52
Consider a Si sample doped with 1016/cm3 Boron. What is its
resistivity?

Answer:
And for Si, n
i
= 1e10 cm
-3
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Example: Dopant Compensation
53
Consider the same Si sample, doped additionally with
10
17
/cm
3
Arsenic. What is its resistivity?

Answer:
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Revision of Equation in Fundamental
Electronic Physics
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 54
Basic equations for Semic. device operation:
Maxwells equations
Minority-carrier equations
Continuity equations
Poissons equation
Relaxation to Equilibrium State
Consider a semiconductor with no current flow
in which thermal equilibrium is disturbed by the
sudden creation of excess holes and electrons.
The system will relax back to the equilibrium
state via R-G mechanism:
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 55
Minority Carrier Equation
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 56
Consider minority hole carrier injection at x=0
Continuity Equations
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 57
The continuity equation describes a basic concept, namely that a change in carrier density
over time is due to the difference between the incoming and outgoing flux of carriers plus
the generation and minus the recombination.
Poisson Equation
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 58
Important Constants
59 KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices
Important formulae that govern the conductivity of a
semiconductor :
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 60
The intrinsic carrier concentration: i i
p n
(same density of free electrons and holes in an intrinsic semiconductor).
With n, p respectively the electron and hole density ; N
D,A
respectively the donor
and acceptor doping density (concentration).
With
n
,
p
the mobility of electrons, resp. holes.
m
q

With q the charge, t the average time between collisions (scattering), m the mass.
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 61
Important formulae that govern the conductivity of a
semiconductor :
E v
v the drift velocity and E the electric field. Electrons and holes have
opposite velocities.
In a homogeneously doped semiconductor or a semiconductor with a constant
carrier density, applying an electric field will cause drift currents to flow.
With A the cross sectional area perpendicular to the current flow, E is the
applied electric field
When carrier gradients exist in a semiconductor, diffusion currents will occur.
With D
n,p
the diffusion constant of electrons respectively holes, x is the
direction of carrier propagation.
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 62
The Einstein equation gives the relationship between the diffusion constant and
the mobility of the carrier:
Important formulae that govern the conductivity of a
semiconductor :
e
kT D

with, k the Boltzman constant, T the temperature in Kelvin.

In the general case where both concentration gradients and electric fields are
present the total current is the sum of both drift and diffusion currents:
KEEE 2224 Electronics Devices 63
Another basic equation in semiconductor devices is the Poisson equation
Important formulae that govern the conductivity of a
semiconductor :
With V the electrostatic potential, the charge density as a function of x ; p & n
the free hole, resp. electron density which are both a function of x as well as of V
and N
-
A
and N
+
D
the concentration of ionised doping atoms which are a function
of x.