CONSTRUCTION OF CAGES AND PENS

Introduction
Water contained by dams and reservoirs is sometimes used for
fish culture. These waters can be stocked with fry or fingerlings; the
adults are later harvested with nets. Raising fish in these waters is more
difficult than in ponds because these waters cannot be drained, and the
predators cannot be removed. Also, it is not possible to feed, fertilize, or
poison the water, so natural nutrients must provide enough fish food.
Culturing fish in waters held by dams and reservoirs can be done more
easily if the fish are placed in fish cages and pens. These structures
confine the fish to a certain place and give more control over the fish.
Pen and cage culture involve the rearing of fish within fixed or
floating net enclosures supported by frameworks made of bamboo,
wood, or metal and set in sheltered, shallow portions of lakes, bays,
rivers, and estuaries.
A cage represents a delineated volume in the body of water where the
aquatic organisms can be farmed
Classification of Cages:
There are a number of approaches to designing a cage and also
classifying the various cage systems.
1. based on where in the water column the cage floats.
Three categories can be used:
1.1 floating,
1.2 submerged, or
1.3 submersible.
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The last two types consist of a frame that can float on the surface
and that maintains its shape when lowered below the water surface.
Fixed cages: attached to pilings driven in the substratum
depth: 1-3m
Floating cages: floats allow cages to rise and fall with fluctuating
water currents
depth: 2-5 m
Submersible cages: cage can be lowered when cyclone or
typhoon threatens
Submerged cages: cages are fixed at 2-5 m beneath, the fish are
fed via feeding tube. During storm, the tube is tied shut and cage is
submerged to a depth of 15m

2. according to the type of net used in cages:
2.1 rigid or
2.2 flexible.
Rigid nets may be created by using a flexible net attached to a stiff
framework to distend it. Instead of using a flexible net a rigid metal
net may be used.
A rigid net cage will maintain its original shape regardless of the
waves.

3. depending on the nature of thebag that makes up the
cage
3.1 open bag of net
3.2 a closed bag of plastic
A closed bag will normally require water to be pumped into it, and
there is an outlet pipe from the bag. Actually, a closed production unit
has been created.
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Open offshore cages can be classified as follows:
1. Class 1 Gravity cages that rely on buoyancy and weight to hold
their shape and volume against environmental forces .
2. Class 2 Anchor tension cages that rely on the anchor tension to
keep their shape and volume
3. Class 3 Self-supporting cages that rely on a combination of
compression in rigid elements and tension in flexible elements to
keep the net in position so the shape and volume are maintained
4. Class 4 Rigid self-supporting cages that rely on rigid constructions
such as beams and joints to keep their shape and volume.

Parts of open cage:-
A traditional open cage comprises the following main parts
1. Net bag with weights in the bottom to spread the bag
2. A jumping net above the surface fixed to the net bag to
prevent fish escaping
3. Cage collar for spreading out the net bag and give buoyancy
to keep the bag in the correct position in the water column
4. Mooring system.


Major components in a traditional open sea cage farm
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When choosing technology and systems for farming in traditionally
open sea cages, there are many conditions to be evaluated. This is also
the case when the actual type of cage and mooring system is chosen
and designed. The following list can be used to help when establishing a
new sea cage farm:
(1) Choose a site that is suitable for farming
(2) Describe and calculate the environmental conditions on the site
(3) Choose farming systems, i.e. the cage and mooring system, adapted
to site conditions
(4) Design the cages (normally done by the cage manufacture) and
mooring system
(5) Set out the cages and mooring system
(6) Establish requirements for operational control of the system.

Construction of sea cages
A typical sea cage comprises several parts: the cage collar or
support system (framework), the flotation system, the net bag, a jumping
net, and weights to stretch out the net bag at the bottom and to stabilize
it in the water column.
Three different methods may be used to construct the framework/collar
for a sea cage

(1) Stiff framework: The framework does not follow the wave
movements.An example of a stiff construction is a boat. Some specially
designed steel cages use a stiff framework.The construction is
characterized by large forces transferred to the framwork.

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(2) Framework with movable joints: The framework will to some extent
follow the wave movements. An example is a traditional steel cage
system, where joints are used to connect the single elements in the
framework.

(3) Flexible framework: The framework is quite flexible and will follow
the wave movements well. These include frames made of plastic (for
example, polyethylene, PE) which are flexible to some degree and those
made of rubber (for example, ocean cages).


Different methods of construction for frameworks of traditional surface
sea cages.

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Cage collar or framework
The collar or framework may have several functions. It helps to
support the cage safely in the water column, it helps to maintain the
shape of the net bag, it may help with buoyancy and it may serve as a
work platform. The framework construction for stretching out the net bag
can be combined with the buoyancy, as seen in plastic floating ring
cages (PE or polypropylene (PP) pipes).Alternatively, the buoyancy can
be independent of the cage collar as can be seen when using wood or
steel for support systems with blocks of expanded polystyrene (PS),
such as StyrofoamTM, as buoyancy.
The framework or collar can be of circular, polygonal or square
construction. It is best to use a round framework because the forces are
equal all around the circumference; polygonal or square frameworks will
have large forces in the corners and eventually breakages in the
construction will occur here. For this reason, good connections at these
points are important.Wooden frameworks are sometimes used to
construct sea cages; only bolts, nails or ropes are used to connect the
planks at the corners. If these cages are used in exposed sites with fast
currents and high waves, the framework will break at the weak points in
the corners. Polygonal collars are better than square collars because
there are more corners to share the total forces, and the force in each
corner is therefore reduced.

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Different designs of framework
Weighting and stretching
Weights on the bottom of the net bag are used to keep the net
bag down, and to maintain as much effective volume as possible for the
fish. Lead rope may be used for the bottom line in the net bag together
with lump weights. The lump weights are normally added at the corners
and in the centre. For example, on a 15m 15m square cage, the total
amount of weights can be 150200kg, divided into lump weights of 25kg
in each corner and in the centre, and the rest evenly spread along the
bottom line as lead rope.
Net bags
Net bags can be constructed in different ways and with different
materials.1618 In the past materials such as cotton and flax were used.
These materials get heavy in water and their strength is rapidly reduced;
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in addition they are not very durable. Today synthetic plastic materials,
such as polyamide (PA; nylon) predominate. This material is cheap,
strong and not too stiff to work with. PE is also used to some extent
because it is more resistant to fouling as the surface is smoother; it is
however, stiffer to work with. Polyester (PES) has also been tried.
Nylon used for nets is made as a multifilament consisting of
several thin threads spun together to make a thicker one. The advantage
with multifilament is that the thread is easy to bend, easy to work with,
tolerates more loads and is more resistant to chafing. In contrast,
monofilament is a single thread as used in a fishing line. It can be made
of PE; it is stiffer and more vulnerable to chafing than a multifilament.
Nets are either knotted or knotless, in which case they are sewn
together. In the past there were problems with knotless nets because
they came unstitched, but today this problem has been overcome and
both knotted and knotless nets are in common use.
The normal mesh shape is square; hexagonal meshes are also
used, but to a lesser extent. Hexagonal meshes are more commonly
used for trawling bags on fishing vessels.
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Important dimensions used to describe a mesh

Different types of designs used for sea cages construction
1. Plastic cages: Plastic collar cages made either of PE
(actually high density polyethylene (HDPE)) or PP are often
circular, but may also be made quadrangular and be used
as a system farm in less exposed sea areas. In circular
cages it is normal to have two pipes of diameter 200
315mm. Both may be filled with PS, or one filled with PS
while the other is air filled. A wide range of circumferences
are available, commonly between 30 and 120m. Between
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the two pipes some type of fitting is used, either of plastic or
steel, to ensure strength and make a base for the walkway.
Some also use a chain all round the circumference to
improve the strength.
2. Steel cages: Steel cages are constructed with pontoons to
ensure buoyancy, while the steel framework gives strength
and stretches out the net bag. The steel construction is
normally galvanized but can also be painted. Typically there
is a 23m wide walkway that eventually can be used by a
small forklift truck. Normally the buoyancy is in the range
8004000 kg/m2, the highest value being for walkways for
driving. The walkways around the cages are smaller (up to
1m wide) and have lower buoyancy of around 500kg/m2.
Between the centre gangway and side-ways there are
special movable hinges. The pontoons are normally made
of PE infilled with expanded PS.
3. Ocean cages: One type of cage suitable for large waves is
made of rubber pipes with a typical exterior size larger than
400mm. The cages are made as a quadrangle, hexagon or
octagon. Steel pipes are used in the corners and to connect
the parts made of rubber pipes.The rubber pipes will follow
the wave motion very well. The cages are reported to
tolerate very rough weather conditions, such as wave
heights of up to 8m.22
Ocean spar technology is another technology available
for ocean cages, and these have no typical cage collar.23
In one system vertical cylinders (spars) are placed in each
corner of a quadrangular cage bag to stretch it out; the
horizontal areas affected by the waves are thus reduced.
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Another type includes a central spar and rim held together
with tension stays. It forms a cube-like construction that is
only partly above the water surface which will be dragged
below the surface when there is much wave activity or
strong currents.
Mooring systems
The function of the mooring system is to keep the farm in a fixed
position and to avoid transfer of excessive forces to the cages,
especially vertical forces. Different methods are used for mooring
depending on the type of cage, how exposed the sites are to the
weather, and the requirement for position exactness.
Two major systems are used for mooring:
a. pre-stressed and
b. slack .
Slack mooring is used to moor ships which drift around one
anchorage point. Prestressed systems are well adapted for use in
flexible constructions, and in correctly designed systems the forces will
be equally spread over the entire farm. Pre-stressing of the mooring
system is performed at high tide and forces can be up to several tens of
kilonewtons.
A pre-stressed mooring system contains three major parts:
(1) Mooring lines which include the point of attachment to the cages
(2) Buoys
(3) Anchors.
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Pre-stressed systems are well
adapted for use in flexible
constructions, and in correctly
designed systems the forces
will be equally spread over the
entire farm
Slack mooring is used to
moor ships which drift around
one anchorage point. Such
mooring systems are well
adapted for stiff constructions
such as ships.

Description of the single components in pre-stressed mooring
system;
1. FIXING POINT: The mooring line is fixed to the collar by a
shackle. If a rope is used this should be spliced and a thimble used
to reduce the bending of the rope. All bending will weaken ropes to
some extent. A bending diameter of three times the rope thickness
is necessary to avoid significant weakening. A knot can reduce the
strength of the rope by 50%.19 Rings may also be used in the
connections because they tolerate chafing better. It is an
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advantage to over-dimension the connection, for instance by
doubling the size of the maximum transferred forces.

2. MOORING LINES: Different materials and designs can be used
for the mooring lines which are often made of synthetic rope.
Different materials are used for mooring line or rope such as PA
(nylon), PE, PES and PP.
PA tolerates the highest forces with a given diameter, while PP
ropes have the lowest weight.
Metal may also be integrated into the rope to increase its strength,
but this also increases the cost
3. BOUYS : Buoys are used to hold the mooring lines up so that
vertical forces on the collar are avoided.
Typical buoy sizes are from 200 to 700 l.
The buoys can be filled with air or foam.
To avoid puncturing reducing the buoyancy, the use of foam
filled buoys is highly recommended.
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Buoys are used to reduce the vertical forces on the collar, and bird
nets are used to avoid birds taking small fish.
Anchors:
The simplest type of anchor is the dead weight or block anchor.
Concrete blocks are most commonly used as weight anchors and
vary from some hundreds of kilograms to several tonnes.
A drag anchor or ebbing anchor is another type much used.

Different anchors are used for mooring sea cages: block (A), drag (B),
pile (C), bolt (D).

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Design of the mooring system;
The design used for the mooring system depends on the type of
cages to be moored. These may be as follows:-
System for mooring several single cages
Single cages with walkway
Single cages with walkway and landing
Group of cages platform cages
Ocean cages
Cages lying on sway.
A single cage may be moored by between four and six single
buoys attached to anchors and to the cage by mooring lines.
It is recommended that the single mooring line be divided into two
before the fixing point to the cage, this is known as the hen foot
mooring; it reduces the forces at the points of attachment to the
cage framework, because the number of fixing points is doubled.
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The type of cages to be moored

2. PEN CULTURE
Pens are enclosures a blocking device which acts as a barrier
preventing the entry of undesirable animals and fishes ensuring the
safety of the cultured stock. The system ensures higher survival rate and
better yield. The farming system can be operated in the marginal areas
of the large water bodies and could be considered as an eco-friendly
type as it does not interfere with other activities or pollute the
environment. The pens are constructed by split bamboo and interlacing
them with either can strips, coconut or nylon twines. Bamboo screens
thus constructed are erected in an ideal site (where ingress and egress
of water is not extreme) over the framework of bamboo poles where pen
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screens are strongly fixed. The screens except the shore side cordon
the entire area under the pen operation.
Types of pens
1. Rigid pens
a. Embanked pens
b. Net enclosures
2. Flexible pens (netting)
3. Outer barrier nets.
Rigid enclosures
Embanked Pens
Intertidal enclosures have stone-pitched or concrete walls as
embankments. Since such embankments are costly, such intertidal
enclosures are not being built lately. All embankments have sluices to
allow water circulation. Embanked pens are constructed in the sublittoral
area also. In some cases there are two barriers, in which case often one,
the shorter wall, is usually an embankment and the other a piled barrier
net, as described separately.
Net Enclosures
It is anchored on the anchor blocks at the two ends on the banks. A vinyl
covered wire not (15mm square mesh) is stretched between steel piles
and smaller concrete blocks on two sides of the barrier restrain the net
barrier. Perhaps this has advantages in that there is saving in net
materials when more area is brought within the enclosure.
Flexible Enclosures
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Most of the buoyed fish net enclosures known are bag nets with a
bottom net. Such enclosures are limited in their size - the largest being
of 55m diameter in Japan.
In fabricating the flexible enclosure care was taken to make use of
locally available simple materials. Concrete block sinkers weighing
500kg were spaced 30m apart and were placed from a boat and a chain
link raiser chain was provided from the sinker for attachment to the net
to allow settlement in the soft sediment. . In the case of the bamboo pen
the fencing stretched above water surface to prevent fish from jumping.

Indicative design of a fishpen wall showing how it is anchored on
the lake bottom. (B)
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Conclusion
Fish farming is generally practiced in stagnant waters where it is possible to
maintain the culturable species under control in many respects. But the main
disadvantage in such shallow waters is the poor stocking density. The brackish
waters are more advantageous and ideal for fish culture operations particularly
employing cages and pens. Because of several advantages over stagnant pond
culture, the cage and pen farming practices have been widely adopted in many
countries.






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