EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIOS AND

MANAGEMENT-(UDAC)







INNOVATIONS: MEANING, PRINCIPES AND
CONDITIONS
Meaning of Innovation:-
Innovation is an idea or practice perceived as new by the adopter.
Innovation may refer to any new idea, product, approach or an action
plan.
Need for Innovations in Education:-
There is always room for further improvement or refinement in everything
created by man and education is no exception to this in education too,
innovations are required to cope up with aspects of human life.(e.g. A graduate in
Computer science has to continuously upgrade his knowledge and skill even after
getting settle in a job, by undergoing training in oracle, java, visual, c++, Unix,
graphics and animation etc).
Meaning of Educational Innovation:-
Educational innovation is the tryout of a strategy or approach, developed
after systematic investigation so as to improve the process of education.
Educational innovation is the process of improving education by adopting
newer techniques and strategies (which are so far unknown) in educational
objectives, teaching learning methods and materials, functions and functional
relations, curricula as well as organizing new bodies.

Innovation as a Change Process:-
Innovation Change in the existing practice another innovation Further
change and improvement
Following are the steps (Represented by the world IDEAS) that indicate the
process how an innovation gets introduced an validated.
I Identify the need for a change
D Determine one or more practices (innovation) that may satisfy the need
E Evaluation of the chosen practice on a trial basis
A Activate the findings of the try out, i.e. Adopt or Reject the innovation or
Modify and try again
S Stimulate continuation of the process of innovation and change
Elements of Change Process:-
According to Havelock (1973) the change process consists of four elements
or components. They are:
1. Resource system
2. Innovation
3. Communication channel
4. Adopter system


Resource System:-
Hence the generating system and the serving or linking system are
together included in there source system.
They are curricular knowledge and knowledge of psychology or the
behavioral science. He should be equipped with the academic knowledge of
innovations and the professional knowledge of change processes and strategies.
Innovation:-
Innovation is an idea or a practice perceived as new by the adopter. It is
created or transmitted by the resource system and through communication,
which is the medium for its transmission, reaches the adopter system which is the
target of organization of change.
Characteristics of Innovations:-
Carl Rogers (1962) the eminent social psychologist and Shoemaker (1971),
have identified five characteristics of innovations which are worth mentioning.
They are:
1. Relative Advantage
2. Compatibility
3. Complexit6y
4. Tradability
5. Observability


Communication:-
Communication refers to conveying information from one person or party
to another through some media. It is complex and important. Communication
between the resource system and the adopters through different media is so as a
result of their social interaction with others who either promote innovations or
use them. Communication could be through the written media or oral
presentations such as lectures, seminars, symposia, television, films, radio,
recordings, mailing, demonstrations, programmed instructions and teaching
machines.
Adopter System:-
It is the target organization or population for whom the innovation is
meant. The adopter the innovation and puts into use. Any innovation, emerging
from the resource system, through communication reaches the adopter System.
In the case of educational innovations the communicative agents are teachers and
the adopter system is the schools and the pupils. Several barriers to change are
perceivable, The effectiveness of the adopter system and its process for
innovations depends on many factors such as
Individual characteristics
Group characteristics
Leadership behavior of the head and
The organizational behavior of the institution which form the
characteristics of the target group.

Characteristics of Individuals in the Adopter System:-
Research studies show that persons who are conservative in their outlook
and who haunted by fear of failure resist new practices.
Re-education of teacher, in terms of change in their basis philosophy of life,
should be undertaken before the school attempts to implement any educational
innovative practice.
Thus an individuals social and psychological characteristics are important
determinants of the destiny of any innovative idea or practice.

Group Characteristics:-
Most of the educational innovations are applicable in group situations only.
In cohesive groups, individual members conform to group norms. If an innovation
requires deviations from the norm, the group members resist the change. The
individual members interpersonal relationship, social integration and concern
over the behavior of innovative teachers also prove to be important elements
which facilitate the adoption of an innovative idea or practice. Therefore warn
social relations and cooperation are necessary between the innovator and the
adopters.
Leadership:-
According to Fiedler (1957) the directive leadership is the most effective if
the relation between the leader and the member is either very good or very bad.
Considerate and democratic leadership is found to be effective, in cases of
moderate relationship.
Organizational Behavior:-
HALPIN AND Croft (1963) have identified six types of organizational climate
prevailing in schools. They are
I. Open Climate: In schools with open climate all function
independently and with interest towards the attainment of the
goal set.
II. Autonomous climate: In this type, activities and programmers
generate from the generate from the group and not percolate
from the top.
III. Familial climate: Here without caring for the human concerns
will be more
IV. Controlled climate: Here without caring for the human
concerns, task orientedness predominantly prevails.
V. Closed Climate: In this, the head decides everything
unilaterally and implements them ruthlessly. People serving in
such organizations show little personal interest and devotion
in their work. There may not be significant progress in
achieving goals, resulting a kind of stagnation.
Trial Adoption and Testing:-
Any innovation developed by the creative people in the originating
resource system reaches its ultimate destination known as adopters through
communicative agents (The communicative measures may take the form of
advertisements and business promotion strategies. In the educational field this
may be in the form of advice reached out by educational authorities). As a result,
the innovation may be accepted on a trial basis and put to test on a small scale
(committing a small area or fewer number of adopter units).
Adaptation and Consolidation:-
Innovations which get through successfully the trial tests may require small
alterations here and there, based on the feed back received to get consolidated
and adopted fully for large-scale application. For example, to evaluate student
achievement the usual practice is, an achievement test will be prepared by the
teacher and administered on the students to get the responses of the students
recorded.
Characteristics of creative people:-
Creativity, according to Guilford involves divergent thinking. Many research
findings have established the face that creative people have high l.evel of
divergent thinking and moderate level of intelligence (which is dominated by
convergent thinking)
The important characteristics of divergent or creative thinking, according to
Guilford are:
Sensitivity to problems
Ideational Fluency
Flexibility in thinking
Originality
Intuitive leap
Persistence
Self confidence
Seeking new relationships
Instructional Techniques to Promote Creativity:
The best method of developing innovations and bringing changes is to
foster creativity in children. Bruner as well as Suchman suggest the use of
discovery and inquiry methods in teaching in order to foster creativity among
children
Wallack and Kogan believe that the game like, relaxed, untimed and
evaluative situation is necessary for the fullest expression of creativity..
Conditions for the Emergence of Innovations:-
The four elements involved in the change process (resources system,
inno0vation, communication, adopter system) and their nature have been
discussed in 1:05 the basic components in all the four elements are
Individuals
Institutions
Society

Principles of Educational Innovation:
Following are the important principles that govern the educational
innovations which are to be put into practice:
(i) Aim
(ii) Alternative
(iii) Measurable
(iv) Competencies
(v) Advancement
(vi) Prior Decision
(vii) Needs
(viii) Learning Environment
(ix) Catering Individual differences
(x) Growth and Development
Barriers to Educational Innovations:-
Innovations lead to change and there are barriers or impediments t change
in any system, which should be overcome if the institution has to practice the
innovation effectively. Barriers may be encountered in any or in all the lelments of
the change process viz. Resource system communication and adopter system.
Barriers in the Resource System:-
The educational system in India is highly centralized and as such the role of
the resource systems can hardly be over emphasized. The resource systems in
education agencies refer to the offices of the Director of Education. Secondary,
Higher Secondary and Matriculation Boards, State Text Book Societies, State
Institutes of Education and others.


Barriers due to the Nature of the Innovation:-
Sometimes the very nature of an innovation proves to be a barrier ion
introducing it in the educational practice. Some of the major to the one existing at
present.
(i) Lack of Utility
(ii) Lack in Scientific Nature
(iii) Lack in Validity
(iv) Complexity
(v) Tribility
(vi) Observability
Barriers in Communication:-
Communication between the systems and within the system needs to be
looked into. The first one refers to communication between resource system and
the school and between the different resource organizations. Between the
systems, communication has three dimensions, namely, direction, frequency, and
media. Regarding media usually the officials such as DEOs communicate in written
or oral media. For Communicating innovations oral media such as seminars,
symposia, demonstrations etc.
Barriers in the Adopter System:-
Barriers to change in the adopter system should be studied in relation to
the organizational climate of the schools and the innovation management
procedures followed. The social organization of the schools is the structural
pattern of social its human aspect that the reference to the administrative and
professional background of the school. Form the studies pertaining to the
principals: teacher, students, and organizational climate it is found that particular
types of social organization facilitates the adoption of innovative practices and
certain other types hinder the same.

Suggestions for the Promotion of Innovativeness among Students:-
The suggestions by Torrance (1962) for teacher behavior designed to
promote creativity and innovativeness in students are worth practicing. These
valuable suggestions might be implemented in schools. They are as follows:
Value creative thinking
Make children more sensitive to environmental stimuli
Encourage manipulation of objects and ideas
Teach how to test each idea systematically
Develop tolerance of new ideas
Beware of forcing a set pattern
Develop a creative classroom atmosphere
Teach children to value their creative thinking
Teach skills for avoiding peer sanction
Give information about the creative process
Dispel the sense of awe of masterpieces
Encourage self-initiated learning.
Create thorns in the flesh
Create necessity for creative thinking
Provide for active and quiet periods
Make available resources for working out ideas
The kind of teacher who might be likely to stifile creativity is
the one who is highly authoritarian, lacking initiative and class
control. Other inhibitors of creativity, according to Hallman are
listed below:-
1. Pressure to conform
2. Authoritarian attitudes an environment
3. Rigid teacher personality
4. Ridicule and sarcasm
5. Over emphasis on evaluation
6. Excessive quest for certainty
7. Hostility towards divergent personalities
8. Over emphasis on success
9. Intolerance of play attitudes
Whereas Torrance has given suggestions regarding creativity facilitators, Hallman
has listed what the teacher should not do, if he is interested in developing pupil
creativity and hence innovativeness.
Suggestions for Developing Innovativeness among Teacher:-
The role of teacher is very significant in introducing and implementing
innovative educational practices to ensure sustained qualitative improvement in
education. If innovations are to flourish in education teachers themselves are to
be innovative, for which the following measures suggested will be helpful
(i) Periodical in-service training should be provided for teachers to
impart knowledge about the recent innovations that are attempted
in education and enhance their motivation and self-confidence
(ii) Innovative teachers who serve with devotion should be identified
and rewarded with career advancement and increased
remuneration.
(iii) Teacher should be encouraged to report and publish the
innovative practices tried in their schools.
INNOVATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS IN SCHOOLS:-
De-Schooling Society:-
Among the reformers of education, there are those who would
reform teaching practices and curriculum, some would favors the free school
movement and still others would exploit the media to bring about a worldwide
class room.
Launching a tirade against the existing undesirable practice in
education. Ivan lllich and the like forcefully pleaded in the conference held at
CIDOC in Mexico in 1947 for de-schooling the society. Twenty-five persons form
fourteen countries, having discussed the problems of lifelong education under the
leadership of lllich in the Centre for Intercultural Documentation (CIDOC) at
Mexico said, interalia, in their manifesto, When we live, we learn; Learning, is a
function of living. People are learning all the time, all their lives. No ones learning
is superior to anyone elses just different.

Concept of De-schooling:-
The concept of de-schooling is based on three facts:
(i) Education and Schooling do not mean the same; they are
quite different.
(ii) Organized schooling and compulsory education are the
stumbling blocks to true education
(iii) Basically, children have the inquisitiveness to know
what, how, and where of things around them. Hence they
can learn what they like, from the different resources in the
society (which Ivan lllich named as facility centers).
Argument Advanced for De-schooling Society:-
(i) Illich has propoundedhis views against formal schooling in his well-
known book de-Schooling Society. He raised his voice against
compulsory schooling in which curriculum is obligatory and
certificate oriented.
(ii) Curriculum caters neither the needs of the students nor that of the
society
(iii) Students learn passively; true knowledge, curiosity to investigate,
creativity and social awareness are not developed in student
(iv) Schools today have become agents for the sale of uniform (dress),
shoes, text-books and note-books, and students are compelled to
buy them from their schools.

Two important ideas put forth by Ivan Illich:-
Ivan Illich advanced two important suggestions to liberate the students
from the clutches of the teachers and authoritarian schools. They are:
(i) Schools are to be abolished
(ii) The learner should be free to learn what he likes, rather than what is
useful to spmebody else.
Learning resources existing outside the school are to be developed
further to serve as facility centres for student instruction and
exploited fully to impart practical knowledge.
The Alternative to Schooling Suggested by Ivan Illich:-
1. In every village, Educational Resource Centres are to be opened
throwing access to all without any regard for age and gender
difference.
2. Mass media like television, radio, newspapers, journals and periodicals
should be made available in the Educational resource centres.
3. People in similar age group should visit these resource centres and
share their knowledge and expertise
4. People of similar interests should form Learning Groups to pursue
the learning in the field of their interest.
5. There resource centres should have adequate library facilities.


Strategies to Make use of the Learning Resources:
Travel
Apprenticeship
Social Service
Non-formal Study
Self-experience
Criticisms against De-schooling:
According to Arthur Pearl instead of giving goats, logic and strategies,
Ivan Illich, has given metaohor
Though the concept of de-schooling suggested many strategic
niceties, yet they are not practical and helpful to all particularly to
the backward and poor rural children
The institutional school, has not, of course, been relevant to
producing a desirable world. That is why it must be reformed and
reoriented rather than destroyed. It is not wise to burn the house to
kill the rates in it.

Community Schools:-
Background of the Emergence of Community Schools:-
Public school system in America had been a target for criticism, for a
long time. Significant among the criticisms is that it affects the interests of poor
children. Educational experts, who condemned this trend in education,
recommended of open classrooms. As this suggestion did not work well, some of
the parents, teachers and students started their own schools, as Dennison and
these friends did.
Concept of Community Schools:-
In America, community schools emerged as an off shoot of Free School
Movement and served as an alternative to public school system. Students
learning and community activities took place simultaneously in community
schools designed their curriculum to fulfill the needs of the local community and
through that attempted to accelerate community development.
Salient Features of Community Schools:-
Education for community development
Education that promises immediate job-placement for students
Short-term courses/ part-time courses
Parents, teacher and students jointly plan the course content
Types of Community Schools:-
Community Schools could be organized on the following 4 types:
Schools that offer instruction in the main occupation of the
local community; different aspects of the vocation form the
course content
Develop the social skills and competency in students so as to
equip them to solve social problems of the community with
the cooperation of the elders.
Organize schools so as to reflect all the prevalent practices and
values of the society in a small scale
Organize schools so as to undertake various kinds of
educational extension work in the society in the field of Adult
education, Non-formal education, agriculture, health and
nutrition, environmental awareness etc.,
Community schools promote the community awareness and social
concern among the pupils; expand the scope for self-employment.

Non-Graded Schools:-
Non-graded schools refer to newer forms of curricular and instructional
organization, so as to ensure continuous and cumulative growth of children,
particularly at the primary level of education. In this approach each child,
according to its maturity and needs is admitted into a suitable group wherein
every one through self-learning master the different levels of education. Here the
assumption is that all children of same physical age may not be able to do the
same work in the same way within the give time period.
Navodaya Schools:-
In our efforts to fulfill the constitutional obligation of providing
Education for all, we should lose sight of our higher ideal Excellence in
Education. The National Policy of Education 1986 advocated that the
potentials of highly talented students particularly those potentials of highly
talented students particularly those belonging to the rural capacity to pay
for education, by establishing Navodaya Schools one at each district across
the country.
Objectives of Navodaya Schools:-
These Navodaya Vidyalaysis as integral part of the NPE have the
following specific objective:
To serve as centres of excellence and pace-setter institutions
for school education.
To provide quality education to the hitherto deprived talented
children
To ensure qualitative improvement in school education n
through innovative practices.
To ensure accountability for all in developing a model school
system
To implement the three-language formula by ensuring that all
children attain a reasonable competence
To formulate/improve upon the curriculum and methodology
through experimentation by providing complete freedom to the
teacher
To strengthen and further the principles enshrined in the
constitution-democracy, socialism and secularism through
community living.
To develop a uniform common school system throughout the
country with the objective of developing and maintaining a
national standard at par with international standard.
Sainik Schools:-
Emergence of Sainik School in India:-
Sainik schools are of special type. In a way, these could be categorized
along with the public schools in Europe.
In our country, during the British rule, public schools were started in
hill stations like shimla, Dehradhun, Moussori, Nainital etc., to cater to the
educational needs of the rich and the ruling class. The schools offered
education from the Nursery to High school level and presented pupils for
the Senior Cambridge Certificate. Schools started for the children of the
British Army officers as well as King George schools (which were later came
to be known as Sainik Schools) Sanawar and Lawrence Schools all belong to
the same type.
Functioning of Sainik Schools:-
Sainik schools function primary to develop the special talents of
children, promote the skills in modern warfare and the spirit to protect
security of our nation among the pupils.
In Sainik schools apart from the regular school curriculum, training in
warfare, trekking and mountaineering, swimming and horse-riding are
imparted. Those who pass out of Sainik schools are eligible to join degree
courses in Military Colleges. Those who are trained in Sainik schools and
military colleges choose their careers in the Armed Forces.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (S.S.A):-
The English equivalence of S.S.A is The Education for Al;l
Movement, which is sometimes referred to as each one teach one. It is a
flagship propgramme of India, language during the Nineth Five Year Plan
(1997-2002), for the achievement of Universalisation of Elementary
Education (UEE) in a time bound manner, as mandated by the 86
th

amendment to the constitution of India, making free and compulsory
education to children of ages 6 to 14 (estimated to be 205 millions in 2011
A.D) a fundamental right
Aims of S.S.A:-
To achieve the goal of universalisation of elementary education
of satisfactory quality by 2010.
To bridge social, regional and gender gaps, with the active
participation of the community in the management of schools.
Objectives of S.S.A:-
Admit all children in school, Education Guarantee Centre
of Alternate School by 2003
All children complete five years of primary schooling by
2007
All children complete eight years of schooling by 2010
Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with
emphasis on education for life
Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage
by 2007 and at elementary education level by 2010
Universal retention by 2010
Operational Strategy:-
Open new schools in those habitations which do not haven
schooling facilities
Provide maintenance grants for upkeep of the school
Provide additional teachers in existing schools with inadequate
teacher strength
Strengthen the academic supports structure at cluster, block and
district level.
Ensure quality of elementary education including life skills
Bestow special focus on girls education and children with
special needs
Provide the basic knowledge in computer education to brige the
digital divide.
Virtual Schools / Web-based Schools:-
A virtual schools or cyber school describes an institution that teaches
courses entirely or primarily through online methods. Though there are
tens of thousands of commercial and non-accredited courses available
online, the term virtual schools is generally reserved for accredited
schools that teach a full-time (or nearly full-time) course of instruction
designed to lead to a degree.
History of Virtual Schools:-
Many of todays Virual Schools are descendants of correspondence
schools. Sometimes referred to as distance learning, correspondence
schools offered students an alternative to the traditional brick and mortar
buildings within a schoolhouse. These schools utilized the building service
for student-teacher interaction, or used two way radio transmissions,
sometimes with pre-recorded televising broadcasts. Students were
expected to study their learning material independently and, in some cases,
meet with a proctor to be tested. Modern virtual schools provide similar
alternatives to students with a more ubiquitous and, often, interactive
approach.
Salient Features of Virtual Schools:-
All student services like admission, curriculum transaction,
evaluation, grading etc. Are conducted through inter
technology.
All announcement and details of information about available
facilities are providing through bulletin board in the website.
Class sizes range widely with anywhere from 25 students to as
many as 200 students in each class section
Instructional models range from independent self paces courses
to semester based, teacher facilitated courses.
Most courses will provide electronic materials free of cost, but
other requires some shopping on the students part.
Text books are not required but can be used as an aid for
coursework.
With appropriate statically data and recorded documents quality
control is maintained
Advantages and Disadvantages of Virtual Schools:-
Advantages:-
Cyber school economizes time and cost, as the students
does not require to travel to real classroom to learn
Online learning creates the opportunity for integrating
digital media into the curriculum in an interactive format
making teaching and learning more student centered
Regular full time students, distance education students,
and in fact any one learning through cyber schools need
not go in search of libraries to gather needed information
Disadvantages:-
A person must be self motivated to learn as learning cannot
be enforced via internet in asynchronous model.
For the synchronous model, : lack of socialization is often
quoted; but recent anecdotal evidence from one live cyber
school indicated that, while socialization may be different, it
is not lacking
Floating University:-
Floating University is an innovation in higher education. It presents a
contrast to or traditional universities functioning form fixed centers
(campus) and may be considered as an extension of the concept of Mobile
School. The innovative aspect if education here is that students learn
formally on board the ship during their voyage to ports in different countries
and informally through direct social contacts of people in the port cities
during their short stay on landing.
Institute Shipboard Education in collaboration with Colerado
University developed the first floating university called Shipboard
University, 461 students belonging to, different colleges and universities of
USA set out on voyage for education in the ship named S.S. Universe.
INNOVATIONS IN EVALUTION:-
Measurement and Evaluation:-
Till the first half of the 20
th
Century, the term Educational
Measurement is more appropriate only in the cases of concrete objects. For
example we can accurately measure the area of a land, volume of water,
weight of a body, length and breadth of piece of cloth, time spent in event
etc.
When quantitative measurements obtained objectively by the use of
tests or other kinds of tools are combined with qualitative assessments
made, judging the value or worth of a thing becomes possible. This value
judgment is called evaluation.
Evaluation = Quantitative measurement + Qualitative assessment
Thus evolution could be defined as an act or process that allows one to
make a judgment about the desirability or value of a measure.
Education and Evaluation:-
Definition of Educational Evaluation:-
Evaluation is a systematic, continuous process of demining-
The extent to which specified educational objectives,
previously identified and defined, are attained;
The effffectiveness of the learning experiences provided in
the classroom and
How well the goals of education have been accomplished.

Important features of Educational Evaluation:-
Form the definition of educational evaluation; we derive its
important features as follow:
It is systematic process
It is a continuous process; it goes hand in hand with the
teaching-learning process
It emphasizes the broad personality changes and major
objectives of an educational programme
It assumes that educational objectives have been
previously been identified and define.
A comprehensive evaluation involves the use of many
tool and techniques
It attempts to determine the congruence between
performance and objectives
It helps to determine the adequacy and
appropriateness of the learning experiences provided,
to achieve the defined objectives.
Aim / Importance of Educational Evaluation:-
Through educational evaluation it is possible to assess
academic achievement of students in every school subject
Every student is enabled to compare his present
performance with his own past performance and readjust
his learning style
Evaluation helps in classifying students as high, moderate
and low achievers.
Guidance programs and counseling services could be
arranged to the needy pupils, identified through evolution,
students could be helped to understand the defects and
deficiencies in their learning techniques and undertake
remedial measures.
Evaluation helps the teacher to know the effectiveness of
his teaching method so that necessary changes could be
incorporated, if need be
Evaluation becomes a basis for research if wide differences
are noticed in achievements of students in his class.
Role and Functions of Educational Evaluation:-
Evaluation is an indispensable part of the education system and
performs the following functions:
Students attainment forms a basis also for indirect
evaluation of teacher.
Evaluation techniques could be perfected by carrying out
researches on test construction, administration,
interpretation and grading.
The findings obtained in evaluation form the basis for
bringing about changes in the curriculum so as to make it
more relevant and purposeful.
It is useful as a good tool for assessing the students
progress in learning and observing his overall
development. On the basis of such assessments,
individualized instruction may be adopted whenever
necessary.
Innovations in Evaluation Introduced in Tamilnadu:-
Tamilnadu in the forefront in modernizing the education
system and introduced several welcome changes which are noted below:
i) New Type Tests
Reliability of a test indicates the indicates the consistency
of test scores, with no inter-examiner and inter-examiner
variations. Whoever values the answer scripts, more or less the
same test scores should result with little variations.
Objectivity refers to the possibility of having only one
answer for any give test item which eliminates the discretion of
the examiner in scoring the responses,. In other words,
objectivity means the elimination of scores bias in
evaluating testees responses.
ii) Multiple Question Papers
For Public Examinations when thousands of students
appear for an examination, multiple question papers are
recommended. For each subject several sets of question papers
are set by experts for the prescribed syllabus in the same
pattern with test items of comparable difficulty. It there are
four sets, they will be marked as A, B, C, D and they will be given
in that order for candidates in every row.


iii) Central Valuation System
In the traditional system of examination, answer scripts
are usually dispatched by registered post to the residences of
the examiners for valuation. This practice led to enormous
delay and interference by influential people and also corrupt
practices. Form 1968 onwards. Tamilnadu had introduced
Central valuation system for S.S.L.C. Public Examination. Now
this system is followed for +2 and Degree Examinations also.

Revaluation and Retotaling
Candidates have been given the right to apply within
two weeks from the date of publication of results, for revaluation of their
answered scripts or retotaling of the marks awarded in a particular subject
to the Director / Controller of Examinations by paying the prescribed fees.
iv) Conducting Improvement Examinations
This system enables the failed students (failed in three or
less number of subjects only) to reapers for the examinations to
be held before the reopening of schools and colleges in the
failed subjects alone, without waiting for the examinations in
the next semester or year.
New Techniques of Evaluation
Some newer techniques have come into practice now of
which the following are the important ones;
Continuous Evaluation
Continuous Evaluation refers to the practice of evaluating
students skills and proficiency periodically throughout the
course and maintaining a record of the cumulative progress
achieved. It is highly unjustified to base on his/her performance
in a single examination of three hours at the end of the course
completion, ignoring the track record of his progress during the
course.
Self Evaluation
Students could be encouraged to evaluate themselves
their own answer scripts by comparing them with the scouring keys/ model
answers provided. Self-evaluation could prove to be more reliable for
performance tests.
Question Bank
Experts in each subject discipline are requested to prepare
test items covering the entire syllabus meant for a course at a given level of
examination, conforming tom the guidelines provided. The test items so
prepared are then examined in an open session and those approved with
necessary modifications if any, are put into the question bank.
Open-book Examination:-
In some examinations, students may be given the freedom to
consult the books and write answers for the questions in then examination.
In Government Departmental Tests, government employees are allowed to
consult the prescribed books and manuals for answering questions related
to basic rules and regulations, financial sanctions and approvals etc.
Some model questions that conform to the require ments of
open-book system of examination are given as follows:
1. Compare the preaching of Buddha and Mahaveera on Non-
violence.
2. What are the differences between the language style in Tamil
between Sangam-literature and devotional literature?
3. List the population, literacy rate and financial allocation for
education in different states in India
4. Point out the important aspects in which constitutions of
India and Sri Lanka differ.

Grading System:-
In educational institutions, answer scripts are valued and the scores
are expressed as percentages, Parents and students believe that marks
accurately measure ones proficiency. One who scored 59% is considered to
be less proficient than one who has a score of 60%. But it is not realized
that this state may get reversed in a revaluation.
It is more apt to express ones proficiency as a grade representing a
particular range of marks. For example, it may be taken to mean that
A = 80% and above
B = Above 60% but below 80%
C = 40% and above but below 60%
F = Less than 40%
Instead of letter grades, numerical points could also be given as shown
below, to indicate the grade of proficiency.
Very Good = 4 Points
Good = 3 Points
Average = 2 Points
Below Average
(Improvements required) = 1 Points
Evaluation of Teacher
If the teacher fails to perform his duties well, he is guilty of
wasting the precious time of his students and also will be considered
responsible for pulling back the progress of his students. An ideal teacher
inspires; good teacher explains; an average repeats; a poor teacher tells.
Teacher could be evaluated mainly by the following three
methods:
Self-evaluation
Peer evaluation
Student-evaluation


Self-Evaluation by Teachers
Every teacher should cultivate the virtue of objectively
evaluating his strengths and weaknesses. This enables him to expand his
good qualities and eliminate those which interfere with his work in
becoming a good and effective teacher.

A model rating scale for self-evaluation of teachers is as follows:
S.No Aspect being rated Rating Points given
0 1 2 3 4
1 Preparation for Teaching


2 Use of teaching-aids


3 Explaining / Describing


4 Questioning


5 Motivating


6 Review / Recapitulating


7 Special attention for Slow learners


8 Providing suitable Assignments


9 Cordial relations with students


10 Classroom Management


11 Punctuality


12 Dignified Behavior


13 Clean Appearance


14 Sense of humor


15 Please Voice


16 Skill in Narration


17 Adopting Innovative instructional techniques


18 Enthusiastic Participation in Co-curricular
Activities

19 Language Fluency
20 Contact with Parents of Pupils


Peer Evaluation:-
A teacher could get his teaching Effectiveness assessed either by his
colleagues in the same department or by other fellow teachers working in
the same institution. Many teachers are sensitive about peer evaluation,
despite the fact that it will yield better perception about his overall
performance. A specimen rating scale for peer evaluation is given below:
S.No Aspect of Assessment Evaluation Rating
Requires
improvem
ent
Fair Satis
factory
Good Very
good
1 Depth of knowledge in the subject


2 Teaching competence
3 Classroom Management
4 Language Fluency


5 Handling of apparatus / Using
instructional aids

6 Interest in Teaching
7 Questioning Skill / Test Preparation


8 Concern for Students Welfare


9 Dignified Behavior and Conduct
10 Dedication to duty


Student Evaluation of Teacher
The saying that the students are the best judges of teacher is a blunt
truth. But many a time the teachers ego does not allow for being judge by
his own students. Further to undertake evaluation, one should have
adequate educational background and experience, mental maturity, etc.
Therefore there may not be any objection for student evaluation of
teachers, at the postgraduate level of education.
At model rating scale for student evaluation of teachers is given
below:
S.No Aspect of Assessment Evaluation Rating
Very good Good Fair Inadeq
uate
Very
Inadequ
ate
1 Appearance
2 Sociability
3 Use of Teaching aids and
Instructional techniques followed

4 Narration of Stories, and episodes
5 Skill in explaining with examples
6 Explaining Skill
7 Clarifying Students doubts
8 Delivering Instruction at even pace
9 Promptly returning back students
evaluated assignments

10 Conducting Demonstrations

National Testing Service:-
Establishment of National Testing Service (NTS) was one of the
recommendations of National Policy of Education (1986). An organization to
prepare a series of good test papers was needed and Mysore was selected
as the most suitable place and the task was entrusted to the Institute of
Indian Languages, which had prior experience in standardization of tests.
Objectives of National Testing Service:-
The major objectives of National testing Service are:
To prepare for all the seven stages of general education, concept
based continuous and developing syllabus for Indian languages.
To design norms and models to implement them
To create a centre level technology to develop a national level
standardization for languages tests
To facilitate comparative study of the languages in the region.
To award certificated of accreditation to language courses and
institutions that offer them
To conduct tests, as a beginning, to students of Std XII and
undergraduate courses in language subjects
To delink degrees from jobs, gradually
To lay down norms regarding admission of students,
certification, appointments on the basis of aptitude,
competencies and achievement.
Functioning of National Testing Service
National Testing Service is carried out at 30 places in India of
which 10 centres for Tamil language are spread over in several parts of
Tamilnadu, under this scheme, it is planned to create 60 Regional Field
Centers across 15 States to train 6000 College and School teachers.
Presently there are 10 centers for Hindi language and 10 for
Urdu. Plans are underway to expand these centers. These centers
undertake Research in Testing and Standardization to develop benchmarks
of performance.