Electrical & Electronics Measurement Lab Manual

Electrical & Electronics Measurement Lab Manual:3
rd
semester(ET&T) 1

Government Girls Polytechnic, Bilaspur
Name of the Lab:Electrical&Electronic
Measurement Lab

Practical: Electrical & Electronics Measurement
Lab

Class :3
rd
Semester ( ET&T )
Teachers Assessment:10 End Semester Examination: 50

Experiment no 1

OBJECTIVE :. Self-inductance measurements: Ammeter and Voltmeter method, Self-Inductance
Measurement by General four-armss bridge network method.

MATERIAL REQUIRED :- Inductance, Ammeter and Voltmeter, General four-armss bridge
network method

THEORY:- Inductance Meters instruments for measuring the inductance of circuits with lumped
parameters, the windings of transformers and chokes, and inductance coils. Their principle of
operation depends on the method of measurement.
The voltmeter-ammeter method (Figure 1) is used for measuring relatively large inductances
(from 0.1 to 1,000 henrys [H]) when the resistance of the windings is significantly lower than the
inductance. In this case L
x
= U/( f I), where U is the voltage, I is the current in the circuit whose
inductance is being measured, and f is the frequency of the alternating current, usually 50 hertz
(Hz). Such inductance meters have an error of 23 percent.An AC measuring bridge (for
frequencies of 100, 400, and 1,000 Hz) with standard capacitance or, much less
frequently,standard inductance (Figure 2) is the main component of inductance meters. When the
bridge is balanced,
r
x
= (R
1
R
2
)/R
3
L
x
= C
s
R
1
R
2

where r
x
is the ohmic resistance of the wire of the inductance coil winding. Bridge measurement
methods have an error of 13 percent; the range of measurement is 0.1 to 1,000 H.
Resonance methods are based on the resonant properties of an oscillatory circuit composed of
the inductance being measured (L
x
) and a standard capacitance C
s
(Figure 3). By varying C the
circuit can be tuned to resonance with the generator (at frequencies of 10 kHz to 1.5 MHz); the
inductance is then calculated using the formula L
x
= (2.53
l0
)(f
2
0
c), where L
x
is the inductance
in mH, f
0
is the resonance frequency in kHz, and C = C
s
+ C
c
is the total capacitance of the circuit
in picofarads. Resonant inductance meters have an error of 25 percent; the range of
measurement is 0.05 .H to 100 mH.

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For each value of Rx, find the expected value of current that will flow (assuming a voltage
source of 10 V) by dividing 10 V by the value of Rx.
3- Based on the value of current expected to flow, calculate the required value of the DRB to
convert the ammeter to the suitable full scale deflection (FSD).
4- Set the DRBX to the value of Rx.
5- Calculate the required value of DRBV to a value suitable for a FSD of voltage of 10 V.
6- Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2 below. Remember that the voltmeter shown might
include DRBV in series. Also remember that the ammeter shown might include DRBA in
parallel.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

Figure 1. Diagram of the measurement of inductance by the voltmeter-ammeter method:(A)
ammeter, (V) voltmeter, (Lx) inductance, (l) current, (U) voltage

Figure 2 Diagram of resonance method of inductance measurement: (Lc) coupling loop, (Lx) inductance being measured,
(Cc) self-capacitance of coil, (Cs) standard capacitance

Procedure:-

1) Study the circuit provided on the front panel of the kit.
2) Connect unknown inductance LX1 in the circuit. Make all connections to
complete the bridge.
3) Put the supply ON
4) Set the null point of galvanometer by adjusting variable resistance R3.
5) Note value of R2, R3, and C4 by removing connection by patch cords.
6) Calculate theoretical value of LX1 using L=R2R3C4
7) Measure value of LX2 by LCR meter and compare it.
8) Repeat process for LX2.

Result:- The unknown inductance is measured using Hays bridge and is found to
be___

Precautions :
1.connections should be tight.
2.Instrument should be handled carefully.

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Experiment No :-2

Object:- Measurement of the unknown inductance by using Hays bridge method.

Apparatus:- Multimeter
LCR meter
Hays bridge kit,
Patch cords.

Theory:-
The hays bridge is the modification of the Maxwell Bridge. This bridge uses a resistance
in series with the standard capacitor. The bridge has four resistive arms in which the arms
one is consists of the resister R1, Lx .The arm 2 is consists of the variable resistance
R3.The low value of the resistance is obtain by the low resistive arms of the bridge. The
value of R4 and C4 is the standard value of the capacitor and resistance.
By using the unknown inductance having a resistanceR1. R2, R3,R4-is the known
non-inductive resistance and C4 is standard value of the capacitor. The unknown value of
inductance and Quality factor of the Bridge is obtained by formula.
Lx = (R2R3C4) /(1+2R42C4
2) Quality factor (Q)=(1/2R42C42)
Basic AC bridges consist of four arms, source excitation and a balanced detector.
Commonly used detectors for AC bridges are:
(1) Head phones
(2) Vibration galvanometers
(3) Tunable amplifier detectors
Vibration galvanometer is extremely useful at power and low audio
frequency ranges. Vibration galvanometers are manufactured to work at various
frequency ranging from 5 KHZ to 1 KHZ. But one most commonly used between
200HZ.
Advantage-1) This Bridge gives very simple expression for unknown for High Q coil.
2) This bridge also gives a simple expression for Q factor.
Disadvantage-1)The hays bridge is suited for the measurement of the High Q inductor.
2)It is used to find the inductor having the q value of the smaller then 10.

.
Procedure:-
1) Study the circuit provided on the front panel of the kit.
2) Connect unknown inductance LX1 in the circuit. Make all connections to
complete the bridge.
3) Put the supply ON
4) Set the null point of galvanometer by adjusting variable resistance R3.
5) Note value of R2, R3, and C4 by removing connection by patch cords.
6) Calculate theoretical value of LX1 using L=R2R3C4
7) Measure value of LX2 by LCR meter and compare it.
8) Repeat process for LX2.

Circuit Diagram:-

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Figure 1. Diagram of a bridge for measuring inductance: (U) current source; (G) galvanometer; (R3),
(R2), and (R3) ohmic resistances; (Cx,) standard capacitance; (Lx) inductance being measured

Result:- The unknown inductance is measured using Hays bridge and is found to
be___

Precautions :

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Experiment no 3

Object: To measure self inductance of two coils, mutual inductance between these and the
coefficient of coupling

Apparatus required: Ammeter 0-2am,0-10A MI Voltmeter 0-500V MI100V

Theory:
When the two coils are connected for additive polarity the fluxes produced by the current
in the two coils will aid each other and hence the impedance is high. This require the equivalent
inductance to be very high. In this case, the mutual inductance terms will have the same sign as
that of the self inductance terms. Thus, if the two coils having inductance L
1
and L
2
respectively
and a mutual inductance of M between them are connected for additive polarity, the equivalent
inductance
L
1
= L
1
+ L
2
+ 2M (1)
When the two coils are connected for subtractive polarity, the two fluxes will oppose each other
and the inductance and hence the impedances are low. In this case the mutual inductance terms
will have the opposite sign as that of the self inductance terms. Hence the equivalent inductance
L
11
= L
1
+ L
2
- 2M (2)
From (1) and (2), we can find out M, L
1
and L
2
. Thus the coefficient of coupling is calculated by
the formula

2 1
L L
M
K =
Procedure: First the polarity is to be checked. For this connect the 0 10A ammeter and 0
500V voltmeter in the circuit. Then switch on the supply with autotransformer in its minimum
position. Then vary the autotransformer and note the variation of readings in the ammeter and
voltmeter. If the current variation is high, for a small voltage the polarity is subtractive. Otherwise,
the polarity is additive. After checking the polarity put the required range of meters in the circuit.
For additive polarity, give the rated voltage (ie 220 + 200 = 420V) and note the ammeter
and voltmeter readings.
For subtractive polarity, pass the rated current (7.5A) by adjusting the autotransformer and note
the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
For measuring the resistance, keeping the current limiting rheostat at its maximum
position supply is switched on. Then the ammeter and voltmeter readings are noted.

Circuit diagram:

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For additive
polarity

For subtractive
polarity

Tabulation

Additive Polarity Subtractive Polarity Resistance Measurement
V
1

Volts
I
1
Amp
Z
1

V
2

Volts
I
2
Amp
Z
2

V
3

Volts
I
3
Amp
R

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Calculation

L
1
= L
1
+ L
2
+ 2M .. (1)
L
11
= L
1
+ L
2
- 2M .. (2)
L
1
+

L
11
= 2 (L
1
+ L
2
)
L
1
+ L
2 = (
L
1
+

L
11
) / 2 .. (3)
(L
1
-

L
11
)/4 = M .. (4)
Z
1
= V
1
/ I
1

Z
2
= V
2
/ I
2
R = V
3
/ I
3
2 2
1 1
Z X R =

L
1

= X
1
/ 2f
2 2
2 2
Z X R =
L
2

= X
2
/ 2f
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
E
E
N
N
L
L
=
=
Solve for L
1
L
2
and M.
Coefficient of coupling
2 1
L L
M
K =
Result Self inductance of primary coil L
1
= __________________
Self inductance of primary coil L
2
= __________________
Mutual inductance M = __________________
Coefficient of coupling K = __________________

Precautions :

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Experiment no 4
Aim:- Measurement of the unknown inductance by using Maxwell bridge method.
Apparatus:-
Digital multimeter,
Patch cords.
R2=100=1M,
R3=9.97K,
C4=1f
LX1=318mH
LX2=73 mH

Theory:-
The Maxwells bridge is used an inductance is measured by comparison with a
standard variable capacitance. One of the ratio arms has a rsistance and the
capacitance in the parallel.
In this bridge at the balance in condition there is no current is flow in the
galvanometer.henced the balance equation for the bridge using the admittance of
the arm 1 instead of the impedance.
ZX=(Z2* Z 3*Y1)
Where the Y1 is the admittance of the arm-1.
Z2=R2
Z3=R3
Y1=(1/R1+j)
By separating the real and imaginary term the unknown value of the resister (Rx)
and the unknown value of the capacitor (Cx) has given below.
Rx=(R2*R3/R1).
LX= (R2*R3*C1)
Advantage-
1) This bridge is very useful for measurement of a wide range of a
inductance at the power and audio frequencies.
2) The frequency does not appear in any of the two equations.
Disadvantage-
1) This bridge requires a variable standard capacitor, which may be
Vary expensive if the calibration to a high degree of the accuracy.
2) The bridge is limited the measure the low Q value.

Procedure:-
1) Study circuit on kit from panel.
2) Connect unknown inductance LX1 in circuit. Make all possible connections to
complete the network. Switch the supply on.
3) Set null point of galvanometer by adjusting variable resistance R3
4) Note values of R2, R3, C4 by removing their connections. Calculate theoretical
values of LX using L1=R2R3C4.
5) Measure actual value of LX1 using LCR meter. Compare this value with
calculated. also calculate Q factor by using above equation.

Circuit Diagram :

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Result:- Unknown inductance measured using Maxwells bridge is found to be
LX1=____

Precautions :

2.Instrument should be handled carefully

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Experiment No-05

Aim:- Measurement of medium resister by the voltmeter and ammeter method.

Apparatus:- DC ammeter(0-500mA)
DC Voltmeter (0-5V)
Dc power supply (0-30V)
Variable Resistance -100 ohm.
Connecting wires.

Theory: -
Two types of the connections are done one employed for the ammeter
voltmeter method as shown in the figure voltmeter and ammeter are connected in series,
where ammeter measures the total current flowing through the circuit and voltmeter
measures the voltage across the unknown resistance .The voltmeter should have ideally
infinite resistance and ammeter should have ideally zero resistance so that it will measure
total current flowing through the unknown resistance. But practically it is not possible
and measured value Rm of the resistance is the sum of resistance of ammeter and actual
resistance.
Rm=R1+Ra
Where
R1=Actual resistance.
Ra=resistance of the ammeter.
It is clear from the expression that the value of measured resistance is equal to actual
resistance when ammeter has zero resistance.
Procedure:-
1) Make the connections as per circuit diagram.
2) Switch on the supply and note down the readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
3) Calculate the value of the unknown resistance by ohms low.
4) Perform the procedure for the other case similarly.

Circuit Diagram:-

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Observation Table:-

Result: - Hence we study the measured and the actual vale of the unknown resistance is
found .

Precautions :


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Experiment No.-06

Aim: - Measurement of the medium resistance by using whetstone bridge method.

Apparatus: - Power supply,
Resistor: - 10K_-1no,5K_-1no,11K_-1no
Unknown resistor=100_,
Pot =1K-1no.
Wheat stone bridge kit.
Digital multimeter-1no,
Patch codes.

Theory-
A very important device used in the measurement of medium resistances is the
Wheat stones bridge .it is an accurate and reliable instrument .The wheat stone bridge is
an instrument based on the principle of null indication and comparison measurements .
The basic circuit of a wheat stone bridge is shown in fig . it has four resistive
arms, consisting of resistances P,Q,R and S together with a source of emf and a null
detector , usually a galvanometer G or other sensitive current meter is used. The current
through the galvanometer depends on the potential difference between points b and d
.The bridge is said to be balanced when there is on current through the galvanometer or
when the potential difference across the galvanometer is zero. this occurs when the
voltage from point b to point a equals the voltage from point d to point a or by
referring to other battery terminal , when the voltage from point d to point c equals the
voltage from point b to point c.
For bridge balance;
I1P=I2 R . (.1)
I1=I3=E/P+Q (2)
I2=I4=E/R+S (3)
E=emf of battery.
Combining equ (1) and (2) we get
P/P+Q=R/R+S (4)
QR=PS (5)
Equ . (5) Shows the balance condition of wheat stone bridge. If three of the resistances
are known then fourth may be determined by formula
R=S*P/Q
Where R is the unknown resistance, S is called the standard arm resistor and P and Q are
called the ratio arms.

Procedure: -
1) Connect the patch cord as per the circuit diagram.
2) Note the resistance of P and Q using multimeter.
3) Adjust the resistance of P, Q, R, S
4) Switch on the power supply and adjust the resistance S such that galvanometer
shows the zero deflection.
5) Now calculate R, R=P*S/Q

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Circuit Diagram:-

Observation Table: -

Result:- Hence we have studied the low resistance by using whetstone bridge.

Precautions :


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Experiment No:-07

Aim: - Measurement of the low resistance by using Kelvin Double bridge method.

Apparatus: - Regulated dc supply-1no
Standard resistance coil-1no
Kelvins double bridge kit.
Digital multimeter-1no,
Patch codes.

Theory: -
Kelvins bridge is a modification of whetstones bridge and always used in
measurement of low resistance. It uses two sets of ratio arms and the four terminal
resistances for the low resistance consider the ckt. As shown in fig. The first set of ratio P
and Q. The second set of ratio arms are p and q is used to connected to galvanometer to a
pt d at an Approx. potential between points m and n to eliminate the effects of connecting
lead of resistance r between the known std. resistance s and unknown resistance R
.The ratio P/Q is made equal to p/q. under balanced condition there is no current flowing
through galvanometer which means voltage drop between a and b, Eab equal to the
voltage drop between a and c, Eamd.
Now Ead=P/P+Q ; Eab=I[R+S+[(p+q)r/p+q+r]] -------------- (1)
Eamd= I[R+ p/p+q[ (p+q)r/p+q+r]] --------------------------- (2)
For zero deflection->
Eac=Ead
[ P/P+Q]I[R+S+{(p+q)r/p+q+r}]=I[R+pr/p+q+r] ---- (3)
Now, if P/Q=p/q
Then equa (3) becomes
R=P/Q=S -
(4)

Equation (4) is the usual working equation. For the Kelvins Double Bridge .It indicates
the resistance of connecting lead r. It has no effect on measurement provided that the two
sets of ratio arms have equal ratios. Equation (3) is useful however as it shows the error
that is introduced in case the ratios are not exactly equal. It indicates that it is desirable to
keep r as small as possible in order to minimize the error in case there is a diff. between
the ratio P/Q and p/q.
R=P/QS

Circuit Diagram: -

Observation Table: -

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Procedure: -
1) The circuit configuration on the panel is studied.
2) Supply is switched on and increased upto 5v.
3) The unknown resistance is connected as shown .
4) The value of P,Q was selected such that
a. P/Q=p/q
5) S was adjusted for proper balance and balance value of s was balanced.
6) The value of known resistance was calculated.

Result- The observed value of unknown resistance is

Precautions-
1) Check all the connections before turning ON the power supply.
2) Do not exceed the value of 5v.
3) Note the readings accurately.

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Experiment No-08

Aim:- Measurement of the high resistance by using loss of charge method.

Apparatus:- Multimeter 1no
Ammeter-(0-200ma)-1no
Voltmeter (0-30v)-1no
Capacitor-10uf-1no
Resister-100K-1no
Power supply-(0-30v)-1no
.

Theory:-
In this method the resistance which is measured is connected in parallel with
the capacitor C and the electronic voltmeter V. The capacitor is the charged up to some
suitable voltage by means of the battery having the voltage V and is then allowed to
discharge through the resistance.
The terminal voltage is observed over the considerable period of the time
during discharge.
Let ,
V=initial voltage on the charged capacitor .
.v=instantaneous discharging voltage.
I=the discharging capacitor current through the unknown resistor at time t.
Q=the charge still remaining in the capacitor.
I=dq/dt=-cdv/dt since[I=V/R]
V/R+C dv/dt=0 (1)
1/RC dt+1/V.dV=0
integrating both sides
t/RC+logev+K=0 (2)
K is const. of integration
At initial condition
When T=0 , v=V from equ. (2)
K=-logeV
now equ. (2) becomes
t/RC+logev-logeV=0
therefore. Loge (v/V)=-t/RC
v/V=e-t/RC
v=V*e-t/RC
Taking log on both sides
logev=logeV+logee-t/RC
R=t/C*loge(V/v)
R=0.4343*t/C*log10(V/v)
Procedure:-
1) Connections is make as per the circuit diagram.
2) Close the switch s and keep s2 open the capacitor charge by own leakage method.
3) New open reading and voltmeter .as its own resistance.
4) Note down the reading of the voltmeter Vs equal interval of the time

Circuit Diagram:-

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Observation Table:-

Result:- High resistance of the resistance is calculated by using loss of charge method.

Precautions-

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Experiment no-9

Aim:- Measurement of the unknown capacitance sharing bridge method.

Apparatus:- Sharing bridge kit
digital multimeter,
patch cords,

Theory:-
The schering bridge one of the most important ac bridge is used the extensively for the
measurement of capacitors.
In the schering bridge the arm 1 now contains a parallel combination of the
resistor and the capacitor and standard arm contain only one capacitor. The standard
capacitor is usually a standard high quality mica capacitor.
in the balance condition of the bridge the sum of the phase angles of the arms 1
and 4 is equal the sum of the phase angle of arms 2 and 3.at the balance in condition there
is no current flow in the galvanometer.
The balance equation is derived in the usual manner, and by substituting the
corresponding impendence and the admittance the value of the unknown capacitor and
the resister is find as given below.
Cx=C3(R1/R2).
Rx=R2(C1/C2)

Procedure: -
1) Study the circuit provided on the front panel on the kit.
2) Connect the unknown capacitance of the position given.
3) Set the null point of galvanometer by adjusting the variable
4) Calculate the value of unknown capacitance by formula given

Circuit Diagram

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Result: -The values of unknown capacitance is measured by shearing bridge

Precautions-

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Experiment no-10
Aim:- To study of DC potentiometer.
Apparatus:- Power supply,(0-50v)
Battery,(0-30V)
Resister-100

Theory:-
The potentiometer although not consider a bridge has circuit that using a simple
circuit thermo becomes identical to the whetstone bridge. The potentiometer is a device
for measuring the voltage while presenting a very high impedance to the voltage source
under the Test.
The variable resister R1 is the precision device that can be set to an accurate value.
the resister is adjusted so that no current is flow through the galvanometer. which is the
similar to balancing the bridge.
At this point the zero current flow several important characteristics of the
potentiometer cab be determine.

Circuit Diagram

Result:- To study the working of the DC potentiometer.
. Precautions-

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Experiment no 11

OBJECTIVE: . Study of C.R.O. Voltage measurement on C.R.O.
Current measurement on C.R.O. Frequency measurement on C.R.O. Phase difference
measurement on C.R.O.
APPARATUS REQUIRED : Cathode-ray oscilloscope, millimeter, and oscillator.
Theory
INTRODUCTION: The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that
provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose
laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in Fig. 1.

The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative
electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode, intensity
grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose
is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun
and the fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal
deflection of the beam and one pair oriented ot give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates
are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two
deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron
beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This coversion
of electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise
darkened screen.

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In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first amplified and
then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam vertically and at the same time
a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to the horizontal (deflection) plates thus
causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at a uniform (constant> rate. The signal applied to
the verical plates is thus displayed on the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves
as a uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of a sweep
generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of such a generator
is that of a sawtooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application of one cycle of this voltage difference,
which increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected
linearly with time across the tube face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a)
(b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial position. The horizontal
deflection of the beam is repeated periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by
external controls.

To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of the unknown
signal that is applied to the vertical plates must be associated with each cycle of the sweep
generator. Thus, with such a matching of synchronization of the two deflections, the pattern on
the tube face repeats itself and hence appears to remain stationary. The persistance of vision in
the human eye and of the glow of the fluorescent screen aids in producing a stationary pattern. In
addition, the electron beam is cut off (blanked) during flyback so that the retrace sweep is not
observed.
CRO Operation: A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3. In
general, the instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to be displayed is
amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the verical deflection plates of the CRT. A portion
of the signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to the sweep trigger as a triggering signal. The
sweep trigger then generates a pulse coincident with a selected point in the cycle of the triggering
signal. This pulse turns on the sweep generator, initiating the sawtooth wave form. The sawtooth
wave is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal deflection plates.
Usually, additional provisions signal are made for appliying an external triggering signal or
utilizing the 60 Hz line for triggering. Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an external
signal applied directly to the horizontal amplifier.
CRO Controls

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The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating conditions
and thus make the instrument especially versatile. Since many of these controls are common to
most oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows.

CATHODE-RAY TUBE
Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination of the graticule.
Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.
Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.

VERTICAL AMPLIFIER SECTION
Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.
Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.
Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the calibrated steps.
Normally the sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is in the fully clockwise position.
AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical amplifier,
or grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier; selecting ac

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send the signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus blocking any constant
component.
HORIZONTAL-SWEEP SECTION
Sweep time/cm: Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits external signal to
horizontal amplifier.
Sweep time/cm Variable: Provides continuously variable sweep rates. Calibrated position is fully
clockwise.
Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.
Horizontal Variable: Controls the attenuation (reduction) of signal applied to horizontal aplifier
through Ext. Horiz. connector.
TRIGGER
The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.
Slope: Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+) or decreasing (-) portion of trigger
signal.
Coupling: Selects whether triggering occurs at a specific dc or ac level.
Source: Selects the source of the triggering signal.
INT - (internal) - from signal on vertical amplifier
EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the EXT. TRIG. INPUT.
LINE - 60 cycle triger
Level: Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at which sweep is triggered. It also allows
automatic (auto) triggering of allows sweep to run free (free run).
CONNECTIONS FOR THE OSCILLOSCOPE
Vertical Input: A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or vertical) amplifier.
The lower jack is grounded to the case.
Horizontal Input: A pair of jacks for connecting an external signal to the horizontal amplifier. The
lower terminal is graounted to the case of the oscilloscope.
External Tigger Input: Input connector for external trigger signal.
Cal. Out: Provides amplitude calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 millivolts for use in
calibrating the gain of the amplifiers.
Accuracy of the vertical deflection is + 3%. Sensitivity is variable.
Horizontal sweep should be accurate to within 3%. Range of sweep is variable.

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Operating Instructions: Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the controls
as follows:
(a) Power switch at off
(b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
(c) Vertical centering in the center of range
(d) Horizontal centering in the center of range
(e) Vertical at 0.2
(f) Sweep times 1
Plug line cord into a standard ac wall receptacle (nominally 118 V). Turn power on. Do not
advance the Intensity Control.Allow the scope to warm up for approximately two minutes, then
turn the Intensity Control until the beam is visible on the screen.
PROCEDURE:
I. Set the signal generator to a frequency of 1000 cycles per second. Connect the output from the
generator to the vertical input of the oscilloscope. Establish a steady trace of this input signal on
the scope. Adjust (play with) all of the scope and signal generator controls until you become
familiar with the function of each. The purpose for such "playing" is to allow the student to
become so familiar with the oscilloscope that it becomes an aid (tool) in making measurements in
other experiments and not as a formidable obstacle. Note: If the vertical gain is set too low, it may
not be possible to obtain a steady trace.
II. Measurements of Voltage: Consider the circuit in Fig. 4(a). The signal generator is used to
produce a 1000 hertz sine wave. The AC voltmeter and the leads to the vertical input of the
oscilloscope are connected across the generator's output. By adjusting the Horizontal Sweep
time/cm and trigger, a steady trace of the sine wave may be displayed on the screen. The trace
represents a plot of voltage vs. time, where the vertical deflection of the trace about the line of
symmetry CD is proportional to the magnitude of the voltage at any instant of time.

To determine the size of the voltage signal appearing at the output of terminals of the
signal generator, an AC (Alternating Current) voltmeter is connected in parallel across these

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semester(ET&T) 26
terminals (Fig. 4a). The AC voltmeter is designed to read the dc "effective value" of the voltage.
This effective value is also known as the "Root Mean Square value" (RMS) value of the voltage.
The peak or maximum voltage seen on the scope face (Fig. 4b) is V
m
volts and is
represented by the distance from the symmetry line CD to the maximum deflection. The
relationship between the magnitude of the peak voltage displayed on the scope and the effective
or RMS voltage (V
RMS
) read on the AC voltmeter is
V
RMS
= 0.707 V
m
(for a sine or cosine wave).
Thus

Agreement is expected between the voltage reading of the multimeter and that of the
oscilloscope. For a symmetric wave (sine or cosine) the value of V
m
may be taken as 1/2 the peak
to peak signal V
pp

The variable sensitivity control a signal may be used to adjust the display to fill a concenient
range of the scope face. In this position, the trace is no longer calibrated so that you can not just
read the size of the signal by counting the number of divisions and multiplying by the scale factor.
However, you can figure out what the new calibration is an use it as long as the variable control
remains unchanged.
Caution: The mathematical prescription given for RMS signals is valid only for sinusoidal
signals. The meter will not indicate the correct voltage when used to measure non-sinusoidal
signals.
III. Frequency Measurements: When the horizontal sweep voltage is applied, voltage
measurements can still be taken from the vertical deflection. Moreover, the signal is displayed as
a function of time. If the time base (i.e. sweep) is calibrated, such measurements as pulse
duration or signal period can be made. Frequenciescan then be determined as reciprocal of the
periods.
Set the oscillator to 1000 Hz. Display the signal on the CRO and measure the period of the
oscillations. Use the horizontal distance between two points such as C to D in Fig. 4b.
Set the horizontal gain so that only one complete wave form is displayed.
Then reset the horizontal until 5 waves are seen. Keep the time base control in a calibrated
position. Measure the distance (and hence time) for 5 complete cycles and calculate the
frequency from this measurement. Compare you result with the value determined above.
Repeat your measurements for other frequencies of 150 Hz, 5 kHz, 50 kHz as set on the
signal generator.
IV. Lissajous Figures: When sine-wave signals of different frequencies are input to the horizontal
and vertical amplifiers a stationary pattern is formed on the CRT when the ratio of the two

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semester(ET&T) 27
frequencies is an intergral fraction such as 1/2, 2/3, 4/3, 1/5, etc. These stationary patterns are
known as Lissajous figures and can be used for comparison measurement of frequencies.
Use two oscillators to generate some simple Lissajous figures like those shown in Fig. 5.
You will find it difficult to maintain the Lissajous figures in a fixed configuration because the two
oscillators are not phase and frequency locked. Their frequencies and phase drift slowly causing
the two different signals to change slightly with respect to each other.
V. Testing what you have learned: Your instructor will provide you with a small oscillator circuit.
Examine the input to the circuit and output of the circuit using your oscilloscope. Measure such
quantities as the voltage and frequence of the signals. Specify if they are sinusoidal or of some
other wave character. If square wave, measure the frequency of the wave. Also, for square
waves, measure the on time (when the voltage is high) and off time (when it is low).

Result:- Study is completed
Precautions: 1.Operate cro carefully
2.Take all reading carefully
3.Use correct power supply

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Experiment no 12

Objective:- To study the different waveforms, to measure peak and rms voltages and the
frequency of A.C.

Apparatus Require:- A C.R.O and a signal generator.

Theory :- Cathode ray oscilloscope is one of the most useful electronic equipment,
which gives a visual representation of electrical quantities, such as voltage and current
waveforms in an electrical circuit. It utilizes the properties of cathode rays of being
deflected by an electric and magnetic fields and of producing scintillations on a
fluorescent screen. Since the inertia of cathode rays is very small, they are able to follow
the alterations of very high frequency fields and thus electron beam serves as a
practically inertia less pointer. When a varying potential difference is established across
two plates between which the beam is passing, it is deflected and moves in accordance
with the variation of potential difference. When this electron beam impinges upon a
fluorescent screen, a bright luminous spot is produced there which shows and follows
faithfully the variation of potential difference.
When an AC voltage is applied to Y-plates, the spot of light moves on the screen
vertically up and down in straight line. This line does not reveal the nature of applied
voltage waveform. Thus to obtain the actual waveform, a time-base circuit is necessary.
A time-base circuit is a circuit which generates a saw-tooth waveform. It causes the spot
to move in the horizontal and vertical direction linearly with time. When the vertical
motion of the spot produced by the Y-plates due to alternating voltage, is superimposed
over the horizontal sweep produced by X-plates, the actual waveform is traced on the
screen.

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Precautions: Operate cro carefully
Take all reading carefully
Use correct power supply

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Experiment no 13

Object: Study and use of C.T. & P.T
Material require: C.T. and P.T.
Theory: . current transformer (CT)
In electrical engineering, a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric
currents. Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential
transformers (PT)), are known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too
high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current
accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to
measuring and recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring
instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are
commonly used in metering and protective relays in the.
Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic core, and a
secondary winding. The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic field in the
core, which then induces a current in the secondary winding circuit. A primary objective of current
transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are efficiently coupled, so
that the secondary current bears an accurate relationship to the primary current.
The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped many times around a silicon
steel ring passed over the circuit being measured. The CT's primary circuit therefore consists of a
single 'turn' of conductor, with a secondary of many hundreds of turns. The primary winding may
be a permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to carry current through
the magnetic core. Window-type current transformers are also common, which can have circuit
cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a single-turn primary winding.
When conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the circular (or oval) opening, slight
inaccuracies may occur.

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semester(ET&T) 40
Shapes and sizes can vary depending on the end user or switchgear manufacturer. Typical
examples of low voltage single ratio metering current transformers are either ring type or plastic
moulded case. High-voltage current transformers are mounted on porcelain bushings to insulate
them from ground. Some CT configurations slip around the bushing of a high-voltage transformer
or circuit breaker, which automatically centers the conductor inside the CT window.
The primary circuit is largely unaffected by the insertion of the CT. The rated secondary current is
commonly standardized at 1 or 5 amperes. For example, a 4000:5 CT would provide an output
current of 5 amperes when the primary was passing 4000 amperes. The secondary winding can
be single ratio or multi ratio, with five taps being common for multi ratio CTs. The load, or burden,
of the CT should be of low resistance. If the voltage time integral area is higher than the core's
design rating, the core goes into saturation towards the end of each cycle, distorting the
waveform and affecting accuracy
Use Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the
operation of the power grid. Along with voltage leads, revenue-grade CTs drive the electrical
utility's watt-hour meter on virtually every building with three-phase service and single-phase
services greater than 200 amp.
The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. Often, multiple
CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For example, protection devices
and revenue metering may use separate CTs to provide isolation between
metering and protection circuits, and allows current transformers with different
characteristics (accuracy, overload performance) to be used for the different
purposes.
Potential transformer
The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a magnetic
field (electromagnetism), and, second that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces
a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the
primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a
voltage in the secondary coil.

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semester(ET&T) 41
An ideal transformer
An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary coil
creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very
high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both
the primary and secondary coils.
Induction law
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of
induction, which states that:

where V
s
is the instantaneous voltage, N
s
is the number of turns in the secondary coil and is
the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to
the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux density B and the area A
through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the
transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the
primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an
ideal transformer,
[29]
the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for V
s
and V
p
gives the basic equation
[30]
for stepping up or
stepping down the voltage

N
p
/N
s
is known as the turns ratio, and is the primary functional characteristic of any transformer.
In the case of step-up transformers, this may sometimes be stated as the reciprocal, N
s
/N
p
. Turns
ratio is commonly expressed as an irreducible fraction or ratio: for example, a transformer with
primary and secondary windings of, respectively, 100 and 150 turns is said to have a turns ratio
of 2:3 rather than 0.667 or 100:150.

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Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element
If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly
efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field and
into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal the
outgoing power:

giving the ideal transformer equation

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable approximation.
If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in
one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio.
[29]
For example, if an impedance Z
s
is
attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an
impedance of (N
p
/N
s
)
2
Z
s
. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Z
p
of the primary
circuit appears to the secondary to be (N
s
/N
p
)
2
Z
p
.
Detailed operation
The simplified description above neglects several practical factors, in particular the primary
current required to establish a magnetic field in the core, and the contribution to the field due to
current in the secondary circuit.
Models of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of negligible reluctance with two windings
of zero resistance. When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current flows, driving
flux around the magnetic circuit of the core.
[31]
The current required to create the flux is termed
the magnetizing current; since the ideal core has been assumed to have near-zero reluctance,
the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required to create the magnetic field.

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The changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) across each winding.
[32]
Since
the ideal windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the
voltages V
P
and V
S
measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding
EMFs. The primary EMF, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes
termed the "back EMF".
[33]
This is due to Lenz's law which states that the induction of EMF would
always be such that it will oppose development of any such change in magnetic field.
Practical considerations
Leakage flux

Leakage flux of a transformer
Leakage inductance
The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the
turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside
the windings.[34] Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series
with the mutually coupled transformer windings Leakage results in energy being alternately stored
in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a
power loss (see "Stray losses" below), but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the
secondary voltage to fail to be directly proportional to the primary, particularly under heavy load
Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance.
However, in some applications, leakage can be a desirable property, and long magnetic paths, air
gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may be deliberately introduced to a transformer's design to limit
the short-circuit current it will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit
negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs; or for safely
handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.
Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency
transformers in circuits that have a direct current flowing through the windings.
Leakage inductance is also helpful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown
that if the "per-unit" inductance of two transformers is the same (a typical value is 5%), they will
automatically split power "correctly" (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger
one will carry twice the current).

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semester(ET&T) 44
Transformer universal EMF equation
If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between its rms
voltage E
rms
of the winding , and the supply frequency f, number of turns N, core cross-sectional
area a and peak magnetic flux density B is given by the universal EMF equation:
[31]

If the flux does not contain even harmonics the following equation can be used for half-cycle
average voltage E
avg
of any waveshape:

The time-derivative term in Faraday's Law shows that the flux in the core is the integral with
respect to time of the applied voltage.
[36]
Hypothetically an ideal transformer would work with
direct-current excitation, with the core flux increasing linearly with time.
[37]
In practice, the flux
would rise to the point where magnetic saturation of the core occurs, causing a huge increase in
the magnetizing current and overheating the transformer. All practical transformers must
therefore operate with alternating (or pulsed) current.
[37]

The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency.
[31]
By operating at
higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to
transfer more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same
impedance. However, properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with
frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and
winding weight.
[38]
Conversely, frequencies used for some railway electrification systems were
much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50 60 Hz) for historical
reasons concerned mainly with the limitations of early electric traction motors. As such, the
transformers used to step down the high over-head line voltages (e.g. 15 kV) are much heavier
for the same power rating than those designed only for the higher frequencies.
Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will
lead to reduced magnetizing current; at lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase.
Operation of a transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of
voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. For example, transformers
may need to be equipped with "volts per hertz" over-excitation relays to protect the transformer
from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency.
One example of state-of-the-art design is those transformers used for electric multiple unit high
speed trains, particularly those required to operate across the borders of countries using different
standards of electrification. The position of such transformers is restricted to being hung below
the passenger compartment. They have to function at different frequencies (down to 16.7 Hz) and
voltages (up to 25 kV) whilst handling the enhanced power requirements needed for operating the
trains at high speed.
Knowledge of natural frequencies of transformer windings is of importance for the determination
of the transient response of the windings to impulse and switching surge voltages.

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semester(ET&T) 45
Energy losses
An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In practical
transformers energy is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger
transformers are generally more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution usually
perform better than 98%.
[39]

Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of 99.85%.
[40]

The increase in efficiency can save considerable energy, and hence money, in a large heavily-
loaded transformer; the trade-off is in the additional initial and running cost of the
superconducting design.
Losses in transformers (excluding associated circuitry) vary with load current, and may be
expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load losses, whereas
hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. The no-load loss
can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply and
a running cost; designing transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon
steel, or even amorphous steel, for the core, and thicker wire, increasing initial cost, so that there
is a trade-off between initial cost and running cost. (Also see energy efficient transformer)
Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the
magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the transformer arise from:
Winding resistance
Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher
frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within
the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function of
the peak flux density to which it is subjected.
[41]

Eddy currents
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a core made from such a material also
constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore
circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of
the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency
and inverse square of the material thickness.
[41]
Eddy current losses can be reduced by making
the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all
transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores.
Magnetostriction
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and
contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This
produces the buzzing sound commonly associated with transformers,
[30]
and can cause losses
due to frictional heating.

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semester(ET&T) 46
Mechanical losses
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between
the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to
the buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power.
[42]

Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic
fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that
intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will
give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.
[43]
There are also radiative losses
due to the oscillating magnetic field, but these are usually sma
Dot convention
It is common in transformer schematic symbols for there to be a dot at the end of each coil within
a transformer, particularly for transformers with multiple primary and secondary windings. The
dots indicate the direction of each winding relative to the others. Voltages at the dot end of each
winding are in phase; current flowing into the dot end of a primary coil will result in current flowing
out of the dot end of a secondary coil.
Equivalent circuit
The physical limitations of the practical transformer may be brought together as an equivalent
circuit model (shown below) built around an ideal lossless transformer.
[44]
Power loss in the
windings is current-dependent and is represented as in-series resistances R
p
and R
s
. Flux
leakage results in a fraction of the applied voltage dropped without contributing to the mutual
coupling, and thus can be modeled as reactances of each leakage inductance X
p
and X
s
in series
with the perfectly coupled region.
Iron losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core, and are
proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency.
[45]
Since the core
flux is proportional to the applied voltage, the iron loss can be represented by a resistance R
C
in
parallel with the ideal transformer.
A core with finite permeability requires a magnetizing current I
m
to maintain the mutual flux in the
core. The magnetizing current is in phase with the flux; saturation effects cause the relationship
between the two to be non-linear, but for simplicity this effect tends to be ignored in most circuit
equivalents.
[45]
With a sinusoidal supply, the core flux lags the induced EMF by 90and this effect
can be modeled as a magnetizing reactance (reactance of an effective inductance) X
m
in parallel
with the core loss component. R
c
and X
m
are sometimes together termed the magnetizing branch
of the model. If the secondary winding is made open-circuit, the current I
0
taken by the
magnetizing branch represents the transformer's no-load current.
[44]

The secondary impedance R
s
and X
s
is frequently moved (or "referred") to the primary side after
multiplying the components by the impedance scaling factor (N
p
/N
s
)
2
.

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semester(ET&T) 47

Transformer equivalent circuit, with secondary impedances referred to the primary side
The resulting model is sometimes termed the "exact equivalent circuit", though it retains a
number of approximations, such as an assumption of linearity.
[44]
Analysis may be simplified by
moving the magnetizing branch to the left of the primary impedance, an implicit assumption that
the magnetizing current is low, and then summing primary and referred secondary impedances,
resulting in so-called equivalent impedance.
The parameters of equivalent circuit of a transformer can be calculated from the results of two
transformer tests: open-circuit test and short-circuit test.
Result : Study is completed

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Experiment no 14
Objective: Range Extension using shunt
Instruments Required
Sl no Instruments Quantity
1 Voltmeter 0-3V MC
0-300V MC
1
1
2 Ammeter 0-10mA MC
0-1A MC
1
1
3 Standard Resistance 0.1 1
4 Rheostat 370, 1.1A
600. 1A
1
1
5 Decade resistance box 1

Theory Range Extension using shunt
The moving coil ammeter has a coil wound with very fine wire. It can
carry only few milli- amperes safely to give full- scale deflection. For measuring high
currents, a low resistance is connected in parallel with the instrument. The low
resistance connected in parallel with the instrument is called a shunt. Figure1 shows a
shunt resistance R
s
connected in parallel with the ammeter of resistance R
m.

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Calculation of shunt resistance:
Let I = current to be measured
I
m
= meter current
I
s
= shunt current
To calculate the value of shunt resistance the following points should be kept in mind
1. The meter current I
m
should never exceed the current required to produce full scale
deflection.
2. Since the arrangement shown in figure is simply a parallel circuit

Current to be measured = instrument current + shunt current
I = I
m
+ I
s
(1)
And voltage across the meter = voltage across the shunt
That is I
m
R
m =
I
s
R
s
(2)
Equations (1) and (2) are used to calculate R
s
Result
Studied the range extension of moving coil and moving iron instruments and to
measure high values of current and voltage using low range meters.

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Experiment no 15
Objective: Range Extension using Multiplier
Instruments Required
Sl no Instruments Quantity
1 Voltmeter 0-3V MC
0-300V MC
1
1
2 Ammeter 0-10mA MC
0-1A MC
1
1
3 Standard Resistance 0.1 1
4 Rheostat 370, 1.1A
600. 1A
1
1
5 Decade resistance box 1

Theory: Range Extension using Multiplier
For measuring high voltage, a high resistance is connected in series with
the instrument to limit the current in the coil to a safe value. This value of current should
never exceed the current required to produce the full- scale deflection. The high
resistance connected in series with the instrument is called a multiplier. A multiplier is
made of magnanin or other suitable alloy having a negligible coefficient of resistance. It
therefore also serves as swamping resistor for the instrument coil.

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Calculation of multiplier
Let V = voltage to be measured, V
I = circuit current to give full scale deflection, A
I
m
= meter current, A
R
m
= meter resistance,
R
s
= resistance of multiplier,
Since the same current flow through the instrument and multiplier
I = I
m
By ohms law,
Total circuit voltage = total circuit current X total circuit resistance
V= I
m
(R
m
+ R
s
)
Circuit Diagram

For extension of voltage

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semester(ET&T) 52

For extension of current

Procedure
voltage measurement
Connections are done as shown in fig. using a multimeter note voltmeter
resistance. Adjust the decade box resistance in such a way that the resistance of 0-300V
voltmeter and the series combination of 0-3V voltmeter and decade box equal. Then by
varying the potential divider various readings are taken.
Current measurement
Connections are done as shown in figure. Keeping the rheostat at maximum
position supply is switched on. By varying the rheostat different readings are taken.

Tabulation

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semester(ET&T) 53
For extension of voltage

Sl.No

Voltmeter reading
v (0-3V)

Standard voltmeter reading
(0-300V)
(R.R)

Extended voltage
range (A.R)=
3
300 v

% Error
=
R R
R A R R
.
. .

For extension of current

Sl.
no

Ammeter reading I (0-
10mA)

Standard ammeter
reading R.R (0-1A)

Extended current
range(A.R)
=
3
10 10
1
I

% Error
=
R R
R A R R
.
. .

Calculation

Voltmeter reading v (0-3V) =.V
Standard voltmeter reading (0-300V (R.R) =.V
Extended voltage range (A.R)=
3
300 v

% Error =
R R
R A R R
.
. .

Ammeter reading I (0-10mA)=.A

rd
semester(ET&T) 54
Standard ammeter reading R.R (0-1A) =..A

Extended current range(A.R) =
3
10 10
1
I

% Error =
R R
R A R R
.
. .

Result
Studied the range extension of moving coil and moving iron instruments and to
measure high values of current and voltage using low range meters.

rd
semester(ET&T) 55

Experiment no-16

Object: Study of Displays Cold cathode displays, Fluorescent displays, Light emitting
diodes, Liquid crystal diodes, Alpha-numeric display Recorders Analog Recorder, Graphic
Recorder, Strip Chart Recorder

Theory:

A vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) is a display device used commonly on consumer-
electronics equipment such as video cassette recorders, car radios, and microwave ovens.
Invented in Japan in 1967, the displays became common on calculators and other consumer
electronics devices.
[1]
Unlike liquid crystal displays, a VFD emits a very bright light with high
contrast and can support display elements of various colors. VFDs can display seven-segment
numerals, multi-segment alpha-numeric characters or can be made in a dot-matrix to display
different alphanumeric characters and symbols. In practice, there is little limit to the shape of the
image that can be displayed: it depends solely on the shape of phosphor on the anode(s).
Hundreds of millions of units are made yearly.
[2]

Design
The device consists of a hot cathode (filaments), anodes (phosphor) and grids encased in a glass
envelope under a high vacuum condition. The cathode is made up of fine tungsten wires, coated
by alkaline earth metal oxides, which emit electrons when heated by an electric current. These
electrons are controlled and diffused by the grids, which are made up of thin metal. If electrons
impinge on the phosphor-coated plates, they fluoresce, emitting light. Unlike the orange-glowing
cathodes of traditional vacuum tubes, VFD cathodes are efficient emitters at much lower
temperatures, and are therefore essentially invisible.
[3]

The principle of operation is identical to that of a vacuum tube triode. Electrons can only reach
(and "illuminate") a given plate element if both the grid and the plate are at a positive potential
with respect to the cathode. This allows the displays to be organized as multiplexed displays
where the multiple grids and plates form a matrix, minimizing the number of signal pins required.
In the example of the VCR display shown to the right, the grids are arranged so that only one digit
is illuminated at a time. All of the similar plates in all of the digits (for example, all of the lower-left
plates in all of the digits) are connected in parallel. One by one, the microprocessor driving the
display enables a digit by placing a positive voltage on that digit's grid and then placing a positive
voltage on the appropriate plates. Electrons flow through that digit's grid and strike those plates
that are at a positive potential. The microprocessor cycles through illuminating the digits in this
way at a rate high enough to create the illusion of all digits glowing at once via persistence of
vision. Several amateurs have experimented with the possibilities of using VFDs as triodes.
[4][5]

The extra indicators (in our example, "VCR", "Hi-Fi", "STEREO", "SAP", etc.) are arranged as if
they were segments of an additional digit or two or extra segments of existing digits and are

rd
semester(ET&T) 56
scanned using the same multiplexed strategy as the real digits. Some of these extra indicators
may use a phosphor that emits a different colour of light, for example, orange.
Use
Besides brightness, VFDs have the advantages of being rugged, inexpensive, and easily
configured to display a wide variety of customized messages, and unlike LCDs, VFDs are not
limited by the response time of rearranging liquid crystals and are thus able to function normally
in cold, even sub-zero, temperatures, making them ideal for outdoor devices in cold climates.
Early on, the main disadvantage of such displays was their use of significantly more power (0.2
watts) than a simple LCD. This was considered a significant drawback for battery-operated
equipment like calculators, so VFDs ended up being used mainly in equipment powered by an AC
supply or heavy-duty
A light-emitting diode (LED)is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps
in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic
component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available
across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with
electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than
1 mm
2
), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs
present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and
reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more
precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable
output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation lighting,
automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as well as in traffic
signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switching speed, and extreme
reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while
their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs
are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD
players, and other domestic appliances.
A light-emitting diodeis a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in
many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic
component in 1962,
[2]
early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with
electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than
1 mm
2
), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs
present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and
reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more
precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable
output.

rd
semester(ET&T) 57
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation lighting,
automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as well as in traffic
signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switching speed, and extreme
reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while
their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs
are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD
players, and other domestic appliances.

Common circuit diagram symbols

Parts of an LED

rd
semester(ET&T) 58
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the light
modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs do not emit light directly.
They are used in a wide range of applications, including computer monitors, television, instrument
panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in consumer devices such as
video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. LCDs have
displaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are usually more compact,
lightweight, portable, less expensive, more reliable, and easier on the eyes.
[citation needed]
They are
available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not
use phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in.
LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical power
consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically-
modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in
front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in colour or monochrome. The
earliest discovery leading to the development of LCD technology, the discovery of liquid crystals,
dates from 1888.
[1]
By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD screens had surpassed the
sale of CRT units.
Reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display

Strip Chart Recorder,
Strip Chart Recorders
Strip chart recorders consist of a roll or strip of paper that is passed linearly beneath one or more
pens. As the signal changes the pens deflect producing the resultant chart. Strip chart recorders
are well suited for recording of continuous processes. Sections of the paper can be torn off and
archived for future reference. Strip chart recorders are commonly used in laboratory as well as
process measurement applications.

rd
semester(ET&T) 59
Strip Chart Recorders

chart recorder is an instrument used to record various process and electrical signals. The most
traditional chart recorders record data on paper. The paper is passed under a pen and the pen is
deflected in proportion to the signal. The result is a graph or chart of the data. Chart recorders are
available in single or multichannel styles (single or multipen) and in various configurations. Many
of today's chart recorders can also record information in a digital format for download to a
computer.v
Result: study is completed

rd
semester(ET&T) 60

Experiment no 17

Objective. Digital Instruments Digital Voltmeter, Digital Frequency Meter, Digital Panel Meter,
Digital Storage Oscilloscope
Theory: Digital Voltmeter.
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the electrical potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the
voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog to
digital converter.
Voltmeters are made in a wide range of styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a panel are
used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus. Portable instruments, usually equipped to
also measure current and resistance in the form of a multimeter, are standard test instruments
used in electrical and electronics work. Any measurement that can be converted to a voltage can
be displayed on a meter that is suitably calibrated; for example, pressure, temperature, flow or
level in a chemical process plant.
General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few percent of full scale, and are
used with voltages from a fraction of a volt to several thousand volts. Digital meters can be made
with high accuracy, typically better than 1%. Specially calibrated test instruments have higher
accuracies, with laboratory instruments capable of measuring to accuracies of a few parts per
million. Meters using amplifiers can measure tiny voltages of microvolts or less.
Part of the problem of making an accurate voltmeter is that of calibration to check its accuracy. In
laboratories, the Weston Cell is used as a standard voltage for precision work. Precision voltage
references are available based on electronic circuits.

Digital Instruments

Digital Frequency Meter,

A frequency counter is an electronic instrument, or component of one, that is used for
measuring frequency. Frequency is defined as the number of events of a particular sort
occurring in a set period of time. Frequency counters usually measure the number of
oscillations or pulses per second in a repetitive electronic signal.

rd
semester(ET&T) 61

Digital Frequency Meter
Operating principle
Most frequency counters work by using a [counter] which accumulates the number of events
occurring within a specific period of time. After a preset period (1 second, for example), the value
in the counter is transferred to a display and the counter is reset to zero. If the event being
measured repeats itself with sufficient stability and the frequency is considerably lower than that
of the clock oscillator being used, the resolution of the measurement can be greatly improved by
measuring the time required for an entire number of cycles, rather than counting the number of
entire cycles observed for a pre-set duration (often referred to as the reciprocal technique). The
internal oscillator which provides the time signals is called the timebase, and must be calibrated
very accurately.
If the thing to be counted is already in electronic form, simple interfacing to the instrument is all
that is required. More complex signals may need some conditioning to make them suitable for
counting. Most general purpose frequency counters will include some form of amplifier, filtering
and shaping circuitry at the input. DSP technology, sensitivity control and hysteresis are other
techniques to improve performance. Other types of periodic events that are not inherently
electronic in nature will need to be converted using some form of transducer. For example, a
mechanical event could be arranged to interrupt a light beam, and the counter made to count the
resulting pulses.
Frequency counters designed for radio frequencies (RF) are also common and operate on the
same principles as lower frequency counters. Often, they have more range before they overflow.
For very high (microwave) frequencies, many designs use a high-speed prescaler to bring the
signal frequency down to a point where normal digital circuitry can operate. The displays on such
instruments take this into account so they still display the correct value. Microwave frequency
counters can currently measure frequencies up to almost 100 GHz. Above these frequencies the
signal to be measured is combined in a mixer with the signal from a local oscillator, producing a
signal at the difference frequency, which is low enough to be measured directly.
Digital Panel Meters Digital Panel Meters are used to perform digital processing and display of
voltage, current, pulse signal and others. They can also compare input values to set values,
transfer data and perform other functions. OMRON Digital Panel Meters feature a high tech

rd
semester(ET&T) 62
backlight LCD display that gives excellent read-out of values in dual color, thus provides intuitive
feedback of value .
Digital Panel Meter
An oscilloscope (also known as a scope, CRO, DSO or, an O-scope) is a type of electronic test
instrument that allows observation of constantly varying signal voltages, usually as a two-
dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential differences using the vertical or 'Y' axis,
plotted as a function of time, (horizontal or 'x' axis). Although an oscilloscope displays voltage on
its vertical axis, any other quantity that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed as well. In
most instances, oscilloscopes show events that repeat with either no change, or change slowly.
Oscilloscopes are commonly used to observe the exact wave shape of an electrical signal. In
addition to the amplitude of the signal, an oscilloscope can show distortion, the time between two
events (such as pulse width, period, or rise time) and relative timing of two related signals.
[1]

Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, and telecommunications industry.
General-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic equipment and laboratory
work. Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used for such purposes as analyzing an automotive
ignition system, or to display the waveform of the heartbeat as an electrocardiogram.
Originally all oscilloscopes used cathode ray tubes as their display element and linear amplifiers
for signal processing, (commonly referred to as CROs) however, modern oscilloscopes have LCD
or LED screens, fast analog-to-digital converters and digital signal processors. Although not as
commonplace, some oscilloscopes used storage CRTs to display single events for a limited time.
Oscilloscope peripheral modules for general purpose laptop or desktop personal computers use
the computer's display, allowing them to be used as test instruments.

rd
semester(ET&T) 63

Basic Oscilloscope
Description
Display and general external appearance
The basic oscilloscope, as shown in the illustration, is typically divided into four sections: the
display, vertical controls, horizontal controls and trigger controls. The display is usually a CRT or
LCD panel which is laid out with both horizontal and vertical reference lines referred to as the
graticule. In addition to the screen, most display sections are equipped with three basic controls,
a focus knob, an intensity knob and a beam finder button.

rd
semester(ET&T) 64
The vertical section controls the amplitude of the displayed signal. This section carries a Volts-
per-Division (Volts/Div) selector knob, an AC/DC/Ground selector switch and the vertical
(primary) input for the instrument. Additionally, this section is typically equipped with the vertical
beam position knob.
The horizontal section controls the time base or sweep of the instrument. The primary control is
the Seconds-per-Division (Sec/Div) selector switch. Also included is a horizontal input for plotting
dual X-Y axis signals. The horizontal beam position knob is generally located in this section.
The trigger section controls the start event of the sweep. The trigger can be set to automatically
restart after each sweep or it can be configured to respond to an internal or external event. The
principal controls of this section will be the source and coupling selector switches. An external
trigger input (EXT Input) and level adjustment will also be included.
In addition to the basic instrument, most oscilloscopes are supplied with a probe as shown. The
probe will connect to any input on the instrument and typically has a resistor of ten times the
oscilloscope's input impedance. This results in a .1 (-10X) attenuation factor, but helps to isolate
the capacitive load presented by the probe cable from the signal being measured. Some probes
have a switch allowing the operator to bypass the resistor when appropriate.
[1]

Result: Study is completed

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