LDR:

A photoresistor or light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photocell is a light-controlled

variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light
intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied in light-
sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-activated switching circuits.
A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor can have
a resistance as high as a few megaohms (M), while in the light, a photoresistor can have a
resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a
certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy
to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct
electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor
can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors may react
substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.



Symbol







Comparator:
A comparator is the simplest circuit that moves signals between the analog and digital worlds.
Simply put, a comparator compares two analog signals and produces a one bit digital
signal. The symbol for a comparator is shown below.

The comparator output satisfies the following rules:
o When V
+
is larger than V
-
the output bit is 1.
o When V
+
is smaller than V
-
the output bit is 0
Just to give you an idea of how a comparator works, here is a simulation of using a comparator.
Set the voltages on the control panel to adjust the voltage inputs to the comparator.

Simulation


Real comparators may work like the one in the simulation, but there are sometimes other
considerations. For example, a common comparator is the LM339, which come on a chip with
four comparators. The four comparators are all open collector outputs. We need to discuss that.
Here's a diagram of the output circuitry showing how the comparator is connected to the
output transistor, and how the collector of the transistor is connected to the output
terminal on the chip.

In this situation, you don't need to know a lot about transistors (although it's a good idea to learn
that if you don't know it!). What you need to know is that, in this situation, the transistor acts
like a switch. A transistor doesn't always act that way, but it does in this situation.
When the output of the comparator is a 1, current flows from the comparator through the
base of the transistor, out the emitter to ground, as shown.
When that current flows, the transistor acts like a switch that permits current to flow from
the collect to the emitter to ground.

The way you connect the comparator is to put your load between five volts and the collector
connection on the chip - like this







Microcontroller:

PIC16F877A


Features

Special Microcontroller Features
- 100,000 erase/write cycle Enhanced Flash Program Memory Typical
- Self-reprogrammable under software control
- Single-supply 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming
- Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator
- Programmable Code Protection
- Power-Saving Sleeping Mode
Peripheral Features
- Two 8-bit (TMR0, TMR2)timer/counter with Pre scalar
- One 16-bit timer/counter
- Brown-out detection circuitry
- Parallel Slave Port (PSP): 40/44 pin-device only
High-Performance RISC CPU
- Only 35 single-word instructions to learn
- DC-20MHz clock input
- Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory
- Pin out Compatible to other 28-pin or 40/44-pin
Analog Features
- 10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D)
- Brown-out Reset(BOR)
- Two Analog Comparators
- Programmable on-chip voltage reference (VREF) module
CMOS Technology
- Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM technology
- Fully Static Design
- Wide Operating Voltage Range (2.0V to 5.5V)
- Low-power Consumption



Pin Layout:


PIC16F877A



Pin Description
Pin Number Description
1 MCLR/VPP
2 RA0/AN0
3 RA1/AN1
4 RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF
5 RA3/AN3/VREF+
6 RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT
7 RA5/AN4/SS/C2OUT
8 RE0/RD/AN5
9 RE1/WR/AN6
10 RE2/CS/AN7
11 VDD
12 VSS
13 OSC1/CLKI
14 OSC2/CLKO
15 RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI
16 RC1/T1OSI/CCP2
17 RC2/CCP1
18 RC3/SCK/SCL
19 RD0/PSP0
20 RD1/PSP1
21 RD2/PSP2
22 RD3/PSP3
23 RC4/SDI/SDA
24 RC5/SDO
25 RC6/TX/CK
26 RC7/RX/DT
27 RD4/PSP4
28 RD5/PSP5
29 RD6/PSP6
30 RD7/PSP7
31 VSS
32 VDD
33 RB0/INT
34 RB1
35 RB2
36 RB3/PGM
37 RB4
38 RB5
39 RB6/PGC
40 RB7/PGD



H Bridge:
An H bridge is an electronic circuit that enables a voltage to be applied across a load in either
direction. These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to allow DC motors to
run forwards and backwards.
Most DC-to-AC converters (power inverters), most AC/AC converters, the DC-to-DC pushpull
converter, most motor controllers, and many other kinds of power electronics use H bridges. In
particular, a bipolar stepper motor is almost invariably driven by a motor controller containing
two H bridges.


20 Ampare H Bridge IC

DC Gear Motor:
A DC motor is an internally commutated electric motor designed to be run from a direct
current power source. Brushed motors were the first commercially important application of
electric power to driving mechanical loads, and DC distribution systems were used for more than
100 years to operate motors in commercial and industrial buildings. Brushed DC motors can be
varied in speed by changing the operating voltage or the strength of the magnetic field.
Depending on the connections of the field to the power supply, the speed and torque
characteristics of a brushed motor can be altered to provide steady speed or speed inversely
proportional to the mechanical load. Brushed motors continue to be used for electrical
propulsion, cranes, paper machines and steel rolling mills. Since the brushes wear down and
require replacement, brushless DC motors using power electronic devices have displaced
brushed motors from many applications.



Thermal portion

Block Digram












Heat Exchanger:
A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to
another. The media may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they may be in direct
contact.
[1]
They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power
plants, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural gas processing,
and sewage treatment. The classic example of a heat exchanger is found in an internal
combustion engine in which a circulating fluid known as engine coolant flows
through radiator coils and air flows past the coils, which cools the coolant and heats the
incoming air.