Ancient India

History is a record of time. Ages have come and brought with them their foundations and ruins. The study of Ancient
India begins with the study of the Stone Age.
1. Stone Age
The Stone Age, or the stages of early man can be classified into:
Paleolithic Age This period was essentially the stage of hunters and food gatherers. They used crude tools made
of flakes. They had no knowledge of cultivation and house building. They lived on roots and fruits. By the end of the
Paleolithic Age, the flint industry came up. The important development of this age was the emergence of Homo-
Sapiens.
Mesolithic Age This age was the transition between the Paleolithic & the Neolithic Ages. Mesolithic people lived on
hunting, fishing and food gathering. At a later stage, they domesticated animals. They used microlith - a small raw-
stone tools.
Neolithic Age These people used tools and implements of polished stone. They particularly used stone axes.
Parashurama became an important axe-wielding hero. Dwelling pits, ceramics, a variety of stone and bone tools and
a complete absence of microliths marked this age. Cattle, sheep and goat were domesticated. Men became food
producer.
2. Chalcolithic Age
Copper was the first metal used by men.
3. Indus Valley Civilization
The most important event of ancient Indian history was the development of Indus Valley Civilization. This Civilization
prospered on the banks of river Indus. It extended from Jammu in the North to Daimabad in the South, and covered
various regions of Gujarat. The main sites which have been found in the excavation are:
Kalibangan in Rajasthan
Lothal in Gujarat (Sea Port)
Banwali in Haryana
Ropar in Punjab.
Mohenjodaro in Pakistan (Great Bath)
The Indus Valley Civilization existed between 2350 BC and 1750 BC. The main cities associated with the civilization
were Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal. The main feature of this civilization was Town Planning. They had great
buildings, well-planned roads, cities and drainage systems. Trade and agriculture were the main sources of livelihood
for the people. The people of Indus Valley were the first to produce cotton. Mother Goddess was the most important
deity of worship. Wheat was the main food crops. They did not know about Iron.
4. Vedic Period
This period is marked by the entry of the Aryans, who were originally inhabitants of Central Asia around the Caspian
Sea and probably came through the Hindu Kush Mountains. The period in which they existed was between 1500-600
BC.
The Main Features of the Aryans were:
i) They were admirers of nature and worshipped the Sun, Fire and Water.
ii) Indra was an important deity for the Aryans.
iii) Metal iron was used for the first time during this period in 1000 BC.
iv) Sanskrit was first time introduced in India by Aryans.
The following religious books were written during this period:

i) Vedas: These were their most sacred books.
They were four in number, viz. :
a) Rig Veda The oldest, and it contained prayers of God, Vayu, Varun, Indra and Agni.
b) Sam Veda It dealt with music.
c) Yajur Veda It dealt with formulae, sacrifices and rituals.
d) Atharva Veda It dealt with medicines.
ii) The Upanishads: They are the foundation stones of Indian Philosophy and are 108 in numbers. Satyameva
Jayate (Truth Alone Triumphs) is taken from Mundaka Upanishad.
5. Rise of Religions
The two major religions that came into prominence after the vedic period:
i) Buddhism - Initiated by a Kshatriya prince of the Shakya clan, Siddhartha, (who later came to be known as
Buddha) around 6th century BC. Siddhartha was born in 567 BC at Lumbini in Kapilavastu (present day Nepal). He
was the son of king Shuddhodana. He went in search of truth and attained enlightenment under a pipal tree at Bodh
Gaya, and delivered his first sermons at Sarnath in U.P. He died at Kushinagar in U.P.
The main Buddhist teachings of the eightfold path of
right faith
thought
action
livelihood
efforts
speech
remembrance and concentration
belief in nirvana (freedom from the cycle of birth and death)

Ahimsa and law of karma were recorded in Triptikas, the religious book of Buddhists.
ii) Jainism - Initiated by Rishabha Dava (a Kshatriya prince), Jainism attained peak under Vardhamana Mahavira
(the 24th Tirthankara). Mahavira was born at Kundagrama in 540 BC. He left his house at the age of 30 years and
attained Kaivalya (Perfect knowledge) at the age of 42 years. He became a Jina (one who has conquered
happiness and misery) and died at Pavapuri (present day Bihar).
The major teachings of Jainism were based on the Tri-ratna concept and the Tri-ratna concept was based on
a) Right knowledge,
b) Right faith
c) Right conduct.

Religious book - Agam (In Pali Language)
Dilwara Temple at Mount Abu in Rajasthan is a famous religious place of Jainism.
6. Magadha Empire (6th Century BC - 4th Century BC)
Major dynasties of the Magadha Empire were:
i) Haryanka Dynasty - Bimbisara and Ajatashatru laid the foundation of this dynasty in 684 BC.
ii) Shishunaga Dynasty - This dynasty was founded by Shishunag in 413 BC after defeating the last king of the
Haryanka dynasty.
iii) Nanda Dynasty This dynasty was founded in 382 BC by Mahapadma Nanda.
7. Alexanders Invasion of India
Alexander, after establishing his Kingdom in present day Pakistan, crossed the river Indus and invaded India.
He defeated Porus, the ruler of Punjab in the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC and extended his kingdom till India.
He founded the city of Alexandria in present day Afghanistan.
8. The Age of Mauryas (321-198 BC)
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of Maurya Empire.
Kautilya (also known as Chanakya) was in the court of Chandragupta Maurya and he had written the book titled
Arthashastra.
Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador who came in the court of Chandragupta Maurya and wrote the book titled
INDICA.
Ashoka (273-232 BC) was the important king of this dynasty.
Ashoka fought the Kalinga war (261 BC) and after that war he adopted Buddhism.
Ashoka was the first Indian king to talk directly to the people throughout his empire.
The Ashoka pillar of Sarnath is the most popular of the Eelics left by Ashoka. It has four lions standing back to back
which is adopted as the emblem of modern day Republic.
The last king of Maurya empire Brihadratha was killed by his commander in chief Pushyamitra Sunga
9. Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire was founded by the Kushan tribe of the Yuezhi Confederation around 1st century BC.
Kanishka was the most important king of the empire. He founded the Saka Era in 78 AD.
His capital was at Pursushpura (now Peshawar).
He was responsible for organizing the 4th Buddhist council in Kashmir.
Both Gandhar and Mathura art forms developed during Kanishkas reign.
10. Gupta Empire
It was founded by Chandragupta I (320-325 AD). He started the Gupta Era in 320 AD. Other important kings of the
Gupta empire were:
i) Samudra Gupta (335-380 AD): He was known as the Napoleon of India. His coins depicted him as playing the
musical instrument Veena.
ii) Chandragupta II (380-412 AD): He was also known as Vikramaditya.
Chinese Pilgrim, Fa-hien came in his court.
Aryabhatta and Kalidas were among the Nine Gems or distinguished men at the court of Chandragupta II. With
Chandragupta II began the Vikram Era in 58 BC.
iii) Kumaragupta I of this dynasty built the Nalanda University (in present day Bihar).
11. Harshvardhana
Harshvardhana was the last important king of North India.
His capital was at Kannauj.
Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese pilgrime came to his court.
Harshcharita, a book on the life of Harshvardhana was written by Banabhata, who had also written Kadambari.
He was defeated by Pulshekin II of the Chalukya dynasty.
12. South Indian Dynasties

12.1 The Sathavanas
This dynasty was founded by Simuka. (65 BC)
Satakarni was an important king.
They constructed many buddhist worshipping sites- the important ones being at Amaravati and Nagarjuna Konda.
They issued the maximum number of lead coins.
Sangam Literature relates primarily to Pandyan kingdom but also contains information about Cholas and Cheras.
Tolkappiyam is the oldest book of Tamil grammar.
Three Major Southern Kingdoms

12.2 The Chalukyas (6th - 7th Century AD)
Pulkeshin I founded the Chalukya dynasty and established its capital at Vatapi.
Pulkeshin II (609 AD - 642 AD) was the most important king.
According to the Aihole inscriptions, he defeated Harshvardhana on the banks of river Narmada in 619 AD.
Narasimhavarman I defeated and killed Pulkeshin II and captured Vadani.
Most of the Buddhist caves at Ajanta and Ellora were structured during the reign of the Chalukyas.
Aihole was the temple town of this period.

12.3 The Pallavas (560 AD 903 AD)
The Pallava dynasty was founded by Simhavishnu in 560 AD.
Their Capital was at Kanch.
Mahendravarman I was defeated by Pulakeshin II.
Narasimhavarma I was the greatest king, and because he defeated Pulakeshin II and captured Badan, he was
known as Vatapi-Konda.
Narshimhavarma II constructed the shore temple of Mahabalipuram and the Kailashnath Temple of Kanchi.
Narshimhavarma II was also a worshipper of Vishnu. He built the Vaikunthaperumal Temple at Kanchi.
Aparajita Pallav was the last ruler and was defeated by Aditya Chola.
Administrative Units of the Pallavas Names of the Chiefs
Mandal (Province) Rastrik
Nadu (District) Deshatric
Village (Kottam - Group of Villages) Gram Bhojak
12.4 The Rashtrakutas
Founded by Dantidurga in Deccan, their capital was located at Manyakheta or Malkhed. Greatest kings of the
Rashtrakuta dynasty were:
i) Govind III (796 AD - 814 AD)
ii) Amoghavarsha I (814 AD - 978 AD) - He had written the first Kannada book - Kavirajamarga. and Ratnamalika in
Kannada.
iii) KrishnaI built the Kailash Temple at Ellora (in 9th century).
Administrative Units of the Rashtrakutas
Rashtras - the provinces
Visaya - the districts
Bhukti - the villages
12.5 The Cholas (850 -1200 AD)
The Chola dynasty was founded by Vijayalaya in 850 AD.
Early capital was situated at Uraiyur. Later the capital was shifted to Tanjore.
Raja Raja I (985 AD - 1014 AD) was an important king.
- He constructed the Siva Temple at Tanjore which is also famous as Raja Rajeshvar Temple.
Rajendra I (1014 AD- 1044AD) was called the Napolean of South India.
The Cholas were famous for naval power and for their village administration.
Administrative Units of the Cholas
Mandlam, the provinces
Valanadusnadus, the districts
Taniyur, the large villages
The Village Assembly was constituted of
Urs - the assembly of common people.
Abha - the assembly of brahmins.
Nagaram - the assembly of merchants.
Medieval India
It is marked by the beginning of the Sultanate of Delhi, which was established after the conquest of Muhammad
Ghori. The period of the Sultanate of Delhi ranges from AD 1206-1526. It is also considered as the beginning of
Muslim rule in India.
Important Dynasties:

1. The Slave Dynasty period ranges from AD 1206-1290. It was founded by Qutabud-din Aibak whose capital was
at Lahore. The Qutub Minar at Delhi was also built by Qutabud-din Aibak. Later Iltutmish got three more floors
added to the Minar. Razia Sultana, the only woman ruler of India, and Balban was the important ruler of the Slave
Dynasty. Balban had started the Persian Festival, NAUROZ.
2. The Khilji Dynasty was founded by Jalal-ud-din Khilji and its period ranges from AD 1290-1320. Ala-ud-din
Khilji was one of the most prominent rulers of this dynasty. He started branding of horses and constructed Siri Fort at
Delhi and Alai Darwaza near Qutub Minar. He was famous for market reforms.
3. The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyath-al-din-Tughlag and the period of this dynasty ranges fromAD
1320-1414. Ibn Buttuta was an important African traveller who visited India in 1333.
Mohammed-Bin-Tughlaq introduced coins of brass and copper.
Feroz Shah Tughlaq was another important king and he constructed many towns.
4. The Lodhi dynasty was founded by Bahlol Lodhi and the period of this dynasty ranges
from AD 14511526. Sikandar Lodhi and Ibrahim Lodhi were the other two prominent rulers belonging to this
dynasty. Sikandar Lodhi established Agra City and transferred his capital from Agra to Delhi.
5. Mughal Dynasty (AD 1526-1857)
5.1 Babur - He is credited with the foundation of the Mughal empire by defeating Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of
Panipat on April 20, 1526. His tomb is built at Kabul, and his autobiography Baburnama is written in Turkish.
5.2 Humayun - He was the next emperor of the Mughal empire after Babur. His tomb is in Delhi, his
biography Humayu-Nama was written by Gulbadan Begum.
5.3 Akbar - He was the most successful Mughal emperor. An excellent leader, who separated religion and politics,
started a new religion called Din-e-Ilahi. He established Fatehpur Sikri and Buland Darwaza near Agra. He abolished
the Jazia Tax. Bairam Khan, Akbars General, fought the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556 and defeated Hemu.
Two important books Akbar-Nama and Ain-e-Akbari were written during Akbars tenure by Abul Fazal. His tomb is
built at Sikandara near Agra.
5.4 Jehangir - The son of Akbar, who ascended the throne after Akbars death, known for his administration and
strict sense of justice. He was the husband of Noor Jahan Begum and had builtShalimar and Nishant Bagh. His
autobiography is Tuzk-e-Jahangiri and his tomb is built at Lahore.
5.5 Shahjahan - Famous ruler and son of Jehangir, who built the Taj Mahal at Agra, in the memory of his wife
Mumtaz Mahal. Jama Masjid and Red Fort are the other two famous monuments that were built by him. He had
transferred his capital from Agra to Delhi.
5.6 Aurangzeb - A very cruel ruler and son of Shahjahan, who demolished several religious structures of Hindus, and
ruled for about 50 years. He constructed the Moti Masjid in the Red Fort at Delhi and Bibi ka Makbara at
Aurangabad.
The Mughal empire started declining with the attack of Nadir Shah who took with him the famous Kohinoor Diamond
to Afghanistan and peacock throne to Iran.
6. Suri Dynasty (1540-1555):
Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545) - He was a brilliant administrator who issued the Rupiah and Paisa coinsand built the
famous Grand Trunk Road from Peshawar to Calcutta. He constructed the Old Fort of Delhi. He came to power
after Humayun and before Akbar
Modern India
Coming of the Europeans
Vasco-da-Gama discovered the sea route to India in 1498 and he belonged to Portugal.
So Portugal was the first European country to start trade with India.
The East India Company (EIC) of England came to India in 1602.

The first officer of the EIC, Captain Hawkins came to India in 1608 in the court of
Jahangir, the then ruler of India.
The EIC established its first factory at Surat in 1613.
The first English Ambassador, Sir Thomas Roe, came to India in 1615 in the court of
Jahangir.
Important Battles of Modern India
i) Battle of Plassey (1757)
Siraj-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal was defeated by the East India Co., under the leadership
of Lord Clive, the first governor of Bengal. It is also known as the Black Hole Episode of the
Indian history.
ii) Battle of Wandiwash (1760)
It was the decisive battle fought between the English and the French. The French rule in India
came to an end.

iii) Battle of Buxar (1764)
The joint army of Mir Quasim, former Nawab of Bengal Suja-ud-Daulah, Nawab of Awadh and
Shah Alam II was defeated by the English army under the leadership of Captain Hector Munro.
The Regulating Act (1773)
In1773, the British Parliament initiated a series of administrative and economic reforms in India.
The post of Governor General for Bengal was created. Warren Hastings became the first
Governor General of Bengal. The Governor General and his council had all the legislative
powers. Supreme Court was established at Calcutta and Sir Elijah Impey became the First Chief
Justice of India.
Governor Generals (1774 - 1858)

1. Warren Hastings (1774 - 1785)
Warren Hastings was the first Governor General of Bengal. The foundation of the British Empire
was laid down by Lord Clive (first Governor of Bengal) and Warren Hastings consolidated it.
2. Lord Cornwallis (1786 - 1793)
Lord Cornwallis is known as the father of Indian Civil Services. He introduced the system of the
Permanent Settlement, also called the Zamindari System, in 1793 in Bengal. It was an agreement
between East India Company and the Bengali landlords (zamindars) for effective agricultural
methods and productivity in the empire.
3. Lord Wellesley (1797 - 1805)
Lord Wellesely adopted the policy of Subsidiary Alliance. He established the Fort William
College at Calcutta.
4. Lord William Bentinck (1828 - 1835)
He was the first Governer General of India. He was a famous social reformer. He abolished the
Sati system in 1829. He introduced engineering education in India.
5. Lord Dalhousie (1845 - 1856)
Lord Dalhousie laid the foundation of railways in India. The first railway line was laid between
Bombay and Thane and began operating in 1853. He also started the first telegram line in India
between Agra and Calcutta. He introduced the Widow Remarriage Act, opened post offices
throughout India, established the Public Works Department, and introduced The Doctrine of
Lapse.
Viceroys of India

1. Lord Canning (1858 - 1862)
Lord Canning was the first Viceroy of India. He abolished The Doctrine of Lapse and also
established three major Indian universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.

2. Lord Litton (1876 - 1880)
Lord Litton introduced The Vernacular Press Act, to curb the freedom of Indian Press.
3. Lord Rippon (1880 - 1884)
Lord Rippon was known as the father of Local Self Government. He started census for the first
time in India in 1881.He abolished The Vernacular Press Act and introduced Illbert Bill.
4. Lord Curzon (1899 - 1904)
Lord Curzon was responsible for the partition of Bengal into East and West Bengal in 1905. He
passed Indian University Act in 1904 and also passed The Indian Monuments Act.
5. Lord Minto (1905 -1910)
During his tenure there was great unrest in India because of the the Indian Council Act or the
Minto Morley reforms passed in 1909.
6. Lord Hardinge (1910 - 1916)
During his tenure a Durbar was held at Delhi in 1911 to greet the King of England, George V.
Bengal was unified and Delhi was made the capital in place of Calcutta in 1911. Gate-way of
India was constructed to greet him.
7. Lord Chelmsford (1916 - 1921)
Under Lord Chelmsford, The Government of India Act of 1919, popularly know as Montague-
Chelmsford reform was passed. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre took place on 13th April 1919.
Rowlatt Act, also called the Black Bill, was passed in 1919. The Non - Cooperation movement
started in the year 1920.
8. Lord Reading (1921 - 1925)
The visit of the Duke of Connaught and the Prince of Wales to India was boycotted under Lord
Reading. Mahatma Gandhi called off Non-cooperation Movement in 1922 due to Chauri-Chaura
event.
9. Lord Irwin (1926 - 1931)
During Lord Irwins reign, the Simon commission visited India in 1928. Civil Disobedience
movement was started in India by Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhi - Irwin pact was signed in 1931.
The First Round Table Conference was held in London. Indian National Congress boycotted it.
10. Lord Willingdon (1931 - 1936)
Under Lord Willingdon, the second and third round table conferences were held at London. The
Poona pact was signed between Dr. B R Ambedker and Mahatma Gandhi. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
participated in all thre round conference.

11. Lord Linlithgow (1936 - 1943)
Under him elections were held for the first time in 11 Indian states in 1939. Congress ministries
were formed in eight out of 11 provisions but subsequently resigned because India was being
dragged into the Second World War.
12. Lord Wavell (1943 - 1947)
Under him the Cabinet Mission came to India from London. The first meeting of the Constituent
Assembly was held on 9th December, 1946.
13. Lord Mountbatten (March 13, 1947 to 14 August 1947)
Under him an act for Indian independence was passed by British Parliament. He was the last
British Governor General of independent India.
Presidents of Indian National Congress (Important Sessions)
Session
No.
Year Place President
1 1885 Bombay W. C. Bannerjee
3 1887 Madras BadurddinTyabji
4 1888 Allahabad George Yule
9 1893 Lahore Dadabhai Naoroji
21 1905 Banaras G. K. Gokhale
22 1906 Kolkata Dadabhai Naoroji
23 1907 Surat
Dr. Rash Bihari
Ghosh
33 1917 Kolkata Mrs.Annie Besant
35 1918
Delhi
(Annual
M. M. Malyviya
Session)
36 1919 Amritsar Lala Lajpat Rai
57 1939 Tripura
Dr. Rajendra
Prasad

Important Socio-Religious Organisations
Year Place
Name of the
Organisation
Founder
1815 Calcutta Atmiya Sabha
Ram Mohan
Roy
1828 Calcutta
Brahmo
Samaj
Ram Mohan
Roy
1829 Calcutta
Dharma
Sabha
Radhakanta
Dev
1867 Bombay
Prarthna
Samaj
Atmaram
Pandurang
1875 Bombay Arya Samaj
Swami
Dayanand
Saraswati
1875
New
York
(USA)
Theosophical
Society
Madam H.P.
Blavatsky and
Col. H.S.
Olcott
1878 Calcutta
Sadharan
Brahmo
Samaj
Anand Mohan
Bose
1886
Pune
(Poona)
Deccan
Education
Society
G.G. Agarkar
1887 Aligarh
Muhammadan
Educational
Conference
Syed Ahmad
Khan
1887 Bombay
Indian
National
Conference
M.G. Ranade
1887 Lahore Deva Samaj
Shivnarayan
Agnihotri
1897 Belur Ramakrishna Swami
Mission Vivekanand
1905 Bombay
Servents of
Indian Society
Gopalakrishna
Gokhale
1911 Bombay
Social Service
League
N.M. Joshi
1914 Allahabad Seva Samiti H.N. Kunzru

Important Milestones of Modern India
Event Year Related Facts
First War of
Independence
1857
Mangal Pandey
was a prominent
figure. He killed
two British sepoys
at Barrackpore.
Government of
India Act
1858
Direct governance
of British Crown
over India.
Formation of
Indian National
Congress
1885
A. O. Hume was
the founder. W.C.
Banerjee was the
first president of
Indian National
Congress.
Partition of
Bengal
1905
Bengal was
divided on the
basis of religion.
Swadeshi
Movement
1905
Indian National
Congress adopted
a resolution on 7th
August 1905 to
boycott all foreign
goods.
Formation of
Muslim League
1906
Founded by Aga
Khan and
Salimuddin at
Dhaka.
MorleyMinto
Reforms
1909
Under these
reforms, a
separate electorate
was made for
Muslims during
the leadership of
Lord Minto.
Home Rule
Movement
1915-
16
Annie Besant
started the
movement in
September 1916.
Lucknow Pact 1916
Congress and
Muslim League
held their sessions
at Lucknow,
which
strengthened the
HinduMuslim
unity.
Rowlatt Act 1919
It gave
unstoppable
powers to the
government to
arrest and
imprison suspects,
without even
having
a trial.
Jallianwala Bagh
Massacre
1919
Because of firing,
under the orders
of General O
Dyer, many
people were
killed, while
attending a public
meeting at
Jallianwala Bagh
in Amritsar.
Khilafat
Movement
1920
This was an anti
British movement
started by two
brothers Shaukat
and Muhammad
Ali.
Non-Cooperation
Movement
1920
Gandhiji
pioneered the
movement which
included the
boycott of foreign
goods and
refusing
government work.
Simon
Commission
1927
Simon
Commission was
dispatched to
India in 1927 to
study
constitutional
reforms. Simon
Commission was
confronted by
throngs of
protesters in India.
Lala Lajpat Rai
died of his injuries
due to Lathi
charge in a
procession against
the Commission.
Dandi March (Salt
Satyagraha)
1930
Gandhiji marched
from his
Sabarmati
Ashram, which
was basically a
form of protest
against the tax on
salt imposed by
the British
Government.
Government of
India Act
1935
Passed on the
basis of the Simon
Commission
report, it
envisaged the
structure of the
government under
the direct
governance of the
British Crown.
Quit India
Movement
1942
Mahatma Gandhi
led this movement
and asked the
Britishers to leave
India.
Cabinet Mission
Plan
1946
This envisaged
forming an interim
government in
India
Formation of the
Constituent
Assembly
1946
Without the
Muslim leagues
participation
under the
Assembly
predisency of Dr.
Rajendra Prasad,
the Constituent
Assembly was
formed.
Partition of India 1947
Indian
Independence Act
of 1947 was
responsible for the
partition of India.
Constitution
Enforcement
1950
The Constitution
came into force on
26th Jan, 1950.