ME343 Lab Manual

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ME343 Lab Manual

Offered in Fall Semester

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Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute
of Engineering Sciences and
Technology

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Permission in writing must be obtained from the Author before any part of this work may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying and recording, or by an information storage or retrieval system.

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Table of
Contents

Instructions for the lab instructor....................................................... v

Instructions for the students.............................................................. vii
Grading Policy.......................................................... ix
Lab regulations............................................................ x

Dynamics Experiments

Experiment 1
Determining center of pressure (Apparatus # FM11)........................ 1
Experiment 2

Investigation of stability (Apparatus # FM27) ............................ 12
Experiment 3

Analyze flow over weirs (Apparatus # FM05)................................. 24
Experiment 4

Determining friction factor for pipes (Apparatus # FM02)........... 33
Experiment 5

Observing momentum transfer (Apparatus # FM07) ........... 42

Experiment 6

Determining discharge coefficient of an orifice (Apparatus # FM09) 50

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ME 343 Laboratory Manual

Experiment 7
Validity of Bernoullis equation (Apparatus # FM06) .........................................................58

Experiment 8
Investigating pressure drop through valves (Apparatus # FM02) .......................................65

Experiment 9
Calculating Reynolds Number (Apparatus # FM12) ..........................................................73

Experiment 10
Calibrating a Bourdon Gauge (Apparatus # FM28) ...........................................................79

Experiment 11
Determine Polytropic Index (Apparatus # HE4) ................................................................85

Experiment 12
Effect of Air/Fuel Ratio on Combustion (Apparatus # HE2) ...............................................92

Appendix A
Guidelines for project report writing ...............................................................................100

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Instructions for the
Laboratory Instructor

1. There will be six experiments going on simultaneously. So that only three
students should perform one experiment each time. The normal strength
of class of students is 80 to 90. If we divide these students on 4 numbers
of days from Monday to Thursday we are left with 20 students each day.
For 20 students 6 experiments mean 3 students on each experiment.

2. There must be separate lecture of 2 hours to be taught to whole class in
lecture hall to teach these 6 experiments. Only 2 classes will be needed
in the whole semester because there are normally 13 to 14 experiments
in each lab.

3. During the 3 hours of lab the instructor must spend at least 30 minutes
with each group for demonstration of experiments to students.

4. Before each experiment there must be a small quiz to make students
start thinking about the theory involved in the experiment.

5. Before starting the experiment following steps should be followed:
a) The students must study the experiment by themselves.
b) The theory, objective and procedure to perform the experiment
must be understood fully by the students before starting the
experiment.
c) Instructor must be asked for any question, ambiguity or query if
any in theory, objective and procedure of the experiment.
d) Correct setting of the experiment is required like balancing the
equipment, removing zero error etc.
e) Performing the experiment by keeping objectives of the
experiment in mind.
f) Analysis of data achieved by the experiment in lab before
leaving the lab.
g) Again perform the experiment if data found is not satisfactory.

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6. There must be at least four quizzes, a mid and a final for the lab.

7. There must be a project of 10% of total weight age in the lab which is to design a new
apparatus efficient and effective than existing for performing experiment on the basis of
theory of labs or to design a new experiment on existing apparatus available in the lab. A
report along with experiment apparatus must be submitted at the end of semester. The
guideline for the report writing is shown in appendix of the manual.

8. The lab groups (day of experiment and number of students) must be arranged, allocated
and controlled by the instructor.

9. Lab groups must be allocated according to registration numbers.

10. Lab reports must be submitted by each student independently. They must perform the
experiment and collect the data in a group collectively but the results must be interpreted
and analyzed individually with their own reasoning.

11. At least, one software, related to the course content of lab must be taught to the students.
The tutorial sessions on the software, practice sessions by student and their test of
competence in software must be ensured by the instructor. Lab software should be graded
and must be included in the final grading.

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Instructions for the
Students

Dear students;

The theory content and experimental procedures which are taught and
will be taught to you is solely for your learning. hands-on experience is
the best way to learn. This lab manual is designed to give hands-on
laboratory experience to better reinforce certain topics discussed in
lecture as well as to present a number of other principles. Each
experiment begins with a detailed discussion that provides all the
information needed to understand that lab. The discussion section is
followed by a detailed step-by-step procedure. Figures and graphs are
provided as and where required. Each experiment concludes with a
detailed exercise to help the student interpret the results.

Your cooperation with lab engineer and other lab staff is highly required.

The general instruction is as follows for the students.

1. The Lab manual must be bought before the start of the semester.

2. Lab groups and days of lab will be provided by the instructor according to
registration numbers. The students must schedule their other labs and
commitments accordingly.

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3. Students are suggested to read the lab manual before coming to lab
because they will be a quiz in every lab before the start of experiment to
make start students thinking about the experiment.

4. Students must not leave the lab during the three hours before the prior
permission of lab instructor.

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5. Following steps must be followed to perform the lab.

a) The students must study the experiment by themselves.
b) The theory, objective and procedure to perform the experiment must be
understood fully by the students before starting the experiment.
c) Instructor must be asked for any question, ambiguity or query if any in
theory, objective and procedure of the experiment.
d) Correct setting of the experiment is required like balancing the
equipment, removing zero error etc.
e) Performing the experiment by keeping objectives of the experiment in
mind.
f) Analysis of data achieved by the experiment in lab before leaving the lab.
g) Again perform the experiment if data found is not satisfactory

6. The main objective of MEL lab is highest level of learning of each of the student which will
be achieved if experiment is fully performed by students by themselves.

7. There must be a project of 10% of total weight age in the lab which is to design a new
apparatus efficient and effective than existing for performing experiment on the basis of
theory of labs or to design a new experiment on existing apparatus available in the lab. A
report along with experiment apparatus must be submitted at the end of semester. The
guideline for the report writing is shown in appendix of the manual.

8. Lab reports must be submitted by each student independently. They must perform the
experiment and collect the data in a group collectively but the results must be interpreted
and analyzed individually with their own reasoning.

9. Individual lab manuals (completed) must be submitted the next day till 12 pm.

10. Retaking of labs, quizzes and software lab sessions must be administered according of
FME policy.

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Grading Policy

Lab attendance 10%

Lab performance and reports 10%

Lab project 10%

Software lab attendance and test 10%

Quizzes 10%

Mid exam 20%

Final exam 30%

The grading policy must be strictly followed by the instructor.

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Laboratory regulations

All students should bring their own lab manual available in services
centre, pencil, ball point pen, graph paper etc.

Make up Lab: No Makeup lab. However, with the permission from the
Dean one can perform experiments. Such lab experiments will not be
graded.

Late Comers: Students should come on time for the lab. Late comers will
be marked absent.

Lab Exam: Lab exam will be during last week of classes.

Schedule: Schedule will be provided at beginning of the course.

Duration: Duration of each practical experiment is 3hours and no
students will be allowed to leave the Lab before time. The students
should keep themselves busy and get full understanding of the apparatus
and the experiments. The student who leaves the Lab before the end of
time will be marked absent.

Cheating will be handled in accordance with FME policy, the details of
which are given o FME website http://fme.giki.edu.pk.

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Determining center of
pressure
(Apparatus # FM11)

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-1 Experimental setup
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to determine the Center of Pressure
(COP) for both fully submerged and partially submerged plane surfaces
and also to compare the experimental and theoretical values of COP.
Center of Pressure:
The center of pressure is the point on a body where the sum of pressure
field acts, causing a resultant force but no moment about that point.
Mathematically it can be said that the net pressure force on the body acts
through this point. The net force applied at the center of pressure produces
the equivalent moment, equal in magnitude to the moment produced by
pressure field about any arbitrary point.
Total Resultant Force:
The magnitude of the total resultant force is equal to the pressure acting at
the centroid (geometric center) of the area multiplied by the total area. For
symmetric pressure fields this forces passes through the centroid of body
but for unsymmetric pressure fields force doesnt pass through centroid.
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Apparatus description:
A fabricated toroid is mounted on a balance arm, which pivots on knife edges. The line of contact of
the knifeedges coincides with the axis of the quadrant. Thus, of the hydrostatic forces acting on the
quadrant when immersed, only the force on the rectangular end face gives rise to a moment about
the knifeedge axis and an adjustable counterbalance to balance the moment produced. This
assembly is mounted on top of an acrylic stand, which may be leveled by leveling feet. Correct
alignment is indicated on a circular spirit level mounted on the base of the tank. Beam level
indication attached to the side of the tank shows when the balance arm is horizontal. Water is
admitted to the top of the tank by a flexible tube and may be drained through drain cock in the side
of the tank. The water level is indicated on a scale on the side of the quadrant.
Equipment Setup:

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-2 Schematic Diagram of a Hydrostatic
Bench
Technical details:
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-1 Important Parameters and their values
S/N Parameters Value
1 Tank Capacity 5.5 Liters
2 Distance b/w suspended mass & fulcrum 278 mm
3 Crosssectional area of quadrant (torrid) 7.5 x 10
-3
m
2
4 Total depth of completely immersed quadrant 160 mm
5 Height of fulcrum above quadrant end face 100 mm
Analysis:
Because no shear stresses can exist in a static fluid, all hydrostatic forces on any element of a
submerged surface must act in a direction normal to the surface. The hydrostatic forces acting on
the two sides of the Toroid counterbalance themselves, and the forces exerted on the curved
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surfaces (the circular arc top and bottom faces) act through the pivot point of the moment arm of the
Toroid, hence contributing nothing to the net moment about the pivot point. The only hydrostatic
forces that act on the Toroid and have a net moment about the pivot point are those acting on the
plane end face of the Toroid. In fig. 2, forces acting on both surfaces parallel to the page will be
cancelled out, resulting in zero moment.

Nomenclature:
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-2 Nomenclature
S/N Parameters Symbol Units
1 Resultant force applied F N
2 Density of water Kg/m
3

3 Distance between the pivot point and free surface q mm
4 Distance between the pivot point and edge of Toroid a mm
5 Width of Toroid b mm
6 Height of Toroid d mm
7 Height of water column y mm
8 Distance between the pivot point and applied weight L mm
9 Distance between the free surface and COP Z mm
10 Theoretical COP location X
CT
mm
11 Actual COP location X
CA
mm
12 Center of Area mm
13 Center of Pressure H
p
mm
14 Average Pressure Pa
Calculating Center of Pressure:
In the following fig. 2, pressure distribution is shown at three surfaces of the fully submerged body in
water. Pressure builds up on the surfaces as water depth increases. Forces acting on curved
surfaces will pass through the pivot point will cause no moment. Only moment created will be from
the distributed force acting on the vertical plane surface. On the left side of the figure, side view of
the vertical plane surface is shown.

The point force equivalent to the distributed hydrostatic forces and the location of the force action
can be calculated from the following formulae:
Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-3 Pressure
Distribution at different surfaces of Toroid
Balance arm
Knife edge
Center of
pressure
Center
of area

Water surface
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Eq. Error! No text of specified style in
document.-1
This is average value of force acting at the center of pressure under the effect of average
hydrostatics pressure.
For calculating actual location of center of pressure X
CA
, summation of moments about pivot point
(knife edge) is set equal to zero. Apart from average hydrostatic force acting on the plane surface,
hanging mass at the other end of the balance arm will also generate moment about pivot point.
Hence,

Mass m will produce counter clockwise moment whereas hydrostatic force F will produce clockwise
moment about the pivot point.


document.-2
Where, F can be calculated from Eq. 1-1. X
CA
is distance between the center of pressure and pivot
point.
For Fully Submerged Plane Surface:
In this section, theoretical value of X
CT
, the distance between pivot point and center of pressure, will
be calculated.

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-4 completely immersed plane surface in
water
The force F on any flat submerged surface is the pressure at the centre of area multiplied by the
area A of the submerged surface, which can be calculated using Eq. 1-1.
We know the magnitude of the distributed force F, which may be considered as a series of small
differential forces spread over the submerged surface. The sum of the moments of all these
small forces about any point must be equivalent to the moment about the same point of the
resultant force F (calculated using Eq. 1-1) acting through centre of pressure.

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Single strip with area and differential width is shown in the following figure.

In the above figure, is the distance from the center of differential strip to the free surface. is
changing over the area of plane surface. The differential force which will act on the center of the
strip will be:

Taking moments about an arbitrary point O at the free surface of water will leads to the following
relation:

Taking integral on both sides of the equation will yield:

Where second moment of area about an axis OO passing through point O is defined as:

Therefore, total moment becomes:


document.-3
Moment produced by average hydrostatic force will be:
document.-4
Where, F is calculated using Eq. 1-1 and Z is the distance from point O to center of pressure.
Hence comparing Eq. 1-3 and 1-4 will yield the following:

Therefore,
Figure Error! No text of specified style in
document.-5 Plane surface with strip of area dA
and pressure distribution is shown
O
COA
COP
dA = dx . b
Free Surface
x b
d
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document.-5
Substitute F from Eq. 1-1 into Eq. 1-5.

Put in the above equation, reducing it to the following expression:


document.-6
It can also be defined as follows:

From parallel axis theorem
can be calculated as:

document.-7
Where,
is second moment of area about about axis gg passig through the geometric center of
the area. For fully immersed surfaces
is defined as:

Therefore substituting Eq. 1-7 into Eq. 1-6,


document.-8
Therefore, distance between the center of pressure and the pivot point is defined as:

document.-9
Where, q is the distance from free surface of water to the pivot point.
For partially submerged Plane Surface:
For this case the same equations as mentioned in previous section will apply except that the area of
the plate varies as ( .
Since
for partial submerged surfaces is defined as:

is the measure of level of water and geometric center of the submerged surface is:

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After substituting
and in Eq. 1-8, the equation for Z becomes:

document.-10

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-6 partially submerged plane surface

Therefore, it can clearly be seen that the cop is always 2/3 down the section of the plate that is
submerged.
Location of the center of pressure can be found using the following formula:

Substitute from Eq. 1-10
Eq. Error! No text of specified style in document.-11

Procedure:
1. With the acrylic tank on the bench, position the balance arm on the knifeedge pivot
(fulcrum). Hang the balance pan from the end of the balance arm.
2. Connect a length of hose from the drain cock to the sump and a length from the bench feed
to the triangular aperture on the top of the acrylic tank.
3. Level the tank using the adjustable feet and spirit level. Move the counter balance weight
until the balance arm is horizontal.
4. Close the drain cock and admit water until the level reaches the bottom edge of the
quadrant. Place a mass on the balance pan, slowly adding water into the tank until the
balance arm is horizontal.
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5. Record the water level on the quadrant and the mass on the balance pan. Fine adjustment
of the water level can be achieved by overfilling and slowly draining, using the stopcock.
6. Repeat the above for each increment of mass until the water level reaches the top of the
quadrant end face. Then remove each increment of mass noting masses and water levels
until all the masses have been removed.

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Report Sheet

Name

Registration number

M T W R

Observations & Calculations
a = mm b = mm d = mm L = _____ mm
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-3 changing mass with changing water level
height
Level Obs. #
Filling Tank Draining Tank Average
Mass m
(gm)
Height y
(mm)
Mass m
(gm)
Height y
(mm)
Mass m
(gm)
Height y
(mm)
P
a
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a
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l
y

I
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1
2
3
4
F
u
l
l
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I
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5
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8

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Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-4 Calculate Actual and Theoretical values
for X
C

Level
Obs.
#
Average
y
2
(mm
2
)
m/y
2
(gm/mm
2
)
q
(mm)
X
CA
(mm)
X
CT
(mm)
Mass m
(gm)
Height y
(mm)
P
a
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t
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a
l
l
y

I
m
m
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s
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d

1
2
3
4
F
u
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y

I
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5 --- --- ---
6 --- --- ---
7 --- --- ---
8 --- --- ---

Exercise:
1. For partial immersion , drive the following expression for moment produce by
hydrostatic force:

+
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2. For partial immersion, what will be the pressure distribution at the partially immersed plane
surface? Draw figure and explain.
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3. Explain with the help of some figure, why centre of pressure is always below the centroid
geometric center of area?
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4. For partial immersion , plot
against . The slope of this graph should be

and the Intercept should be . Hint: Use equation described in exercise #1.

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5. Give reasons for any discrepancies between the actual and theoretical results.
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6. Plot X
CA
against X
CT
for the partial and fully submerged cases on the same graph.

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Investigation of stability

Objective:
The objective of the experiment is experimental investigation of stability,
and then how a theoretical calculation can be used to predict the results.
Center of Gravity (G):
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Center of mass of a system of particles is a specific point at which, the
system mass behaves as if it were concentrated. In the context of an
entirely uniform gravitational field, the center of mass is often called the
center of gravity the point where gravity can be said to act. The center of
mass of a body does not always coincide with its intuitive geometric center.

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-8 Forces acting on a floating body

Center of Buoyancy (B):
The buoyant force passes through the centroid of the displaced volume, so the point through which
the buoyant force acts is called center of buoyancy.
Introduction:
The question of stability of a body such as ship which floats on the surface of a liquid is one of
obvious importance. When designing a vessel such as a ship, it is clearly necessary to be able to
establish beforehand that it will float upright in stable equilibrium.
Fig. 2-2(a) shows such a floating body which is in equilibrium under the action of two equal and
opposite forces, namely its weight W acting vertically downwards through its centre of gravity G,
and the buoyancy force of equal magnitude W, acting vertically upwards at the centre of buoyancy
B. This centre of buoyancy is located at the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced by the vessel.
When in equilibrium, the points G and B lie in the same vertical line as in fig. 2-2(a).
Stable equilibrium:
The stability of a body can be determined by considering what happens when the body is displaced
from the equilibrium position. Consider a small angular displacement from the equilibrium position
as shown in fig. 2-2(b) and 2-2(c). As the vessel tilts, the centre of buoyancy moves sideways,
remaining always at the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid. Displaced liquid can adopt different
shapes depending on the position of the floating body. Hence, center of buoyancy changes
accordingly. If, as shown in fig. 2-2(b), the weight and the buoyancy forces together produce a
couple which acts to restore the vessel to its initial position, the equilibrium is stable.
Hence, for stable equilibrium one of the following conditions would hold:
1. If G lies below B, floating body at the surface of water will remain always be in stable
equilibrium.
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2. In floating bodies, the resulting couple (due to shifting of position of B) should restore the body
to its original position.
Unstable Condition:
If however, the couple acts to move the vessel even further from its initial position, as shown in fig.
2-2 (c), then the equilibrium is unstable.
The special case when the resulting couple is zero represents the condition of neutral stability as
shown in fig. 2-2 (a).
Experimental determination of stability:

Fig. 2-3(a) shows a body of total weight , equal to weight of jockey
plus weight of the

pontoon
, floating on even keel. In equilibrium state shown in fig. 2-3(b), the weight of the
floating body acts vertically downward and opposite to the buoyancy force equal to the displaced
volume of the fluid times specific weight of the fluid . The centre of gravity may be shifted
sideways by moving a jockey of weight
across the width of the body. When the jockey is moved

a distance
as shown in fig. 2-4(a), the centre of gravity of the whole assembly moves to . The
distance is denoted by
is given from elementary statics as:

Water Level
Jockey
Slot to move
jockey
G
B
W
Vg = W
(a) (b)
Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-9 (a) Front view of floating
pontoon (b) Slot is omitted for simplicity
(a)

G G
B
B
M
(b)
M
B
B
G G

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The shift of the centre of gravity causes the body to tilt to a new equilibrium position at a small angle
to the vertical as shown in fig. 2-4(a), with an associated movement of the centre of buoyancy
from to . The point must lie vertically below , since the body is in equilibrium in the tilted
position. Let the vertical line of the up thrust through intersect the original line of up thrust at
the point , called the Metacentre. We may now regard the jockey movement as having caused the
floating body to swing about the point . Accordingly, the equilibrium is stable if the metacentre lies
above . Provided that is small, the distance GM is given by:

Where is very small:

Hence,


document.-13

Where is in circular measure, Substituting for
from Eq. 2-1 gives:


document.-14
The dimension is called the metacentric height. In the experiment described below, it is
measured directly from the slope of a graph of
against obtained by moving a jockey across a

pontoon.
Now the distance BG may be found from the following relationship:
document.-15
This gives an independent check on the result obtained experimentally by traversing a jockey
weight across the floating body.
Analytical Determination of BM:
A quite separate theoretical calculation of the position of the metacentre can be made as described
in the following paragraphs.
The movement of the centre of buoyancy to produces a moment of the buoyancy force about the
original centre of buoyancy . To establish the magnitude of this moment, first consider the element
of moment exerted by a small element of change in displaced volume (V), as indicated on fig. 2-
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5(a) & (b). An element of width lying at distance x from B, has an additional depth due to the
tilt of the body. Its length, as shown in the plan view on fig. 2-5(b), is L. So the volume V of the
element is:

Whereas, the element of additional buoyancy force is:

Where, is the specific weight of water equal to g. The element of moment about B produced by
the element of force is , calculated as:

The total moment about B is obtained by integration over the whole of the plan area of the body, in
the plane of the water surface:


document.-16
Where, second moment of area is defined as:

Hence,
(a) (b)

x
.x

L
D
A = L.x
Axis of symmetry
Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-11 (a) Differential
volume V = x.L .x (b) Bottom view of the pontoon
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document.-17
is about the axis of symmetry of the water plane area of the body as shown in fig. 2-5(b). We can
equate this moment, calculated in Eq. 2-6, with the moment produced by buoyancy force with
moment arm .
Hence, moment M can also be defined as:
Equating Eq. 2-6 and Eq. 2-7:


document.-19
From triangle MBB in fig. 2-4(b), we see that:

Where, is very small:

Hence,

document.-20
Substitute BB from Eq. 2-9 to Eq. 2-8:

document.-21
For the particular case of a body with a rectangular platform of width D and length L as in this
experiment, the second moment of area is readily found as:

Now, BM calculated using Eq. 2-4 can be campared with the theoratical value of BM calculated from
Eq. 2-10.
Experimental Procedure:
The pontoon shown in fig. 2-1 and 2-6 has a rectangular platform, and is provided with a rigid sail. A
jockey weight may be traversed in preset steps and at various heights across the pontoon, along
slots in the sail. Angles of tilt are shown by the movement of a plumb line over an angular scale, as
indicated in fig. 2-6(a).

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1. The height of the centre of gravity of the whole floating assembly is first measured, for one
chosen height of the jockey weight. The pontoon is suspended from a hole at one side of the
sail, as indicated in fig 2-6(b), and the jockey weight is placed at such a position on the line of
symmetry as to cause the pontoon to hang with its base roughly vertical.
3. A plumb line is hung from the suspension point. The height of the centre of gravity G of the
whole suspended assembly then lies at the point where the plumb line intersects the line of
symmetry of the pontoon. This establishes the position of G for this particular jockey height.
2. The position of G for any other jockey height may then be calculated from elementary statics, as
will be seen later.
4. After measuring the external width and length of the pontoon, and noting the weights of the
various components, the pontoon is floated in water.
5. With the jockey weight on the line of symmetry, small magnetic weights are used to trim the
assembly to even keel, indicated by a zero reading on the angular scale. The jockey is then
moved in steps across the width of the pontoon, the corresponding angle of tilt (over a range
which is typically 8) being recorded at each step. This procedure is then repeated with the
jockey traversed at a number of different heights.

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-12 (a)
Floating pontoon tilted by movement of jockey weight (b)
Determination of position of center of gravity
Jockey
weight
Angular
Scale
Suspension
Plumb Line
19

2

Report Sheet

Name

Registration number

M T W R

Results and Calculations:
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-5 Important given parameters
S/N Parameter Symbol Value Units
1 Weight of pontoon W
P
2.430 N
2 Weight of jockey W
j
0.391 N
3 Total Weight W=W
P
+W
j
2.821 N
4 Fluid volume displaced V=W/ 2.821x10
-3
m
3

5 Breadth of pontoon D 201.8 mm
6 Length of pontoon L 360.1 mm
7 Area of pontoon in plane of water surface A=LD 7.267x10
-3
m
2

8 Second moment of area I=LD
3
/12 2.466x10
-4
m
4

9 Depth of immersion OC=V/A 38.8 mm
10 Height of center of Buoyancy B above O OB=OC/2=BC 19.4 mm
Height of Centre of Gravity:
Fig. 2-7 shows schematically the positions of the centre of buoyancy B, centre of gravity G, and
metacentre M. O is a reference point on the external surface of the pontoon, and C is the point
where the axis of symmetry intersects the plane of the water surface. The thickness of the material
from which the pontoon is made is assumed to be 2 mm. The height of G above the reference point
O is OG. The height of the jockey weight above O is y
j
.
20

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-13 Pontoon sketch with important points
marked
When the pontoon is suspended as shown in fig. 2-7 and with the jockey weight placed in the
uppermost slot of the sail, the following measurements can be made:
1. The value of OG may now be determined for any other value of y
j
. If y
j
changes by y
j
, then this
will produce a change OG in OG as:

2. The vertical separation of the slots in the sail (y
j
) is , so OG will change in steps as
calculated below:

Fill the Table below. The values of OG calculated in this way for the 5 different heights y
j
of the
jockey weight.
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-6 Changing center of gravity with Jockey
height
S/N y
j
(mm) OG (mm)
1
2
3
4
5

Find OG, using method described in fig. 2-6, for maximum jockey height. Then follow step-2, as
stated above, to fill tab. 2-2.

Experimental determination of metacentric height GM:
21
Fill the following table, for different jockey heights y
j
, measuring tilt angles , when jockey weight is
displaced from centre by distance x
j
:
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-7 Jockey displacement vs. tilt angle for
different jockey height
y
1
= ______mm y
2
= ______mm y
3
= ______mm y
4
= ______mm y
5
= ______mm
S/N
x
j

(mm)

(Deg.)
x
j

(mm)

(Deg.)
x
j

(mm)

(Deg.)
x
j

(mm)

(Deg.)
x
j

(mm)

(Deg.)
1 -45 --- -45 --- -45 -45 -45
2 -30 --- -30 -30 -30 -30
3 -15 -15 -15 -15 -15
4 0 0 0 0 0
5 15 15 15 15 15
6 30 --- 30 30 30 30
7 45 --- 45 --- 45 45 45

Find the GM using eq. 2-3 from the slope of the graphs (five lines on same graph) between x
j
and .
Before calculating GM, convert units of slope from mm/deg to mm/rad.

Find BM from the relation below:

Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-8 BM for different jockey heights y
j

S/N y
j
(mm) OG (mm) Slope (mm/deg) Slope (mm/rad) GM (mm) BM (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
22

The result calculated in Tab. 2-4 can be compared with the value computed from theory. Eq. 2-10
can be used to fine theoretical value of BM for this particular apparatus.
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-9 % difference between theoretical and
experimental values of BM
S/N
BM (mm)
Theoretical
BM (mm)
Experimental
%
Difference
1
2
3
4
5

Exercise:
1. Does the movement of the plumbbob over the angular scale affect the results in any way?
Consider, for instance, a plumbbob of 0.005N weight, displaced sideways through a distance of
90 mm. What effect does this have, as compared with that of a corresponding displacement of
the jockey weight?
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2. What accuracy do you consider you have achieved in obtaining the analytical value of BM? If,
for example, the possible uncertainty in measuring D and L is 2 mm, what is the corresponding
uncertainty in the calculated value of BM?
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23

3. How would the stability of the pontoon be affected if it were floated on a liquid with a greater
density than that of water?
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________
4. What suggestions do you have for improving the apparatus?
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________________

24

3
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Analyze flow over
(Apparatus # FM05)

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-14 Hydraulic Bench, rectangular and
triangular weirs
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to observe the characteristics of flow over a
Rectangular Notch and a Triangular or Vnotch, and to determine the Coefficient of
Discharge.
Apparatus:
The apparatus of this experiment includes a Hydraulic bench, Stilling baffle,
Vernier, V-notch plate, Rectangular notch plate, Stop watch.
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
3

25
Summary of Theory:
1. This lab is based upon the principle of conservation of mass.
2. Coefficient of discharge, C
d
, is used in conjunction with an ideal velocity (or inviscid velocity) to
calculate the flow rate, through restricted passages. However, to determine C
d
for a device (i.e.
to calibrate the device), one needs to measure a key variable, H, for known flow rates, Q.
3. Generally, C
d
accounts for the effect of contraction (which you will observe), velocity of
approach, viscosity, and surface tension. In other words, both the characteristics of the device
and the properties of the fluid influence the value of C
d
.

Equipment Setup:

Rectangular Weir:
A weir is an obstruction in an open channel over which liquid flows. The discharge over the weir is a
function of the weir geometry and the head on the weir. The head on the weir is defined as the
vertical distance between the weir crest and the liquid surface taken far enough upstream of the
weir to avoid local free surface curvature as shown in fig. 3-2(a).

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-15
Experimental Setup

Delivery
Nozzle
Stilling Baffle
Instrument
Carrier
Hook and
Point
Vernier
Scale
Locking and
Adjustment Nuts
Weir
Carrier
26

The basic discharge equation for the weir is derived by integrating the following equation over the
total head on the weir:
document.-22
In Eq. 3-1, L is the length of the weir and V is the velocity at any given distance h below the free
surface. Neglecting streamline curvature and assuming negligible velocity of approach upstream of
the weir, we obtain an expression for V by writing Bernoullis equation between a point upstream of
the weir and the point in the plane of the weir as shown in fig. 3-4(a). Bernoullis equation between
point 1 and 2 will be as follow:

Where, P
1
and P
2
are atmospheric pressures will be cancelled out from both sides, as reference
pressure is atmospheric pressure. V
1
is assumed to be zero and height H
1
is equal to H and H
2
is
equal to (H-h). Heights are measured from the reference elevation, crest of the weir. Velocity at
point 2 will be V
2
equal to V. The Bernoullis equation will reduce to:

document.-23
Velocity at the exit will depend upon variable height h.

(a) (b)
L
H
Flow over rectangular weir (b) Front view
27

From Eq. 3-1,
document.-24
Substituting V from Eq. 3-2:

Integrate the above equation over the height of the weir to get total flow rate through the rectangular
weir.

Integrating will result in the following theoretical flow rate:

document.-25
Discharge coefficient C
d
is defined as:

document.-26
) Eq. Error! No text of specified style in

document.-27
The actual value of flow rate can be calculated as:

Triangular Weir:

Velocity distribution over rectangular weir (b) Differential area
dA
(b)
L
H
h

H
h
dh
V=
1
2
(a)
dA=Ldh
28
The primary advantage of the triangular weir is that it has a higher degree of accuracy over much
wider range of flow than does the rectangular weir, because the average width of the flow section
increases.

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-18 (a) Triangular Weir (b) Change in weir
length with height
The discharge equation for the triangular weir is derived in the same manner as that of rectangular
weir. The differential discharge from Eq. 3-3 is integrated over the total head on the weir. Thus we
have:

This integrates to:

document.-28
However, coefficient of discharge can be calculated from Eq. 3-5.
Hence we have:

document.-29
Actual flow rate will be:

Description:
The apparatus consists of five basic elements used in conjunction with the flow channel in the
molded bench top of the Hydraulics Bench as shown in fig. 3-1 and 3-2. A quick release connector
in the base of the channel is unscrewed and a delivery nozzle is screwed in its place. A stilling baffle
is slid into the slots in the walls of the channel. The inlet nozzle and stilling baffle in combination
promote smooth flow conditions in the channel. A vernier hook and point gauge is mounted on an
instrument carrier, which is located on side channels of the molded top. The carrier may be moved
along the channels to the required measurement position. The gauge is provided with a coarse
adjustment locking screw and a fine adjustment nut. Vernier is locked to the mast by screw and is
used in conjunction with the scale. The hook and point is clamped at the base of the vertical mast
29
by a thumb screw. The rectangular notch weir or V notch weir to be tested is clamped to the weir
carrier in the channel by thumb nuts. The weir plates incorporate captive studs to aid assembly.
Technical Details:
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-10 Technical details
S/N Parameter Value Units
1 Weir plate height 160 mm
2 Weir plate width 230 mm
3 Weir plate thickness 4 mm
4 Rectangular notch height 82 mm
5 Rectangular notch width 30 mm
6 Angle of V-notch 90 degree
7 Hook-point gauge range 0-150 mm

Procedure:
1. Ensure that the hydraulics bench is located on a level floor, as the accuracy of the results will
be affected if the bench top is not level. Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram.
2. Set vernier height to a datum reading by placing the point on the crest of the weir / at the bottom
of the V notch on the weir. Take extreme care not to damage the weir plate with the point
gauge.
3. Position the gauge about half way between the notch plate and stilling baffle. Admit water to the
channel and adjust flow control valve to obtain heads, H, increasing in steps of 10mm.
4. For each flow rate, stabilize conditions, measure and record H. Take readings of volume and
time using the volumetric tank to determine the flow rate.

3

Report Sheet

Name

30

Registration number

M T W R

Observations & Calculations:
For Rectangular notch:
Height of notch = mm Breadth of notch = mm
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-11 Readings for Rectangular weir
S/N
Head
H(m)
Time
T(s)
Volume
V(m
3
)
Flow Rate
Q
ac
(m
3
/s)
H
3/2

Flow Rate
Q
th
(m
3
/s)
Log Q Log H C
d

1
2
3
4
5

Average Value of C
d
for Rectangular weir= __________
For Triangular notch:
Angle of notch = mm
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-12 Reading for Triangular weir
S/N
Head
H(m)
Time
T(s)
Volume
V(m
3
)
Flow
Rate
Q
ac
(m
3
/s)
H
5/2

Flow Rate
Q
th
(m
3
/s)
Log Q Log H C
d

1
2
3
4
5
Average Value of C
d
for Triangular weir= __________
Exercise:
1. Starting from Eq. 3-4 and 3-5 separately, derive equations of the form:

What will be the expressions for m and c?
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31
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2. Plot Log Q vs. Log H for both Rectangular and Triangular weirs on the same graph below.

3. Compare y-intercept of the above graph with the expressions obtained in question #1 for
constant c. Find value of C
d
for both weirs.
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32
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4. For both weirs, plot C
d
against H.

5. For both weirs, compare the average value of C
d
obtained from the table and C
d
calculated in
question #3.
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-13 C
d
comparison
S/N Weir C
d
Average C
d
from Graph % Difference
1 Rectangular
2 Triangular

6. Is C
d
constant for the weirs in this experiment? If yes, comment. If not, why?
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33
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4
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Determining friction
factor for pipes
(Apparatus # FM02)

E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
4

34

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-19 Fluid friction apparatus
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to determine the friction factor f as a function of
Reynolds Number for the smooth and rough pipes and compare them with
empirical data contained in Moody chart.
Apparatus:
Fluid friction apparatus, Stop watch and vernier calipers
Head Loss for Fluid Flowing in the Pipe:
The overall head loss for the pipe system consists of the head loss due to viscous
effects in the straight pipes, termed the major loss and the head loss in the various
pipe components, termed the minor loss. Hence, overall head los is defined as:

Major Losses:
In this experiment our focus will be on Major Losses through the pipes. Minor Losses through other
components of piping e.g. valves elbows and fittings will come in greater detail in experiment #8 and
will not be discussed further in this experiment. Though there are many types of losses, yet the
major loss is due to shear stresses (
w
) between the fluid and pipe surface. The shear stress of the
pipe depends upon the roughness of the inside of the pipe. Shear stress for the turbulent flow is a
function of a fluid density (), whereas, for laminar shear stress is independent of density of the
fluid. In case of laminar flow, viscosity () is the only important fluid property. For laminar flow
pressure drop or head loss is independent of roughness of pipe but for turbulent flow there is a very
thin viscous sublayer formed in the fluid near the pipe wall. Thus for the turbulent flow the pressure
drop is expected to be function of the wall roughness. So turbulent flow properties depend on the
fluid density and the pipe roughness.
Critical Velocity
If the velocity of fluid inside the pipe is small, streamlines will be in straight parallel lines. As the
velocity of fluid inside the pipe gradually increase, streamlines will continue to be straight and
parallel with the pipe wall until velocity is reached when the streamlines will waver and suddenly
break into diffused patterns. The velocity at which this occurs is called "critical velocity". At velocities
higher than "critical", the streamlines are dispersed at random throughout the pipe.
35
The regime of flow when velocity is lower than "critical" is called laminar flow (or viscous or
streamline flow). At laminar regime of flow the velocity is highest on the pipe axis, and on the wall
the velocity is equal to zero as shown in fig. 4-2.

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-20 Laminar and Turbulent Flow through
pipes and velocity profiles
When the velocity is greater than "critical", the regime of flow is turbulent. In turbulent regime of flow
there is irregular random motion of fluid particles in directions transverse to the direction on main
flow. Velocity change in turbulent flow is more uniform than in laminar. In the turbulent regime of
flow, there is always a thin layer of fluid at pipe wall which is moving in laminar flow. That layer is
known as the boundary layer or laminar sub-layer.

Professor Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that two types of flow may exist in a pipe:
1. Laminar flow at low velocities where (h u)
2. Turbulent flow at higher velocities where (h u
n
)
Where h is the head loss due to friction and u is the fluid velocity. These two types of flow are
separated by a transition phase where no definite relationship between h and u exists.
Graphs of h versus u and log h versus log u show these zones. You will be asked to plot these
curves using your data and identify the low and high limits of critical velocity. Graphs of h vs u and
Log h vs Log u will look like fig. 4-3 (a) and (b), respectively.
Laminar Flow Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
Smooth pipe
Rough pipe
V average
36

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-21 (a) h vs. u (b) Log h vs. Log u
Friction Factor (f):
Friction factor (f) is a dimensionless quantity. For horizontal circular pipe, the friction factor f is
calculated by the following formula:


document.-30

Where
= Length of pipe between tapings (m) = 1m for both pipes
D= Internal diameter of the pipe (m)
u = Mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s
2
) = 9.81 m/s
2

= Friction factor
A large body of data exists on pressure drop in pipes of circular and noncircular crosssections.
This information is summarized empirically in the Moody friction factor chart shown in fig. 4-4. The
friction factor is plotted against Reynolds Number (Re) on LogLog scale. The plot clearly exhibits
three flow regimes, laminar, transitional, and turbulent.
For laminar flow, friction factor , irrespective of the pipe roughness, is related to Re as:

Whereas, for turbulent Flow, friction factor depends upon relative roughness of the tube (/D) and
value of Re, but for large value of Re, becomes independent of Re. In the transition zone, the
behavior is similar to that of turbulent regime.
Moody chart:
Moody chart gives the friction factor in terms of Reynolds Number and relative roughness, because
it is possible to measure the effective relative roughness of typical pipes and thus to obtain the
friction factor by Moody chart.
(a) (b)
37

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-22 Moody Diagram
Procedure to Conduct Experiment:
1. Calibrate the Rotameter by using a stop watch to record the time it takes to increase the
volume of the water in the tank from 0 to x. record the time/volume, compare collection flow rate
versus the Rotameter flow rate reading. The system flow rate is changed by opening or closing
the V2 valve while valve V6 is completely open.
2. Measure the internal diameter of each test pipe sample using a set of calipers.
3. Close the inlet flow control valve V2 and open the outlet flow control V6.
4. Choose the appropriate pipe for the measurement of pressure drop. Open and close the
appropriate valves to obtain flow of water through the required test pipe.
5. For example: If you choose pipe 2, you should open V4 in pipe 2 and close V4 in Pipe 1, V4 in
pipe 3 and 7 in pipe 4.
6. Start the pump; use black button to turn it on and red to turn it off.
7. Gradually open the inlet flow control valve to allow water to flow along the test pipes and into
the volumetric tank.
8. Adjust V2 and V6 to obtain a suitable flow rate.
9. Take three measurements at three to four different flow rates for each pipe and the valves,
meters, or bends.
10. To stop the operation, completely open valves V6 and V2, then switch off the pump.
Notes:
1. Make sure that there are no air bubbles in the pipe while the experiment is running.
2. The valves are 7, 10, and 11. The meters are the Pitot tube 16, the Venturi meter 17, and the
orifice meter 18. The bends are 9, 13, and 14.
3. For reading on mercury manometer, convert head of Mercury (Hg) to head of H
2
O. Specific
gravity of Hg is 13.6.
38
Equipment Setup:

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-23 Fluid friction apparatus

4

Report Sheet

39

Name

Registration number

M T W R

Observations and calculations:
Students are advised to take ten readings for each pipe. Fewer readings will result in insufficient
data to plot required graphs.

For smooth pipe:
Internal Diameter (D) = ______mm Pipe Area (A) = ______m
2
Length of pipe () = _____m
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-14 Readings for smooth pipe
S/N
Volume
V(m
3
)
Time
T(s)
Flow Rate
Q(m
3
/s)
u=Q/A
(m/s)

h
(m of H
2
O)
Log u Log h
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

For rough pipe:
Internal Diameter (D) = ______mm Pipe Area (A) = ______m
2
Length of pipe () = _____m
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-15 Readings for rough pipe
S/N
Volume
V(m
3
)
Time
T(s)
Flow Rate
Q(m
3
/s)
u=Q/A
(m/s)

h
(m of H
2
O)
Log u Log h
1
2
3
40
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

It is assumed that the dynamic viscosity is 1.15 X 10
-3
Ns/m
2
at 15C and the density is 999
kg/m
3
at 15C. However, you should measure the actual temperature of the water and adjust these
values accordingly.

Exercise:
1. Plot a graph of h versus u for the two pipes on the same graph paper. Identify the laminar,
transition and turbulent zones on the graph.

2. Plot a graph Log h versus Log u for the two pipes on the same graph paper. Determine the
slope of the straight line to find n for turbulent flow (see fig. 4-3).

41

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Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-16 Comparison of velocity exponent n for
rough and smooth pipe
Flow Condition n for smooth pipe n for rough pipe Percentage Difference
Turbulent

3. From exercise #2, for the two pipes, determine the slope of the graph for both laminar and
turbulent flows.
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-17 Slope comparison
Slope of graph
S/N
Flow Condition
Smooth Pipe
(S
1
)
Rough Pipe
(S
2
)
(S
1
>S
2
) or
(S
1
<S
2
)
1 Laminar Flow
2 Turbulent Flow

Comment on the difference between slopes of the graphs.
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____

4. From graphs plotted in exercise 1 & 2, estimate the upper and lower limits of critical velocity in
the two pipes. Comment on the difference in values of the critical velocity range for two pipes.
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42
5. Determine the pressure drop for the two pipes at the lowest and the highest flow rates. Express
your results in kPa (not in m of H
2
O).
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-18 Pressure Drop comparison for both pipes
Pressure Drop (kPa)
Flow
Condition
Flow Rate
(m
3
/s)
Smooth Pipe
(P
1
)
Rough Pipe
(P
2
)
Percentage
Difference
Lowest
Highest
Comments:
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____________________________
6. On the Moody diagram (fig. 4-4), plot the points of friction factor against Reynolds number for
the two pipes. Compare the values of for both pipes (two values for each) in Laminar flow with
that of values on Moody diagram.
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-19 Friction Factor comparison
S/N from Tab. 4-1 & 4-2 from fig. 4-4
Percentage
Difference
1
2
3
4

Comments:
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________________________

7. Using Moody Diagram (fig. 4-4), for the rough pipe in the turbulent flow regime, determine the
value of relative roughness .
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-20 Relative roughness for rough pipe
S/N from Tab. 4-2
1
2
3
4

43

5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .

Observing momentum
Transfer (Apparatus #
FM07)

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-24 Impact of jet apparatus
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to verify the theory of conservation of momentum in fluid
mechanics, and to measure the reaction force developed by a jet on different surface profiles.

E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
5

44
Equipment Setup:

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-25 Experimental Setup of Jet apparatus
Summary of theory:
Starting from Newtons second Law of motion, it can be said that time rate of change of linear
momentum of a system is equal to the sum of all the external forces acting on system. Whereas,
time rate of change of linear momentum of the system is divided into two parts, one is the time rate
of change of linear momentum of the content of the control volume and second is the net rate of
flow of linear momentum in or out of the control surface. As the particles moves into and out of the
control volume (cv) through the control surface (cs), they carry linear momentum with them.
Hence, Newtons second Law of motion can be described as:

For steady state condition, the above equation in y-direction will reduce to:


document.-31
The above equation is called general linear momentum equation. Linear momentum is a vector
quantity so it can have components in three orthogonal coordinate directions. The flow of the linear
momentum into the control volume involves a negative product. Momentum flow out of the CV
involves a positive product. The correct algebraic sign (+ or ) to assign to momentum flow will
depend on the sense of the velocity. For steady system the time rate of change of linear momentum
of the control volume is zero.
Derivations:
It is assumed in the following derivations that the leaving streamlines are parallel to the edge
surface of the target. Targets used in this experiment are shown in fig. 5-3.
Weight pan
Target plate
Nozzle
Inlet pipe
Level gauge
Spring
Knurled screw
45

Case 1 - Flat Target at 120
o
to the jet:
Using fig. 5-3 (a) and fig. 5-4, apply Eq. 5-1 in the direction of force vector R:

Where,

Substitute R in this equation:

Where, (cos30
o
) is equal to , and (V
1
A) is equal to the flow rate (Q) out of the nozzle.
Hence,

document.-32

(a) (b) (c)
Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-26 (a) Target
at 120
o
(b) Flat target (c) Hemispherical target
46

Where, R
Y
is the force exerted by the water jet to the 120
o
flat target and A is area of the nozzle.

Case 2 - Flat Target at right angles to the jet:
Using the same method as applied in Case 1, the following relation for resultant force applied on the
flat target is obtained:

document.-33

Case 3 - Hemispherical Target:
In this case, the inlet velocity to the control volume is equal and opposite of the exit velocity. Using
the same method as applied in Case 1, the following relation for resultant force applied on the flat
target is obtained:

document.-4
Technical details:
1 Nozzle diameter 8 mm
2 Distance b/w nozzle & target plate 20 mm
3 Diameter of target plate 36 mm
4 Target plates Hemispherical, 120
o
,90
o
---

Description:

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-27 (a) 120
o

target (b) Inlet velocity components (c) Force components
R
Y

R
V
2

V
2

V
1

R
Y

R
30
o

V
1

30
o

V
1
cos30
o

(a) (b) (c)
47
This equipment allows the force developed by a jet of water impinging upon a stationary object to be
measured. The apparatus consists of a cylindrical clear acrylic fabrication which is positioned in the
bed of the bench top channel and the inlet pipe connected to the bench supply. The feet are
adjustable so that the apparatus can be leveled with the aid of the spirit level.
Water is fed through a nozzle and discharged vertically to strike a target carried on a stem which
extends through the cover. After striking the target plate, water leaves through the outlet holes in the
base. An air vent is provided so that the interior remains at atmospheric pressure.
Procedure:
1. Remove the top plate and transparent casing, measure the nozzle diameter. You may use
the diameter value provided by the manufacturer which is printed on the apparatus.
2. Place the flat target on the rod attached to the weight pan.
3. Reassemble the apparatus. Connect the inlet pipe to the bench, with the apparatus in the
open channel.
4. Level the base of the apparatus with the top plate loosely assembled.
5. Screw down the top plate to datum on the spirit level.
6. Adjust the level gauge to suit the datum on the weight pan.
7. A nominal mass (M) is placed on the weight pan, water is allowed to flow by operating the
control valve on the bench. The flow rate (Q) is then adjusted until the weight pan is
adjacent to the level gauge. When testing for level, the weight pan should be oscillated to
minimize the effect of friction.
8. Take readings of volume (V) and time (T) to find the flow rate (Q). Note the mass on the
weight pan (M).
9. Repeat with additional masses on the weight pan. Repeat the above using the 120
o
target
and the hemispherical target.

48

5

Report Sheet

Name

Registration number

M T W R

Observation and calculations:
Nozzle diameter = _______mm Area of nozzle: _________m
2

Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-22 Reading for different targets and
comparison between forces
Target S/N
Volume
V(m
3
)
Time
T(s)
Flow
Rate
Q(m
3
/s)
Q
2

Force on
Target
R
Y
(N)
Mass
M(g)
Weight
W(N)
% Force
Comparison
1
2
0
o

T
a
r
g
e
t

1
2
3
4
5
9
0
o

T
a
r
g
e
t

1
2
3
4
5
H
e
m
i
s
p
h
e
r
i
c
a
l

1
2
3
4
5

Exercise:
1. Starting from Eq. 5-1, drive Eq. 5-3 and Eq. 5-4. Illustrate with the help of figures.
49
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________
2. For each target, plot W against Q
2
and compare with the theoretical slopes.

Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-23 Comparison
S/N Target Slope from formula Slope from graph
%
Difference
1 120
o
Flat Plate
2 90
o
Flat Plate
3 Hemispherical

50

3. If the slopes do not compare well, explain the reasons for the observed differences in the light
of your observation of the flow field and the assumptions made in deriving the expressions for
R
Y
.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
____________________

4. For a given balancing mass M, compare the flow rates needed for each target achieve the
balance.
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-24 Comparison between different targets
S/N Target Mass M Flow Rate Q Remarks
1 120
o
Flat Plate
2 90
o
Flat Plate
3 Hemispherical

Comments:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
________________________

51

6
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Determining discharge
coefficient of an orifice
(Apparatus # FM09)

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-28 Orifice & jet apparatus
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to determine the discharge coefficient
(C
d
) for a small orifice for constant and varying heads.

E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t

6

52
Equipment setup:

Orifice:
An opening, in a vessel, through which the liquid flows out, is called an orifice. The difference
between the weir and orifice is that for orifice liquid on the upstream side is always above the top
edge of the orifice. The usual purpose of the orifices is the measurement of flow. Due to friction the
real velocity will be somewhat lower than theoretical value.
Vena Contracta:
If the exit of the orifice is not smooth well contoured nozzle, but rather a flat plate, then the diameter
of the jet will be less than the diameter of the hole. This phenomenon, called a vena contracta
effect.
Jet:
A jet is a coherent stream of fluid that is projected into a surrounding medium (at atmospheric
pressure), usually from some kind of a nozzle or aperture. The exit pressure for an incompressible
fluid jet is equal to the surrounding pressure.
Coefficient of Contraction (C
C
):
The venacontracta is a function of geometry of the outlet resulting in contraction of the jet stream
as it moves out of the orifice. Contraction coefficient can always be measured experimentally if we
can measure the area of the jet stream after vena contracta. Following relation is used to calculate
C
C
:

Orifice plate with O ring
Scale
Head tank
Adjustable
overflow
pipe
Locknut
Flexible
hose to
sump tank
Inlet pipe
Baffle
Thumb
nut
Screw
Needle
Paper clamp Backboard
Adjustable feet
53
Coefficient of Discharge (C
d
):
The discharge coefficient of orifice is used to account for nonideal effects. These nonideal effects
arise due to two reasons, first, the vena contracta and second, the swirling flow and turbulent
motion near the orifice plate. It can be determined experimentally. For a sharp edged opening it may
be as low as 0.6. For smooth orifices it may be between 0.95 and 1.

For constant head:
Orifices discharge coefficient, when tank head is maintained at constant, can be calculated from the
following relation:

document.-34
Where, theoretical flow rate out of the orifice is calculated as:

document.-35
Correlation for velocity through the orifice can be derived from Bernoullis equation. Applying
Bernoullis equation between tank free surface (1) and orifice outlet (2) will result in the following
equation (see fig. 6-3):
document.-36

Hence, after substituting Eq. 6-2 and Eq. 6-3 in Eq. 6-1, the discharge coefficient (C
d
) for constant
head H will be as follows:

document.-37
Where, A
O
is the area of the orifice:

D
O

1
2
H
Figure Error! No text of specified
style in document.-30 Water tank
with constant head H
54
For varying head:
Figure 6-4 shows water tank with an orifice of diameter D
O
. Water drains out of the tank through the
orifice resulting in drop of water head (h). In small interval of time (dt), let the liquid level fall down by
an amount (dh). Therefore, volume of the liquid (dq) that has drained out of the tank in this time (dt)
is estimated as:


document.-38

Where, A
T
is area of the tank with diameter D
T
, calculated as:

Theoretical volume of liquid that has passed through the orifice in this small interval of time (dt) is
estimated as:

Actual value of the drained out liquid volume will be:


document.-39
Equating Eq. 6-5 and Eq. 6-6 results:

After rearranging the above equation, it can be shown that the time required (dt) to drain the tank
from head h
1
to h
2
is given as:

Integrating above equation:

Figure Error! No text of
specified style in document.-31
Water tank with variable head
D
O

h
dh
D
T

55

This on simplification gives discharge coefficient for variable head:
) Eq. Error! No text of specified

style in document.-40
Technical details:
1 Orifice diameter 3 and 6 mm
2 Jet trajectory probes 8 Needles
3 Maximum constant head 410 mm
Procedure:
1. Measure the orifice diameter, removing the orifice plate if necessary; also measure the internal
dimensions of the header tank. Or use the values provided.
2. Connect the apparatus to the bench, leveling by adjusting the feet, ensuring the overflow pipe
runs into the sump tank.
3. Raise overflow pipe to a suitable level, release water into the head tank. Control the flow until
the water is just spilling into the overflow. Record the head h on the scale, measure the flow
rate using the volumetric tank, or by intercepting the jet with a measuring cylinder. Repeat for
different water levels.
4. For flow under varying head, the overflow pipe is raised to obtain maximum head, the header
tank filled to overflow level and the inlet water feed closed. Start a stopwatch when the level
reaches the first convenient scale mark (noted as h
1
). Take a reading of head h
2
at 20second
intervals or interval of your choice.

56

6

Report Sheet

Name

Registration number

M T W R

Observation and Calculations:
D
O
=______mm A
O
=______m
2
D
T
=_____mm A
T
=_____m
2

For constant head:
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-26 Readings for constant head
S/N
Head
H(mm)
Volume
V(m
3
)
Time
T(s)
Flow Rate
Q(m
3
/s)
Q
2
C
d

1
2
3
4
5
Average C
d
= _________
For variable head:
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-27 Readings for variable head
S/N
Head
H
1
(mm)
Head
H
2
(mm)

Time T(s)
C
d

T
1
T
2
T=T
2
-T
1

1
2
3
4
5
Average C
d
= _________
57

Exercise:
1. For constant head, plot Q
2
against H and obtain C
d
from the slope of this graph (use Eq. 6-4 to
find formula for slope). Compare this value of C
d
with the average value of C
d
obtained from
Tab. 6-2.

d
comparison
S/N Average C
d
C
d
from graph % Difference
1
Comments:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
________________________
2. Why are the C
d
values significantly less than 1.0?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
________

58

3. For varying head, plot T against
and obtain C
d
from the slope of this graph (use Eq.
6-7 to find formula for slope). Compare this value of C
d
with the average value of C
d
obtained
from Tab. 6-3.

d
comparison
S/N Average C
d
C
d
from graph % Difference
1

Comments:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
________________________
4. If the value of C
d
obtained by the two methods differ, on which of the two values do you place
most reliance and why?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____

59

7
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Validity of Bernoullis
equation (Apparatus #
FM06)

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-32 Venturi meter
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to verify experimentally the validity of
Bernoullis Equation.

E
x
p
e
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i
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t
7

60

Equipment Setup:

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-33 Bernoullis Apparatus
Introduction:
The objective of the lab is to confirm Bernoullis Theorem through experimental results. Bernoullis
Theorem states that the energy of a fluid is conserved throughout its flow. Total energy (E
T
) of the
fluid will always be equal to the sum of energy due to pressure head (E
P
), velocity head (E
V
) and
elevation head (E
Z
):

Bernoullis law indicates that, if an in viscid fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross section,
then the pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher and higher where the pipe
opens out and the fluid stagnates. Many people find this situation paradoxical when they first
encounter it (higher velocity, lower pressure). The wellknown Bernoulli equation is derived under
the following four assumptions:
I. Inviscid flow
II. Steady flow
III. Incompressible flow
IV. Flow along a stream line

Considering flow at two sections in a pipe, Bernoullis equation may be written as:
61

Where,
P = Fluid static pressure at the cross section in N/m
2

= Density of the flowing fluid in kg/m
3

g = Acceleration due to gravity in m/s
2
= 9800 mm/s
2

V = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section in m/s
Z = Elevation head of the center of the cross section with respect to a datum
For this apparatus, Z
1
is equal to Z
2
and static pressure P at any point can be calculated as:

Where, h is the height of the water column in manometer attached to the venturi tube.
Hence, Bernoullis equation will reduce to the following:

document.-41
On each side of the Eq. 7-1, sum of both terms is called Total Head (H
T
) of the fluid flowing through
the venturi tube. Therefore, at any point in the venturi tube, total head can be defined as:

H
T
should be constant at all sections along the duct.
Total head (H
T
) can also be calculated experimental with the help of hydrodynamic probe (3) as
shown in fig. 7-1.

Technical details:
1 Manometer range 0-300 mm
2 Number of manometer tubes 8 tubes
3 Throat diameter 10 mm
4 Upstream diameter 25 mm
5 Upstream taper 14 degree
6 Downstream taper 21 degree

62

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-34 Venturi meter Test Section (1)
The test section (1) shown in fig. 7-2 is an accurately machined Perspex duct of varying circular
crosssection provided with pressure tapings whereby the static pressures may be measured
simultaneously at each of six sections. The test section incorporates unions (2) at either end to
facilitate reversal for convergent or divergent testing so that the characteristics of flow through both
a converging and diverging section can be studied (see fig. 7-1). Water is fed through a hose
connector and is controlled by a flow regulator valve at the outlet of the test section.
A hypodermic probe (3) is provided which may be positioned to read the total head (H
T
) at any
section of the duct. The probe may be moved after slackening gland nut (4). This nut should be
retightened by hand. To prevent damage, the probe should be fully inserted during
transport/storage. All eight pressure tapings are connected to a bank of manometer tubes (5)
incorporating a manifold with air bleed valve.
The venturimeter can be demonstrated as a mean of flow measurement and the discharge
coefficient can be determined. (We will not do this in this lab).
Procedure:
1. By using the adjustable feet (8), the apparatus is leveled on the Hydraulics bench and is
connected to the bench, ensuring that the test section has the 14o tapered duct converging in
the direction of flow.
2. To reverse the test section, the total head probe must be withdrawn before releasing the
couplings. Carefully fill the apparatus manometer tubes with water and discharge all pockets of
air from the system and the connecting pipes.
3. Pressurize the system by closing the flow control valve while the feed water is slightly open
4. Slowly open the air bleed valve to purge off all air pockets. Close the bleed valve.
5. Now close the feed water valve, and open the flow control valve. Slowly open the air bleed
valve (6) to allow an air column to form on top of each water column in the manometer tubes.
6. Allow enough air column (about 1/3 from top) to test the Bernoullis theorem.
7. Carefully adjust the inlet feed and the flow control valves (7) to provide the combination of flow
rate and system pressure which will give the largest convenient difference between the highest
and lowest manometer levels. Note the scale reading of each manometer level. Take at least
three sets of readings of volume and time to find the flow rate using the volumetric tank.
8. Use the total pressure probe to read the total head H at each location of the static pressure
probe.
9. Repeat this to give high and low flow rates at both high and low static pressures for different
combinations of valve openings.

A B C D E F
63

7

Report Sheet

Name

Registration number

M T W R

Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-31 Calculate duct area at different locations
S/N
Duct
Location
Diameter
D(mm)
Area
A(mm
2
)
1 A 25.0
2 B 13.9
3 C 11.9
4 D 10.7
5 E 10.0
6 F 25.0

Initial manometer level ho = _______mm
It is important to subtract initial manometer reading from manometer head (h).

Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-32 Reading for calculating total head H
T

V T Q Duct A V h=h
1
-h
o
H
T
* H
TP
** %
64
(mm
3
) (s) (mm
3
/s) Location (mm
2
) (mm/s) (mm) (mm) (mm) Diff.

A
B
C
D
E
F

A
B
C
D
E
F

A
B
C
D
E
F

A
B
C
D
E
F

A
B
C
D
E
F

* Calculate total head H
T
using Eq. 7-2.
**Total head (H
TP
) can also be measured using hydrodynamic probe.
Exercise:
1. Comment on the validity of Bernoullis Equation at high and low flow rates for the system tested
for the following.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Does total head (HT and HTP) remain constant over the entire length of the Bernoullis
apparatus (Venturi meter)? Comment and give reasons for any difference.
65
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Do your values of H
T
and H
TP
agree at each tapping location? Comment and give reasons for any
difference.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
____________

66

8
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Investigation of pressure
drop through valves
(Apparatus # FM02)

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-35 Pressure drop through valves apparatus
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to investigate the pressure drop and flow
rate characteristics of Gate valve, Globe valve and Ball valve.
Summary of Theory:
Gate Valve:
A Gate Valve, or Sluice Valve, as it is sometimes known, is a valve that
opens by lifting a round or rectangular gate/wedge out of the path of the
fluid.
E
x
p
e
r
i
m
e
n
t
8

67

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-36 (a) Gate valve closed (b) Gate valve
open
The distinct feature of a gate valve is the sealing surfaces between the gate and seats are planar.
The gate faces can form a wedge shape or they can be parallel. Gate valves are sometimes used
for regulating flow, but many are not suited for that purpose, having been designed to be fully
opened or closed. When fully open, the typical gate valve has no obstruction in the flow path,
resulting in very low friction loss. Gate valves are characterized as having either a rising or a
nonrising stem. Rising stems provide a visual indication of valve position. Nonrising stems are
used where vertical space is limited or underground.
Gate valves provide optimum performance in conditions where high flow efficiency, tight shut off
and long service is required. These valves are ideal for a variety of services within many industries
including chemical pulp and paper power and wastewater. For complete versatility the range
includes fabricated, forged, and cast designs.
Globe Valve:
A Globe valve is a type of valve used for regulating flow in a pipeline, consisting of a movable
disktype element and a stationary ring seat in a generally spherical body. Globe Valves are named
for their spherical body shape with the two halves of the body being separated by an internal baffle.
This has an opening that forms a seat onto which a movable plug can be screwed in to close (or
shut) the valve. The plug is also called a disc or disk. In globe valves, the plug is connected to a
stem which is operated by screw action in manual valves. Typically, automated valves use sliding
stems. Automated globe valves have a smooth stem rather than threaded and are opened and
closed by an actuator assembly. When a globe valve is manually operated, the stem is turned by a
hand wheel.
(a) (b)
68

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-37 Globe valve
Globe valves are used for applications requiring throttling and frequent operation. For example,
globe valves or valves with a similar mechanism may be used as sampling valves, which are
normally shut except when liquid samples are being taken. Since the baffle restricts flow, they are
not recommended where full, unobstructed flow is required.
An extensive range of Globe valves ideal for throttling and shut off services in oil, gas,
petrochemical, power, offshore and other arduous applications. Designed especially for duties
where high flow efficiency, tight shutoff and long service life is a key requirement.
Ball Valve:
A ball valve (also called quarter turn valve) is a valve that opens by turning a handle attached to a
ball inside the valve. The ball has a hole, or port, through the middle so that when the port is in line
with both ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve is closed, the hole is perpendicular to
the ends of the valve, and flow is blocked. The handle or lever will be in line with the port position
letting you see the valves position. Ball valves are durable and usually work to achieve perfect
shutoff even after years of disuse. They are therefore an excellent choice for shutoff applications
(and are often preferred to globe valves and gate valves for this purpose). They do not offer the fine
control that may be necessary in throttling applications but are sometimes used for this purpose. An
extensive range of full and reduced bore ball valves serving a wide spectrum of applications in the
chemical, pharmaceutical, oil, petrochemical and allied process industries. Available as lined,
flanged, wafer and screwed/welded, metal or soft seated incorporating either floating or trunnion
mounted designs for shutoff or control. It is also suitable for cryogenic and corrosive services.
69

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-38 Ball valve
Head Loss:
Head loss in a valve is proportional to the velocity head of the fluid flowing through the valve. It is
measured in m or mm of column height of H
2
O. Head loss is related to the velocity of the fluid as:


document.-43
Where,
K = Fitting factor or loss coefficient
V = Mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s
2
)
Velocity head or dynamic head of the flowing fluid is defined as:

document.-44
Substituting Eq. 8-2 into Eq. 8-1, we get:

Hence, fitting factor comes out to be:


document.-45
Note: For reading on mercury manometer, convert head of Hg to head of H
2
O. Specific Gravity of
Hg is 13.6.

Fully open Partially open Fully closed
End view of ball within the ball valve
Fluid flow
70

Equipment Setup:

Procedure:
1. Measure the water temperature.
2. Prime the network with water. Open and close the appropriate valves to obtain flow of water
through the required valves.
3. Setup a flow condition with test valve fully open such that Re is greater than 105. Use flow rate
in the neighborhood of 0.16 L/s which is about 4 liters in 25 seconds. Carefully measure the
flow rate using the volumetric tank with flow control valve V6.
4. Carefully close the valve in small but measurable increments. Record the valve position,
differential head and measure the flow rate at each valve position.
5. Take two readings with water manometer and the last two with mercury manometer. Be careful
when the valve is over 50% closed. Large pressure differential can drive the H2O or Hg in
manometer out.
6. Repeat the procedure for the other test sections at the same flow rate.
7. At the same flow rate also determine h for 1m length of the pipe in which gate and globe
valves are installed.
Note: The locations of valves in experimental setup fig. 8-5 are as follows:
I. Location 7 is Ball valve
II. Location 10 is Gate valve
III. Location 11 is Globe valve
71

8

Report Sheet

Name

Registration number

M T W R

Observation and Calculations:
Pipe internal Diameter (D) = _______mm Area of pipe (A) =_______m
2
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-33 Readings for calculating fitting factor K
for different valves
Valve
Opening
%
V
(m
3
)
T
(s)
Q
(m
3
/s)
V
(m/s)
h
(m)
h
V
(m)
K=h/h
V

Gate
25
50
75
100
Globe
25
50
75
100
Ball
25
50
75
100

72
Exercise:
1. Convert each value of fitting factor (K) to the percentage of value of K for the fully opened valve.
For example, for 100% opening of valve, X is the value of K, then for partial opening of the
value how much percent of X is the value of K.
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-34 Comparison of the value of K
Valve
Opening
%
K % of X
Gate
25
50
75
100 X
Globe
25
50
75
100 X
Ball
25
50
75
100 X
Comments:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
____________
2. Comment on the use of mercury in manometers.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________
3. What are the head losses other than in the valves?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________

73
4. Plot a graph of loss coefficient K against percentage valve opening for each test valve.
Comment on the differences in characteristic of valve.

Comments:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
____________________
5. For maximum opening of the valve, which value offer the least resistance to the flow and which
one offers the most? Comment on the reasons of such behavior?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
________________
6. For 25% opening of the valve, which value offer the least resistance to the flow and which one
offers the most?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
________________________

74

9
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Calculating Reynolds
number (Apparatus #
FM12)

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-40 Reynolds apparatus
Objective:
To reproduce the classical experiments conducted by Professor Osborne
Reynolds concerning fluid flow condition. Also observe the laminar,
transitional, Turbulent flow and the velocity profile.

E
x
p
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9

75
Summary of theory:
Turbulent Flow:
Turbulent flow is characterized by a mixing action throughout the flow field, and this mixing is
caused by eddies of varying size within the flow. Simple observations will reveal this type of flow in
rivers and in atmosphere. Turbulent flow phenomena can also be observed when smoke from a
large stack discharge into the surrounding air.
The (dimensionless) Reynolds number characterizes whether flow conditions lead to laminar or
turbulent flow; e.g. for pipe flow, a Reynolds number above about 4000 will be turbulent.
Transitional flow:
Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulence in the center of the pipe,
and laminar flow near the edges. Each of these flows behaves in different manners in terms of their
frictional energy loss while flowing, and have different equations that predict their behavior.
Laminar Flow:
Laminar flow on the other hand, is devoid of the intense mixing phenomena and eddies common to
turbulent flow. Thus this flow has a very smooth appearance. A typical example is the flow of honey
or thick syrup from a pitcher.
The state of flow in a pipe, i.e., laminar, transitional or turbulent, depends upon flow Reynolds
number (Re). Re is defined as:

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-41 Laminar and Turbulent flow pattern
For low values of Re, the flow remains laminar, as Re increases, the flow goes through transition
and becomes turbulent at high Re values.
The flow remains laminar as long as the Re is less than a critical value. This critical value depends
upon the flow facility, as it varies from facility to facility. In a facility with little disturbances, the flow
would remain laminar for larger values of Re. However, for a not so well designed facility, the flow
will become turbulent at a lower value of Re. Typically for Re between 20002500 is considered as
critical value.
Generally, following three different kinds of flows can be characterized as
I. Laminar if Re < 2300
76
II. Transient if 2300 < Re < 4000
III. Turbulent if 4000 < Re
Equipment Setup:

Technical details:
1 Test pipe diameter 10 mm
2 Length of test pipe 20 mm
3 Dye reservoir capacity 0.45 Liters
Description:
The apparatus should be positioned on the side channels of the bench top channel. Inlet pipe
should be connected to the bench outlet. The water is supplied to the base of the head tank, and
glass marbles are used to provide stilling to the flow. A constant head is maintained via overflow,
which is provided with a flexible outlet pipe. Flow visualization pipe is connected to a bellmouth
entry, which promotes smooth entry to the pipe. Flow through the visualization pipe is regulated
using flow control valve.
Dye contained in a reservoir is injected into the visualization pipe via a hypodermic tube. The flow of
dye is controlled via dye flow control valve and the position of the hypodermic adjusted using height
adjustment screw.

Height adjustment
screw
Head Tank
Bellmouth entry
Inlet pipe
Test section
Adjustable
feet
Dye reservoir
Dye flow
control valve
Hypodermic tube
Overflow
Glass marbles
Flow control valve
Outlet
77
Procedure:
Fill the reservoir with dye. Position the apparatus on the bench and connect the inlet pipe to the
bench feed. Lower the dye injector until it is just above the bellmouth inlet.
Close the flow control valve of the apparatus. Open bench feed valve and slowly fill the head tank to
the overflow level, then close the feed valve.
Allow the apparatus to stand at least ten minutes before proceeding. Measure the temperature of
the water.
Open the feed valve slightly until water trickles from the outlet pipe. Fractionally open the control
valve and adjust dye control valve until slow flow with dye indication is achieved. Measure and note
the flow rate.
Repeat for increasing flow rates by progressively opening the flow control valve. Take a specific
measurement of flow rate at the critical condition. Repeat the procedure for decreasing flow rates,
taking a specific measurement of flow at the critical condition.
To observe the velocity profile, the dye reservoir needle is opened and a drop of dye is deposited
into the pipe. When the control valve is opened, the drop takes up a three dimensional pureblood
profile.

78

9

Report Sheet

Name

Registration number

M T W R

Internal diameter of visualization pipe (D) = 10 mm Area (A) = ________ m
2
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-36 Readings to calculate Re and find flow
condition
S/N
V
(m
3
)
T
(s)
Q
(m
3
/s)
V
(m/s)
Re
Flow
Condition
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Exercise:
1. Comment on the steps taken for obtaining accurate results.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
________________

79

2. What is the benefit of using glass marbles and Bellmouth entry in the apparatus?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
____________
3. What effect will it make on the results, if hypodermic tube is not aligned with the center of
bellmouth entry?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
____________
4. Comment on the importance of Re number.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
____

80

10
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Calibrating a Bourdon
gauge (Apparatus #
FM28)

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-43 Bourdon gauge calibration apparatus
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to calibrate a Bourdon gauge.

E
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81
Experimental Setup:

The Bourdon pressure gauge shown in fig. 10-2 above has a transparent dial through which the
construction may be viewed. It consists essentially of a thinwalled tube of oval cross section, which
is bent to a circular arc encompassing about 270 degrees. It is rigidly held at one end, where the
pressure is admitted. The other end is free to move and is sealed. When pressure is applied, the
tube tends to straighten, so that the free end moves slightly. This movement operates a mechanism
which drives a pointer round the graduated dial, the movement of the pointer being proportional to
the applied pressure. The construction of the dead weight tester is also shown in fig. 10-2. A
cylindrical piston, free to move vertically in a closelyfitting cylinder, is loaded with known weights.
The space below the piston is filled with water, and the pressure is transmitted by the water to the
gauge under test through a transparent hose. The pressure generated by the piston is easily found
in terms of the total weight supported and the crosssectional area of the piston.
Theory:
Many types of gauges are available for measurement of pressure. The simplest form is a
manometer tube, in which the rise of level of a liquid indicates the static head, this being converted
to pressure by multiplying by the liquid density. An example of a much more sophisticated
instrument is a pressure transducer, in which the pressure is used to deflect a diaphragm. The
deflection causes an electrical signal to be generated by some means such as an electric resistance
strain gauge, and this signal is displayed, typically in digital form, as the corresponding pressure.
The display can be remote from the point of measurement. The Bourdon gauge (named after its
inventor Eugene Bourdon) uses the deflection of a tube of oval cross-section to cause a pointer to
move over a scale.
All pressure gauges, of whatever type, need to be calibrated. If the required accuracy is low, then a
standard calibration obtained from a sample of the particular model will suffice. For higher accuracy,
a manufacturer will take special care, and will supply a calibration certificate for an individual gauge.
As the calibration may change over a period, repeat calibrations may well be needed from time to
time. For the highest accuracy, transducers and gauges are sometimes calibrated before each use.
The normal calibration procedure is to load the gauge with known pressures, using a dead weight
tester using oil. The present experiment, however, works satisfactorily with water instead of oil. This
82
experiment will provide a clear understanding regarding the technique used for calibrating pressure
gauges.
Experimental procedure:
1. The weight of the piston, and its crosssectional area, should be noted. To fill the cylinder, the
piston is removed, and water is poured into the cylinder until it is full the overflow level. Any air
trapped in the tube may be cleared by tilting and gently tapping the apparatus. In point of fact, a
small amount of air left in the system will not affect the experiment, unless there is so much as
to cause the piston to bottom on the base of the cylinder.
2. The piston is then replaced in the cylinder and allowed to settle. A spirit level placed on the
platform at the top of the piston may be used to ensure that the cylinder stands quite vertically.
3. Weights are now added in convenient increments, and at each increment the pressure gauge
reading is observed.
4. A similar set of results is then taken with decreasing weights. To guard against the piston
sticking in the cylinder, it is advisable to rotate the piston gently while the pressure gauge is
being read.

83

10

Report Sheet

Name

Registration number

M T W R

Observation & calculation:
Diameter of piston (D) = ________mm Area of piston = ________ m
2

Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-37 Readings for increasing weight
Increasing weight
S/N
Mass
M(g)
Load
W(N)
True Pressure
kN/m
2

Gauge
Pressure
kN/m
2

Percentage
Difference
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-38 Readings for decreasing weight
Decreasing weight
S/N
Mass
M(g)
Load
W(N)
True Pressure
kN/m
2

Gauge
Pressure
kN/m
2

Percentage
Difference
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
84
Exercise:
1. Draw graphs between true pressure and gauge readings.

Comment:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________
2. Draw graph between true pressure and percentage difference.

Comments:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
85
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________

3. No correction has been made for the difference in elevation of the piston of the dead weight
tester and of the pressure gauge. If the centre of the gauge was 200 mm higher than the base
of the piston, should a correction be made, and if so, how big would it be?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

4. What alteration would you make to the dimensions of the piston if it were desired to calibrate a
gauge with a full scale reading of 3500 kN/m
2
using the same weights?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

86

11
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Determine Polytrophic
Index (Apparatus # HE4)

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-45 Experimental Setup
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to determine the Polytrophic Index n of
a compressor at single speed.
Polytropic Processes:
A polytropic process is a thermodynamic process that obeys the relation:

Eq. Error! No text of

specified style in document.-46
Many processes can be approximated by this law:
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1

87
Where,
P= Pressure,
V= Volume,
n= an index depending on the process type.
Polytropic processes are internally reversible. For certain indices n, the process will be synonymous
with other processes:
if n = 0, then PV
0
= P = Constant, it is an isobaric (constant pressure) process
if n = 1, then for an ideal gas PV
1
= PV = nRT = constant and it is an isothermal (constant
temperature) process
if n = = c
p
/c
V
, then for an ideal gas it is an adiabatic process (no heat is transferred)
if n = , then it is an isochoric (constant volume) process

Some polytropic processes are shown in figure below:

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-46 Polytropic Processes on P-V Diagram

The initial state of working fluid is shown by point 0 on the P-V diagram. The polytropic state
changes are:

1. 0 to 1= constant pressure heating,
2. 0 to 2= constant volume heating,
3. 0 to 3= reversible adiabatic compression,
4. 0 to 4= isothermal compression,
5. 0 to 5= constant pressure cooling,
6. 0 to 6= constant volume cooling,
7. 0 to 7= reversible adiabatic expansion,
88
8. 0 to 8= isothermal expansion.
Equipment Setup:

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-47 Experimental Setup
Where,
A W
f
Water Flow Meter
B N
1
Speed Control
C N
2
Speed Control
D R
1
Single/Two Stage Selector
E h Manometer
F Temperature Select
G R
2
Inter Cooler Select
H Air Flow Control Valve
Procedure:
1. Set rocker switch R1 for single stage operation.
2. Set the compressor speed to 750 rpm.
3. Set the airflow valve to give an output pressure of 2 bars.
4. Monitor the exit temperature until the system stabilizes.
5. Record all the parameters in the result table.
6. Repeat 4 and 5 for a range of compressor outlet pressures. The receiver pressure is varied by
operating the flow valve.
7. Switch off the motor by turning the speed control fully anticlockwise.
8. Exhaust the receiver and drain.
89
9. Carry out analysis of the result.

Between state 1 and 2, Eq. 11-1 can be modified as:

document.-47
From Ideal Gas Equation:
document.-48
From merging Eq. 11-2 and 11-3, it is evident that the following relations can be written for a
polytropic process.

Eq. 11-4 can be modified for the apparatus used, as:

Where,
P
0
= Inlet pressure to the compressor.
P
1
= Outlet pressure of the compressor
T
1
= Inlet temperature to the compressor.
T
3
=

Outlet temperature of the compressor.
n = Polytropic index

From Eq. 11-5, taking Log on both sides results:

Where,

90

11

Report Sheet

Name

Registration number

M T W R

Observation and calculations:

Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-39 Readings and Calculations
Speed S/N
P
0
(Bar)
P
1
(Bar)
T
1
(
o
K)
T
3
(
o
K)
Log(T
3
/T
1
) Log(P
1
/P
0
) (n-1)/n n
n
(Avg)
5
0
0

R
P
M
1

2
3
4
5
7
0
0

R
P
M
6

7
8
9
10

91

Exercise:
Q1. Plot Log(T3/T1) against Log(P1/P0) for compressor speed of 500 and 700 RPM.

Q2. Calculate Polytropic Index (n) from the slope of graphs and compare with average value of n
calculated in Table 11-1.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

92

Q3. Comment on the variation in values of n. Does the average value of n changes for increased
compressor speed?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________

93

12
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Effect of Air/Fuel Ratio on
Combustion (Apparatus #
HE2)

Objective:
The purpose of the experiment is to analyze the effect of Air fuel ratio on
combustion. The experiment will help the students to compare two liquids
as well as two gaseous fuels and conclusion can be drawn about the effect
of difference of characteristics upon performance of the fuel. In addition to
this a heat balance sheet can be drawn which can determine a plant
efficiency and the interchangeability of various forms of energy.
E
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2

94

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-48 Combustion Laboratory Apparatus
Apparatus:
The range of application of the Hilton Combustion Laboratory Unit is wide, from simple but effective
demonstrations for boiler operators to fullscale research and development projects.
The former are self-evident from the nature of the Unit and from some of the experiments. It is to be
expected that the main use of the Unit will be at undergraduate and postgraduate student level.
Theory:
Fuels and combustion:
Any material which can be burnt to release energy is called fuel. Most familiar fuels consist of
hydrogen and carbon and are called hydrocarbon fuels. Kerosene, the fuel under consideration is
one of many hydrocarbon liquid fuels, with a composition of 86% C and 14% H
2
.
A chemical reaction during which a fuel is oxidized and a large quantity of energy is released is
called combustion. The oxidizer most often used is air, for the obvious reason that, it is freely and
readily available.
Ignition Temperature:
The fuel has to be brought up to its ignition temperature to start the combustion. For this very
reason we need LPG to ignite the fuel in this experiment.
Air/Fuel Ratio:
It is the ratio frequently used in the analysis of combustion process to quantify the amounts of fuel
and air. It is given as the ratio of the mass of air to the mass of fuel for a combustion process.
95

Complete Combustion:
A combustion process is complete if all the carbon in the fuel burns to C0
2
, all the hydrogen to H
2
O,
that is, all the combustible components of a fuel are burnt to completion during a complete
combustion process. The mini amount of air needed for the complete combustion of a fuel is called
the theoretical air. Thus, when a fuel is completely burned with theoretical air no uncombined
oxygen will be present in the product gases; neither will there be any CO which is a product of
incomplete combustion.
Incomplete Combustion:
A combustion processes is incomplete if the combustion products contain any unburnt fuel or
components such as C, H
2
, CO, There are two cases of incomplete combustion:
Case I - Deficiency of Air:
This happens when the air required for combustion is less than the amount of theoretical air. In the
case of kerosene, incomplete combustion takes place because hydrogen burns preferentially
(because of greater affinity for oxygen); then carbon burns to carbon monoxide which uses as much
remains of the oxygen.
Case 2 - Excess Air:
Incomplete combustion takes place even when more air is present in the combustion chamber than
is needed for complete combustion i.e. the theoretical amount. The amount of air in excess is called
the excess air. This may be attributed to insufficient mixing in the combustion chamber during the
limited time that the fuel and the oxygen are in contact.
Experimental setup:
1. Check that all the valves and supplies are switched off.
2. Make sure that sufficient fuel is available for the desired program.
3. Ensure that the Reset switches off.
4. Turn on the gas at the supply only. Check that the gas pressure at the manometer is 125mm of
water by depressing the pressure check button on the control panel.
5. Turn on the water supply. Slowly open the water control valve to the chamber and adjust the
flow to 500g/sec. Maintain this flow until the outlet is seen to be running full.
6. Reduce the water flow to approximately 450g/sec and maintain it.
7. Switch on the mains electricity supply.
8. Set the air control to position and switch on the air fan. Wait for the motor to reach normal
operating speed.
9. Open the air control to a flow of at least 170 kg/h and run for at least 2 minutes at this setting to
purge the chamber.
10. Set the cut out on the final water temperature meter to 80C.
11. Reduce the air flow to 120 kg/h.
12. Press the reset button.
13. Switch the master switch at the unit to on position and wait for the red light to appear on the
combustion unit.
14. Slowly turn on the gas valve on the control panel and at the same time press the ignition switch.
15. Let the combustion unit run for about five minutes.
16. There is a switch on the extreme right bottom hand corner; select kerosene as the fuel on this
switch.
96
17. Ignition of the liquid fuel is achieved by progressively and simultaneously opening the liquid fuel
control valve and closing the gaseous fuel control valve.
18. Turn off the gas supply at the mains.
19. Allow the combustion unit to stabilize.
20. The ignition procedure is followed and steady conditions established on kerosene.
21. The fuel flow rate is set to 9 kg/h (20 lb/h) with the theoretical quantity of air. This provides the
maximum flame temperature and establishes the water flow rate to be used to keep outlet
temperatures in the 60C to 80C range.
22. This water flow rate is now kept constant as is the kerosene flow rate. A series of readings are
now obtained for air flows corresponding to air/fuel ratios from 10:1 to 19:1. At each air/fuel ratio
steady conditions are allowed to develop and then readings are taken of water temperatures,
flue gas temperature, the flow rates of air, fuel and water. A flue gas analysis at each setting
completes the picture, and the heat transferred to the walls and lost up the flue can now readily
be calculated in the normal fashion.
23. The results may be expressed absolutely by reference to results under theoretical conditions.
Extra value may be gained from the experiment by noting variation in flame conditions at each
setting.
Waste Heat Calculation:

Where,
= Mass Flow Rate of Water (kg/s)

c
p,w
= Specific Heat of Water = 4.18 (kJ/kg.K)
LCV = Lower Calorific Value of Fuel = 43500 (kJ/kg)
= Mass Flow Rate of Fuel (kg/s)

T
out
= Water Exit Temperature (
o
K)
T
in
= Water Inlet Temperature (
o
K)
Moreover,
T
Ex
= Exhaust Gas Temperature (
o
K)
T
A
= Ambient Temperature (
o
K)
= Mass Flow Rate of Air (kg/s)

97

12

Report Sheet

Name

Registration number

M T W R

Readings and Calculations:
Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-40 Readings and Calculations
S/N
T
in

(C)
T
out

(C)
T
Ex

(C)
T
A

(C)

(kg/s)

(kg/s)

(kg/s)
Air/Fuel
Ratio

(kW)

(kW)

(kW)
1 10:1
2 11:1
3 12:1
4 13:1
5 14:1
6 15:1
7 16:1
8 17:1
9 18:1
10 19:1

98
Exercise:
Q1. Plot
and
against Air/Fuel Ratio on the same graph. Also comment on the plot.

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
____________
Q2. Give your comments on the practical application of this experiment.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

Q3. How can you apply the concept of this experiment in the study of internal combustion engine?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
99
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
____
Q4. How is air flow rate measured, in the experiment?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Q5. Could we crosscheck the results of different measuring instruments used like, flow meter,
temperature and pressure gauges in this apparatus, how?
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

100

A
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Guidelines for project
report writing

ELEMENTS OF A LABORATORY REPORT
1. Title page
2. Abstract
3. Table of Contents*
4. List of Symbols*
5. Introduction
6. Theoretical Analysis
7. Apparatus and Procedure
8. Results and discussion
10. Conclusions (and Recommendations)
11. Appendices*
12. References

*Optional

Individual reporting
You can share ideas, data and results with your group members. You
need, however, to write your own project report.

Focus on your contribution
You should focus on your contributions to the understanding and
solution of your project problem. You developed a model to
characterize the problem. It is a remarkable achievement. Although
your model may not be perfect, it is an important tool to understand the
essential physical processes. Write your report to help people
understand and solve real-world engineering problems. Do not write
the report focusing on how inaccurate your model is.

Writing style

In general, do not use I , we, he, or she in technical writing. Here
are some examples.

Example 1. This work developed an engineering model to assess
wafer temperature in hot-plate photo resist processing.

Example 2. The experimental system consists of three major parts.

Write directly, avoid words that are not useful; e.g. in order to, the
purpose of this experiment is to, etc.
A
p
p
e
n
d
i
x
A

101

Number of significant digits
If you report a temperature of 100.002 C, it suggests that the temperature error is less than 0.001 C.
You should present your results with the right number of significant digits to represent the accuracy of
your experiments and model simulations.

TITLE PAGE

Title must include key words about the project and reveal the topic of the report. Title page should
include:
- Author's Name
- Project Supervisor
- Names of Group Members
- Section Number
- Date

ABSTRACT

The abstract is a brief (approx. 150 words) condensation of the report. Do not explain why the study
is done in the abstract. That belongs to the introduction. Describe each of the following in one or two
sentences.
- What was done?
- How it was done?
- Significant results?

INTRODUCTION

- State context/background of study
- Articulate the need for the study
- Clearly define the problem (purpose of the investigation)
- Outline overall approach

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

Physical explanation of phenomena

It is important to point out the pertinent physics governing the phenomena that you are studying. It helps
to orient the readers, and give context to your theory and experiment.

Develop governing equations

- Assumptions: support them quantitatively, e.g., assume laminar flow - give Reynolds number.

- Describe the model development; give the major equations, but leave detailed algebra to the appendix.

This part should be written as a mixture of equations and sentences and not just a list of equations.

Computer Simulation

- Connect your equations to the numerical scheme used; specify the initial and boundary conditions

- Discuss numerical parameters (e.g., step size in integrating differential equations);

- Do not put program listing in text; put it in an appendix

APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE

102
Overview of Operation

- Refer to the schematic and explain the overall operation.

- Give dimensions of the apparatus. Point out the relationship between the laboratory device and the
actual device.

- State what are being measured. Give detailed information of the transducers and measurement
systems only if they are uncommon devices.

- Give accuracy and frequency response of the transducers. (Also give sampling rate and total sampling
duration if you use an A/D system.)

- Discuss the calibration procedure very briefly; details should be in the appendix, not in the main text.

Conduct of the Experiment

- Brief description of the experimental procedure.

- List sets of experiments done.

- Give range of parameters that you have varied.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Organize your results and discussions in coherent pieces so that the observed phenomena can
be connected to your explanations and simulations.

- Present the results by referring to the figures. (Figures are much better than tables.)

- Describe the direct observation first (e.g., pressure as a function of time) - point out and explain the
features in the observation in terms of physical laws.

- Describe how the results change when you vary the parameters of the experiment.

> magnitude of change (goes up/down, by how much)

> scaling (e.g., peak pressure proportional to the driving pressure, etc.).

- If appropriate, point out what is the most sensitive parameter?

Discussions

- Compare Theoretical Results with Experiment

- See if theoretical results produce the same features as the direct observations of the experiment (e.g.,
pressure versus time curve).

- Compare quali/quantitatively the theoretical predictions and the experimental values when the
experimental parameters are changed.

- Plot theoretical curve on the same graph as the experimental points.

- Account for and Explain Discrepancy

- Discuss assumptions/idealizations used in the development of the model and how they effect the
theoretical predictions (e.g., do they result in an overestimate or an underestimate?)

- Do not blame the discrepancy on instrumentation. If you knew the inst rumentation was inadequate,
you should not have wasted your time in making the measurement in the first place.
- -. Present model applications and engineering design if required.
103

CONCLUSIONS

- Brief summary of your finding

- Pronounce your judgment here

What are the key parameters of the experiment?

How good is your model?

Does it give upper/lower bound of the results?

- Implications of your conclusions: how your results would apply to your original objective

- If applicable, present recommendations for what further work is needed (optional).

APPENDICES

Appendices are for details that your reader may need in order to replicate your work, but they are not
required to understand your work. Essential derivations, governing equations, key assumptions and
definitions DO NOT belong in the Appendices; they belong to the main text. Details of calibrations and
procedures DO belong in Appendices.

The appendix section, however, has often been misused in 2.672 as a dumping area for equations and
data tables. That is not appropriate. There should be text description on the equations and tables.

FIGURES AND GRAPHS

Refer to figures to explain procedures and theory. Graphs are much more informative than data tables
because trends can be identified much more easily. Figures and graphs should be labeled well enough
to allow them to stand alone as documents.

- The physical apparatus for the experiment should be drawn as a schematic and not as a three
dimensional drawing.

- Results should be presented in graphical form whenever possible.

- All figures and graphs should be referred to in text before their appearance. They should all be
numbered.

Graphs

1. Title should be short but informative. It should include what is being graphed and any additional
information needed to interpret the graph.

2. Axes should be labeled (for quantities with dimensions, units are required).

3. Use symbols for data points and lines for theoretical predictions.

4. Each curve should be marked clearly and distinctly.

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