Computer Components Presented by Wahidullah Shahaadat

IN THE NAME OF ALMGHTY ALLAH
Computer Components Part 1

Identify the fundamental principles of using personal computers
> Identify the names, purposes and characteristics of storage devices
FDD (floppy disk drive) has only 1.4 Mb storage space. Was used for backup of data and
mode of transferring data from one PC to another. As of 2005 3½-inch drives were still
common equipment on many new PCs other than laptops. But have become pretty much
obsolete, portable storage options, such as USB storage devices and recordable or rewritable
CDs / DVDs have taken its place.
Floppy Connection on Motherboard Floppy Drive
HDD (hard disk drive) is a data storage device that stores data on a magnetic surface layered
onto hard disk platters.
As of June 2006 the smallest desktop hard disk still in production has a capacity of 40
gigabytes, while the largest-capacity internal drives are a 3/4 terabyte (750 gigabytes), with
external drives at or exceeding one terabyte by using multiple internal disks.
Types of Hard Drives
• ESDI (Enhanced Small Disk Interface) was an interface developed by Maxtor to

allow faster communication between the PC and the disk.
• SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) was an early competitor with ESDI,
originally named SASI for Shugart Associates.
• ATA / IDE and EIDE (Advanced Technology Attachment, also known as Enhanced
Integrated Drive Electronics)
• SATA (Serial ATA)
CD / DVD / RW (e.g. drive speeds, media types)
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CD-ROM Compact Disc Read-Only Memory Used for data storage and data transfer. A
standard 120mm CD-ROM holds 650 or 700 Mb of data.
DVD-ROM Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc is an optical disc storage media
format that can be used for data storage, including movies with high quality video and sound.
DVDs resemble compact discs as their physical dimensions are the same but they are
encoded in a different format and at a much higher density allowing for a greater data
capacity of about 4.7 GB
CD-RW
• CD-RW recorder can rewrite 700 MB of data to a CD-RW disc roughly 1000 times.
• CD-RW recorders can also write CD-R discs. Except for the ability to completely
erase a disc, CD-RWs act very much like CD-Rs.
• CD-RWs cannot be read in CD-ROM drives built prior to 1997.
• CD-R is considered a better technology for archival purposes as disc contents cannot
be modified.
DVD-RW
• Rewritable optical disc with equal storage capacity to a DVD-R, typically 4.7 GB.
• Primary advantage of DVD-RW over DVD-R is the ability to erase and rewrite to a
DVD-RW disc.
• DVD-RW discs may be written to about 1,000 times before needing replacement,
making them comparable with the CD-RW standard.
• DVD-RW discs are commonly used for volatile data, such as backups or collections
of files.
Dual Layer recording allows DVD-R and DVD+R discs to store significantly more data, up
to 8.5 Gigabytes per disc, compared with 4.7 Gigabytes for single-layer discs.
> Removable storage
Tape drives mainly for backup and long-term storage. Can be connected with SCSI (most
common), parallel port, IDE, USB, FireWire or optical fibre. Tape drives can range in
capacity from a few megabytes to upwards of 800 GB compressed.
External CD-RW and hard drive May be used for backup, easy transfer of data to another
PC, and are good choices for offsite backup data storage in case of fire et..
Thumb drive, flash and SD cards small, lightweight, removable and rewritable data storage
devices. Some recent USB flash drives act as two drives - as a removable disk device , and as
a USB floppy drive. This is likely intended to make it easier to use them as a bootable device.
> Identify the names, purposes and characteristics of motherboards
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A motherboard, also known as a mainboard, logic board, or system board, and sometimes
abbreviated as mobo, is the central or primary circuit board of the computer. A typical
computer is built with the microprocessor, main memory, and other basic components on the
motherboard. Other components of the computer such as external storage, control circuits for
video display and sound, and peripheral devices are typically attached to the motherboard via
ribbon cables, other cables, and power connectors.
Form Factor
Form factor refers to the size and format of motherboards
ATX (Advanced Technology Extended) is a full size board measuring 12" wide by 9.6"
deep (305 mm x 244 mm)
BTX (for Balanced Technology Extended) was originally slated to be the replacement for
the aging ATX motherboard, but it has not been widely accepted by the market as of early
2006.
microATX is a small motherboard size of 9.6" x 9.6" (244 mm x 244 mm). Compared to full
size ATX, microATX has reduced the amount of I/O slots but a smaller power supply can be
used.
> Components
Common Motherboard Layout (INTEL Socket T (LGA775))
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1 CPU Socket 13 BIOS_WP - BIOS flash protect jumper
2 CPU_FAN - CPU cooling fan connector 14 COM2 - Onboard Serial port hader
3 DIMM1~2 - 240-pin DDR2 SDRAM 15 WOL1 - Wake On LAN connector

slots
16 S/PDIF - SPDIF out header
4 IRDA - Infrared header
17 F_AUDIO - Front panel audio header
5 FDD - Floppy diskette drive connector
18 AUX_IN - Auxiliary In connector
6 ATX1 - Standard 24-pin ATX power
connector 19 PCI1~2 - 32-bit add-on card slots
7 IDE1 - Primary IDE channel 20 PCIE1 - PCI Express x1 slot
8 CLR_CMOS - Clear CMOS jumper 21 PCIEX16 - PCI Express slot for graphics
interface
9 SATA1~4 - Serial ATA connectors
22 SYS_FAN - System cooling fan
10 PANEL1 - Panel connector for case connector
switches and LEDs
23 ATX12V - Auxiliary 4-pin power
11 USB1-2 - Front Panel USB headers connector
12 1394a - IEEE 1394a header
> Integrated I/Os
Rear panel on of a motherboard with many integrated inputs and outputs (I/O's).
PS2 Mouse Used to connect a PS/2 pointing device.
PS2 Keyboard Used to connect a PS/2 keyboard.
Parallel Port (LPT1) Used to connect printers or other parallel communications devices.
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Serial Port Used to connect serial devices such as mice or (COM1) fax/modems.
VGA Port Connect your monitor to the VGA port.
1394a Port Use the 1394a port to connect to any firewire device.
LAN Port Used to connect an RJ-45 cable to a Network hub or router.
USB Ports Used to connect USB devices such as printers, scanners cameras et...
Audio Ports Used to connect audio devices.
The D port is for stereo line-in signal, while the F port is for microphone in signal. This
motherboard supports 8-channel audio devices that correspond to the A, B, C, and E port
respectively. In addition, all of the 3 ports, B, C, and E provide users with both right & left
channels individually.
• A. Center & Woofer

• B. Back Surround
• C. Side Surround
• D. Line-in
• E. Front Out
• F. Mic_in Rear
Identify the fundamental principles of using personal computers part 2
> Memory slots
RIMM Slots: were commonly used on the Intel Pentium 4 motherboards. Unlike most other
types of computer memory, computers that support RIMM require a continuous signal. If a
memory slot is left empty the PC will not work. The empty slot must be filled with another
RIMM module or a C-RIMM pass through module which enables a continuous signal.
< Installed DIMM
< Open DIMM Slots
DIMM Slots: come in three common pin configurations.
• 240-pin slots - for DDR2 SDRAM memory for desktop

computers.
• 184-pin slots - for DDR SDRAM memory for desktop
computers.
• 168-pin slots - commonly found in Pentium and Athlon
systems.
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Processor sockets
A motherboard is designed for a certain range of processors. One of the determining factors
of processor compatibility is the slot or socket connector soldered onto the board. 242-contact
and 330-contact slot connectors were used for a short time to allow for L2 cache to be
packaged close to the processor die. Processor manufacturing advancements now allow L2
cache to be manufactured on the same die as the processor, requiring a smaller form-factor
processor packaging. PGA (pin grid array) sockets are more common, flexible, and compact,
but have many variations in the amount of pin connects and pin layouts.
AMD Proccessors
CPU Socket Processors PIN's
AMD Athlon (650 MHz - 1400 MHz)
AMD Athlon XP (1500+ - 3200+)
Socket A AMD Duron (600 MHz - 1800 MHz) 453
AMD Sempron (2000+ - 3300+)
AMD Athlon MP (1000 MHz - 3000+)
AMD Athlon 64 (2800+ - 3700+)
Socket 754 AMD Sempron (2500+ - ) 754
AMD Turion 64 (ML and MT)
AMD Athlon 64 (3000+ - 4000+)
AMD Athlon 64 FX
Socket 939 AMD Athlon 64 X2 939
Some AMD Opteron 1xx series
Some Sempron 3xxx
Socket 940
AMD Athlon 64 FX
NOT compatible with 940
Socket AM2 940 pin AMD Opteron
CPUs
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Athlon 64
Athlon 64 X2
940
Socket AM2 Athlon 64 FX
Opteron
Sempron
Athlon 64
Athlon 64 X2
Socket AM3 ?
Athlon 64 FX
Sempron
INTEL Proccessors
CPU Socket Processors PIN's
Intel Pentium 4 (1.4 - 3.4 GHz)
Intel Celeron (1.7 - 3.2 GHz)

Socket 478 478
Celeron D (to 3.2 GHz)
Intel Pentium 4 Extreme Edition (3.2, 3.4 GHz)
Intel Pentium M (900 MHz - 2.267 GHz)
Intel Celeron M (800 MHz - 1.733 GHz)
Socket 479 Intel Core Duo (1.667 - 2.167 GHz) 479
Intel Core Solo (1.667 GHz)
VIA C7-M (1,5 GHz and 1,8 GHz)
LGA775 Intel Pentium 4 (2.66 - 3.80 GHz) 775
Intel Celeron D (2.53 - 3.46 GHz )
Intel Pentium 4 Extreme Edition
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(3.20 - 3.73 GHz)
Intel Pentium D (2.66 - 3.60 GHz)
Intel Pentium Extreme Edition
(3.20 - 3.73 GHz)
Intel Core 2 Duo (1.60 - 2.67 GHz)
Intel Core 2 Extreme (2.66 - 2.93 GHz)
Intel Core Solo
Intel Core Duo

Socket M 478
Intel Dual-Core Xeon (1.67, 2.0)
Intel Core 2 Duo (T5x00, T7x00)
External cache memory
L2 Cache: Now usually found on the processor. The size of 2nd level cache. L2 Cache is
ultra-fast memory that buffers information being transferred between the processor and the
slower RAM in an attempt to speed these types of transfers.
L3 Cache: Is a type of cache that is found on the motherboard instead of the processor. The
size of 3rd level cache, typically larger then L2. L3 Cache is ultra-fast memory that buffers
information being transferred between the processor and the slower RAM in an attempt to
speed these types of transfers. Integrated Level 3 cache provides a faster path to large data
sets stored in cache on the processor. This results in reduced average memory latency and
increased throughput for larger High-end Desktop workloads.
Bus architecture
Front side buses serve as a backbone between the CPU and a chipset. The chipset
(northbridge and a southbridge) is the connection point for all other buses in the system. The
PCI, AGP, and memory buses all connect to the chipset to allow for data to flow between the
connected devices.
Chipsets
The motherboard chipset consists of a north bridge, or Memory Controller Hub (MCH),
which is responsible for controlling communication between system memory, the processor,
AGP, and the south bridge, or I/O Controller Hub (ICH). The ICH controls communication
between PCI devices, system management bus, ATA devices, AC'97 (audio), USB,
IEEE1397 (firewire), and LPC controller. These chipsets are soldered onto the motherboard
and cannot be changed or upgraded
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Bus slots
PCI: Peripheral Component Interconnect, is a specification

introduced by Intel Corporation that defines a local bus
system that allows up to 10 PCI-compliant expansion cards to
be installed in the computer. Many netword, modem, sound,
and graphics adapters et... use the PCI bus.
The PCI bus is being replaced by PCI Express
AGP: Accelerated Graphics Port , used for graphics adapters.

The AGP port is being replaced by the new PCIe slot.
PCIe: PCI Express (PCIe) is a new I/O bus technology that,

over time, will replace Peripheral Component Interconnect
(PCI), PCI-X, and the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP). PCIe
hardware is backwards compatible with PCI software (not
with hardware PCI slots) on the Microsoft Windows 2000 and
Microsoft Windows XP operating systems.
The PCI features supported by current Windows operating

systems will continue to work with PCIe without any need for
modifications in the applications, drivers, or operating system;
however, the advanced PCIe features will be natively
supported only in Windows Vista and later versions of
Windows.
PCIe slots today are mostly used for graphics cards which
require the greater bandwidth PCIe is capable of.
AMR: Audio Modem Riser, is an expansion slot found on the

motherboards of some Pentium III, Pentium 4, and Athlon
personal computers. Drawbacks of AMR are that it eliminates
one PCI slot, it is not plug and play, and it does not allow for
hardware accelerated cards (only software-based).
CNR: Communications and Networking Riser, is a slot found

on some motherboards. A motherboard manufacturer can
choose to provide audio, networking, or modem functionality
in any combination on a CNR card.
Today nearly all riser technologies, such as ACR, AMR, and

CNR, have been generally obsoleted in favor of on-board or
embedded components.
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PATA: In 2003, the original ATA (Advanced Technology
Attachment) was retroactively renamed Parallel ATA (PATA)
IDE: Integrated Drive Electronics
EIDE: Enhanced IDE, sometimes referred to as Fast ATA or

Fast IDE
Are standard interfaces for connecting storage devices such as

hard disks and CD-ROM drives inside personal computers.
SATA: Serial ATA (Advanced Technology Attachment) is a

computer bus technology primarily designed for transfer of
data to and from hard disks and optical drives. The SATA
connectors will only fit in one orientation.
The main differences between the serial interconnect and the

parallel interconnect of ATA are as follows:
• Serial ATA is point to point, meaning only one storage

device can be connected to a single Serial ATA cable.
Parallel ATA has a shared channel and can connect up
to two storage devices on a single cable.
• Serial ATA is faster. Currently Serial ATA transfers
data at a rate of 150 megabytes (MB) per second and
will likely advance to 300 MB and 600 MB per second
in the near future.
• Serial ATA has a thinner cable and a smaller

connection that is keyed so they cannot be connected
incorrectly, unlike some parallel ATA cables.
SCSI Technology
Small Computer System Interface) is a set of standards for physically connecting and
transferring data between computers and peripheral devices. SCSI interfaces that have an 8-
bit data bus, referred to as narrow, allow up to seven devices (hard drives, tape drives, CD-
ROM drives, removable drives/disks and scanners) connected to one SCSI adapter/controller.
It would be eight devices if you count the controller card. SCSI interfaces with 16-bit data
bus, referred to as wide, interfaces allow up to 15 devices (16 devices including the controller
card).
Types of SCSI interfaces:
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• SCSI-1: Uses an 8-bit bus, supports data transfer speeds of 4 MBps.
• SCSI-2: Uses a 50-pin connector instead of a 25-pin connector, and supports multiple
devices. It is currently the most common type of SCSI. Data transfer speeds are
typically around 5 MBps.
• Wide SCSI: Uses a wider cable (168 cable lines to 68 pins) to support 16-bit data
transfers.
• Fast SCSI: Uses an 8-bit bus, but doubles the clock rate to support data transfer
speeds of 10 MBps.
• Fast Wide SCSI: Uses a 16-bit bus and supports data transfer speeds of 20 MBps.
• Ultra SCSI: Uses an 8-bit bus, supports data rates of 20 MBps.
• SCSI-3: Uses a 16-bit bus, supports data rates of 40 MBps. Also called Ultra Wide
SCSI.
• Ultra2 SCSI: Uses an 8-bit bus, supports data transfer speeds of 40 MBps.
• Wide Ultra2 SCSI: Uses a 16-bit bus, supports data transfer speeds of 80 MBps.
SCSI Termination
The two SCSI devices at either end of the chain must be terminated; the other devices should
not be terminated. If only an internal cable is used, the adapter card and the device at the end
of the cable need to be terminated, but the other devices in between should not be terminated.
If using an internal cable and an external cable, the two devices located at the end of each
cable should be terminated. To terminate or not terminate a device, the terminators are
inserted/removed or enabled/disabled with jumpers or DIP switches. Some SCSI devices can
be automatically terminated.
To terminate/not terminate a device, you would either insert or remove the terminators on the
end device or enabled/disabled them with jumpers or DIP switches. Some SCSI devices have
automatic termination. Today, most have a jumper to enable or disable the termination.
Internal daisy chain

(image from intel.com)
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External daisy chain (image from intel.com)
Internal External daisy chain (image from intel.com)
There are several different kinds of termination used on SCSI buses. They differ in the
electrical circuitry that is used to terminate the bus. Better forms of termination make for
more reliable SCSI chains; the better the termination, the fewer problems (all else being
equal) with the bus, though cost is generally higher as well. In general terms, slower buses
are less particular about the kind of termination used, while faster ones have more demanding
requirements. In addition, buses using differential signaling (either HVD or LVD) require
special termination.
• Passive terminator – The passive terminator uses special electrical resistors to act as
voltage dividers. Since they help ensure that the chain has the correct impedance load,
they prevent signals from reflecting or echoing when the signal reaches the end of the
chain. Passive terminating resistors work well for chains of short distances (2-3 feet)
and slower speeds (SCSI-1 specification). The chain should never exceed 6 meters. It
is for single-ended SCSI buses only that should only be used in narrow (8-bit) SCSI
busses running at 5 MHz.
• Active Termination – Active termination acts as voltage regulator to maintain a
stable voltage through the chain by utilizing the termination power lines to
compensate for voltage drops. Since the active termination helps reduce noise, it
allows for longer cable lengths and faster speeds. In fact, active termination is the
minimum required for any of the faster-speed single-ended SCSI buses. The chain
should never exceed 18 meters. It is for single-ended SCSI buses only.
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• Forced Perfect Terminator (FPT) – The Forced Perfect Terminator diode clamps
are added to the circuitry to automatically match the line impedance by forcing the
termination to the correct voltage thus allowing “perfect” termination. It is for single-
ended SCSI buses only and should be used for single-ended applications that
experience high levels of electrical noise.
• High Voltage Differential (HVD) – Buses using high voltage differential signaling
require the use of special HVD terminators.
• Low Voltage Differential (LVD) – Newer buses using low voltage differential
signaling also require their own special type of terminators. In addition, there are
special LVD/SE terminators designed for use with multimode LVD devices that can
function in either LVD or SE modes; when the bus is running single-ended these
behave like active terminators. Note: Many internal cables have a built-in LVD
terminator at the end of the cable.
> BIOS / CMOS / Firmware
Basic input/output system (BIOS) is the set of essential software routines that test hardware
at startup, start the operating system, and support the transfer of data among hardware
devices. The BIOS is stored in read-only memory (ROM) so that it can be executed when you
turn on the computer. Although critical to performance, the BIOS is usually invisible to
computer users.
The BIOS Setup Utility displays the PC system’s configuration status and provides you with
options to set system parameters. The parameters are stored in battery-backed-up CMOS
RAM that saves this information when the power is turned off. When the system is turned
back on, the system is configured with the values you stored in CMOS.
Most BIOS Setup Utilities enable you to configure:
• Hard drives, diskette drives and peripherals

• Video display type and display options
• Password protection from unauthorized use
• Power Management feature
(CMOS) complementary metal oxide semiconductor is an on-board semiconductor chip

powered by a CMOS battery inside IBM compatible computers that stores information such
as the system time and system settings for your computer.
Firmware is software that is embedded in a hardware device. It is often provided on flash

ROMs or as a binary image file that can be uploaded onto existing hardware by a user. Most
devices attached to modern systems are special-purpose computers in their own right, running
their own software. Some of these devices store that software ("firmware") in a ROM within
the device itself. Over the years, however, manufacturers have found that loading the
firmware from the host system is both cheaper and more flexible. As a result, much current
hardware is unable to function in any useful way until the host computer has fed it the
requisite firmware. This firmware load is handled by the device driver.
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Riser card / daughter board
Riser card is a PC expansion card that can be added to a PC to give it audio, modem or
networking capabilities.
Daughter boards are expansion boards that commonly connect directly to the motherboard
and give the computer an added feature such as modem, audio capability ect.. . Today, these
types of boards are not found or used in desktop computers and have been replaced with PCI
boards. But, many laptops still use these types of boards.

> Identify the names, purposes and characteristics of power supplies:
Power Connections on typical modern motherboard
ATX
Today, PCs will use either an ATX or ATX12V power supply. It contains software control of
the power on/off signal so that it can shut down the system. Since the ATX/ATX12V power
supplies are software activated/deactivated, you need to connect the “Power SW” cable from
the chassis to the motherboard. Most power supplies require to have a load connected to the
power supply. In other words, you must have at least one component such as a drive or
motherboard connected to the power supply.
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Most power supplies designed to be used in the United States operate at 120 volts with a
frequency of 60 Hz. In other nations, the supply voltage and frequency may be different. In
Europe, you will find 230 volt with a 50 Hz frequency as the standard. Today, most PC
power supplies will operate at either voltage. Some can automatically switch over to the
proper voltage while most are done by using a small switch on the rear of the power supply.
Ensure when plugging in your PC and turning it on, the correct voltage is selected. If you
have a power supply switched over to 230 V and the voltage is 120 V, the PC will not boot
up. Unfortunately, if the power supply is set to 120 V and it is connected to a 230 V outlet, it
will seriously damage your power supply and other important components.
The ATX12V power supply provides increased 12 V, 3.3 V, and 5 V current and provides
additional cooling capability. An ATX12V power supply can be easily identified by the
addition of an additional new 2x2 pin connector and an optional 1X6 pin connector.
ATX Pin Outs
The ATX power supply uses the PS_ON signal to power up the system. A +5 volt signal is
constantly sent through pin 14 (PS_ON) of the ATX power connector. When the PS_ON is
shorted tells the power supply to turn on and start the boot process. A push button contact
switch is connected to two pins on the motherboard that link to the PS_ON signal to ground.
When the push button is pushed, it connects the PS_ON signal to ground. When the push
button is pushed, it connects the PS_ON signal with ground, shorting it out. Therefore, when
you are installing an ATX motherboard, you need to connect the push button wires (usually
labeled PWR SW) to the motherboard. If you decide to test a motherboard without physically
installing it into an ATX case, you can start the system by either connecting a push button
switch to the motherboard and pressing the button or by taking a small screw driver and make
contact with the two pins that make up the power switch connector. Since the switch only
toggles the on/off status, the switch carries only +5 V of DC power, rather than the full 110 V
AC current used in the T power supplies.
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Besides supplying the power to the PC components, the power supply also provides the
power-good signal. During boot up, the processor tells the computer to constantly reset. As
soon as the power supply performs a self-test, testing if all voltage and current levels are
acceptable, the power supply will send a power good signal (+5 volts) to the microprocessor.
When the power good signal is sent, the computer will finish the boot process.
ATX Power Supply
24 pin connections on main board, some newer

motherboards with 24 pin connections can accept
both 20 and 24 pin connectors
20 and 24 pin main power connectors
20 main and 4 pin secondary connector - AMD Athlon 64 and Intel

Pentium 4 processors require a power supply with an extra 12V
connector that is connected to a 4-pin header on the motherboard
8 Pin CPU connector - On some motherboards, for example boards

that support Intel dual-core processors have a secondary 8 pin
connection.
The ATX form factor has five main power supply designs:
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ATX - 20 pin connector (Used through Pentium III and early Athlon XP)
WTX - 24 pin connector (Pentium II and III, Xeon and Athlon MP)
AMD GES - 24 pin main connector, 8 pin secondary connector (some dual-processor Athlon)
ATX12V - 20 pin main connector, 4 pin secondary connector, 8 pin tertiary connector
(Pentium 4 and mid/late Athlon XP & Athlon 64)
EPS12V - 24 pin main connector, 8 pin secondary connector, optional 4 pin tertiary
connector (Xeon and Opteron) defined in SSI specification
ATX12V 2.0 - 24 pin main connector, 4 pin secondary connector (Pentium 4, Core 2 Duo,
and Athlon 64 with PCI Express)
ATX12V 2.2 - One 20/24-pin connector, one ATX12V 4 pin connector. Many power supply
manufacturers include a 4 plus 4 pin, or 8 to 4 pin secondary connector instead, which can
also be used as the secondary EPS12V connector.
P4 connector (4-pin
CPU Power Supply ATX plug
12V)
ATX12V 1.3 or 20-pin, sometimes

AMD Socket 754 sometimes needed
higher 24-pin

AMD Socket 939 sometimes needed
higher 24-pin
ATX12V 1.3 or
Intel Socket 423 20-pin needed
higher
ATX12V 1.3 or
Intel Socket 478 20-pin needed
higher

Intel Socket 775 needed
higher 20-pin
> Identify the names purposes and characteristics of processor / CPUs
CPU chips:
Central Processing Unit is the component on the motherboard that

interprets instructions and processes data contained in computer programs.
The CPU combines the control unit, storage unit, and arithmetic unit.
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• Control unit interprets the instructions given to the computer.
• Internal storage is where the program of instructions is kept and where data from the
input devices are sent.
• External storage can consist of disk and tapes.
• Arithmetic unit actually does the calculation required by the program.
CPU technologies:
Hyperthreading is Intel's trademark for their implementation of the

simultaneous multithreading technology on the Pentium 4 microarchitecture. The
technology improves processor performance under certain workloads.
Dual core a CPU that includes two complete execution cores per physical
processor. It has combined two processors and their caches and cache controllers
onto a single integrated chip. Dual-core processors are well-suited for multitasking
environments because there are two complete execution cores instead of one, each
with an independent interface to the frontside bus. Since each core has its own
cache, the operating system has sufficient resources to handle most compute intensive
tasks in parallel.
Throttling is sort of enforced power management: Even when the system

is highly active, the CPU is "put to sleep" for short amounts of time.
This is done when the temperature is critically high, or, by request of the user,
when the system shall use less power to allow longer system usage when on battery
power.
Micro code (MMX) technology is designed to accelerate multimedia and

communications applications by including new instructions and data types that
allow applications to achieve better performance.
Overclocking is the process of forcing a computer component to run at a higher clock rate
than it was designed for or was designated by the manufacturer.
Cache memory is used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the average
time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data
from the most frequently used main memory locations. As long as most memory accesses are
to cached memory locations, the average latency of memory accesses will be closer to the
cache latency than to the latency of main memory.
Voltage Regulator Module (VRM) is an electronic device that provides a microprocessor

the appropriate supply voltage. It can be soldered to the motherboard or be an installable
device. It allows processors with different supply voltage to be mounted on the same
motherboard.
Some voltage regulators provide a fixed supply voltage to the processor, but most of them
sense the required supply voltage from the processor. In particular, VRMs that are soldered to
the motherboard are supposed to do the sensing, according to the Intel specification.
Speed (real vs. actual) Between 2001 and 2003, Intel and AMD made few changes to the
designs of their processors. Most performance increases were created by raising the
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processor's clock speed rather than improving the microprocessor's core. Around mid 2004,
Intel encountered serious problems in increasing their Pentium 4's clock speed beyond 3.4
GHz because of the enormous amount of heat generated by the already hot Prescott core
processor when working at higher clock speeds. In response, Intel started exploring ways to
improve the performance of its microprocessors in ways other than raising the clock speeds
of the processors such as increasing the sizes of the processors' caches and using multiple
processing cores in its processors.
Because of the philosophy change, a Pentium 4 clocked at 3.0 GHz with a 1MB L2 cache
could now outperform a 3.4 GHz Pentium 4 with 512KB L2 Cache. Clock speeds could no
longer solely differentiate the performance of different Pentium 4s. As a result, Intel has
adopted a PR rating of its own using three digit numbers. Intel now faces the challenge of
making consumers compare its processors based on PR ratings rather than raw clock speed,
ironically a problem which Intel created itself.
Some analysts regard the PR scheme (and a raw MHz/ GHz rating) as nothing more than a
marketing tactic, rather than as a useful measure of CPU performance. Many professionals or
interested amateurs now consult extensive benchmark tests to determine system performance
on various applications.
32 vs. 64 bit A change from a 32-bit to a 64-bit architecture is a fundamental alteration, as

most operating systems must be extensively modified to take advantage of the new
architecture. Other software must also be ported to use the new capabilities; older software is
usually supported through either a hardware compatibility mode (in which the new processors
support the older 32-bit version of the instruction set as well as the 64-bit version), through
software emulation, or by the actual implementation of a 32-bit processor core within the 64-
bit processor die (as with the Itanium processors from Intel, which include an x86 processor
core to run 32-bit x86 applications). The operating systems for those 64-bit architectures
generally support both 32-bit and 64-bit applications.
> Identify the names, purposes and characteristics of memory
Types of memory:
Common DRAM PIN Count:
• DIMM 168-pin (SDRAM)

• DIMM 184-pin (DDR SDRAM)
• DIMM 240-pin (DDR2 SDRAM)
DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory, stores data as electronic signals. These signals
must be constantly refreshed to keep them from dissipating.
SRAM: Synchronous Random Access Memory.
SDRAM: Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory. A DRAM technology that uses a

clock to synchronize signal input and output on a memory chip. The clock is coordinated with
the CPU clock so the timing of the memory chips and the timing of the CPU are "in synch."
The synchronization eliminates time delays and allows for fast consecutive read and write
capability, thereby increasing the overall performance of the computer. SDRAM has two
19
separate memory banks that operate simultaneously, while one bank prepares for access, the
other is being accessed. SDRAM is controlled by the system clock. SDRAM can only be
used in computers designed for it and cannot be mixed with any other type of memory.
SDRAM can operate at 100MHz, 133Mhz and features a burst mode that allows it to address
blocks of information instead of small data bits.
DDR / DDR2
DDR (DOUBLE DATA RATE) finds its foundations on the same design core of SDRAM,
yet adds advances
to enhance
its speed
capabilities. As a result, DDR allows data to be sent on both the rising and falling edges of
clock cycles in a data burst, delivering twice the bandwidth of standard SDRAMS. DDR
essentially doubles the memory speed from SDRAMs without increasing the clock frequency.
DDR memory modules have 184 pins and one notch

near the center, while DDR2 have 240 pins.
The key difference between DDR and DDR2 is that in DDR2 the bus is clocked at twice the
speed of the memory cells, allowing transfers from two different cells to occur in the same
memory cell cycle. Thus, without speeding up the memory cells themselves, DDR2 can
effectively operate at twice the bus speed of DDR.
DDR2 DIMMs are not backwards compatible with DDR DIMMs. The notch on DDR2
DIMMs is in a different position than DDR DIMMs, and the pin density is slightly higher
than DDR DIMMs. DDR2 is a 240-pin module, DDR is a 184-pin module.
• 184-pin DIMM: DDR 200/266/333/400 DDR SDRAM

• 240-pin DIMM: DDR2 400/533/667/800 DDR-2 SDRAM
DOUBLE DATA RATE 3 SYNCHRONOUS DRAM (DDR3 SDRAM)
DDR3 is the third generation of Double Data Rate (DDR) SDRAM memory. Similar to
DDR2, it is a continuing evolution of DDR memory technology that delivers higher speeds
(up to 1600 MHz), lower power consumption and heat dissipation. It is an ideal memory
solution for bandwidth hungry systems equipped with dual and quad core processors and the
lower power consumption is a perfect match for both server and mobile platforms. DDR3
modules will be available in the second half of 2007.
RAMBUS: Direct Rambus DRAM or DRDRAM (sometimes just called Rambus DRAM or
RDRAM) is a type of synchronous dynamic RAM, designed by the Rambus Corporation. Not
widely in PC's today.
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Operational characteristics:
Parity versus non-parity
Parity is a quality control method that checks the integrity of data stored in a computer's
memory. Parity works by adding an extra bit of data to each byte to make the total number of
1's either odd or even. An error is detected if the parity circuit determines that this number
has changed, indicating that some of the data may have been lost or otherwise corrupted. Two
different parity protocols exist, even parity and odd parity. Parity protocols are capable of
detecting single bit errors only. To enable multiple-bit error detection, manufacturers must
use a more advanced form of error checking called Error Correcting Code (ECC).
ECC vs. non-ECC
Error Correction Code. A method used to check the integrity of data stored in memory . ECC
memory improves data integrity by detecting errors in memory and is more advanced than
parity because it can detect both multiple-bit errors and single-bit errors (parity only detects
single-bit errors). ECC is typically found in high-end PCs and file servers where data
integrity is key.
• Most computers designed for use as high-end servers support ECC memory.
• Most computers designed for use at home or for small businesses do not use ECC
memory.
Single-sided vs. double-sided
A physical terms meaning that the memory chips are arranged on one or both sides of the
memory module.
> Identify the names, purposes and characteristics of display devices, for example:
Projectors
A video projector takes a video signal and projects the corresponding image on a projection
screen using a lens system. All video projectors use a very bright light to project the image,
and most modern ones can correct any curves, blurriness, and other inconsistencies through
manual settings. Video projectors are widely used for conference room presentations,
classroom training, and home theatre applications.
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Common display resolutions for a portable projector include SVGA (800×600 pixels), XGA
(1024×768 pixels), and 720p (1280×720 pixels).
A Projector can be connected to a PC in many ways ie: HDMI, Component Video,VGA,

DVI, Composite Video (RCA), S-Video, RS-232
CRT
The CRT or cathode ray tube, is the picture tube of a monitor. The back of the tube has a
negatively charged cathode. The electron gun shoots electrons down the tube and onto a
charged screen. The screen is coated with a pattern of dots that glow when struck by the
electron stream. Each cluster of three dots, one of each color, is one pixel.
The image on the monitor screen is usually made up from at least tens of thousands of such
tiny dots glowing on command from the computer. The closer together the pixels are, the
sharper the image on screen. The distance between pixels on a computer monitor screen is
called its dot pitch and is measured in millimeters. Most monitors have a dot pitch of .28 mm
or less.
A modern CRT display has considerable flexibility: it can usually handle a range of
resolutions from 320 by 200 up to 2560 by 2048 pixels.
LCD
A liquid crystal display (commonly abbreviated LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up
of any number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector.
• Resolution: unlike CRT monitors, LCD monitors have a native-supported resolution

for best display effect.
• Dot pitch: the granularity of LCD pixels. The smaller, the better.
• Viewable size: The length of diagonal of a LCD panel
• Input ports: (e.g. DVI, VGA, or even S-Video ).
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Video Connector types:
Video Card Outputs, from left to right. VGA, S-Video and DVI
VGA
The common 15-pin VGA connector found on most video cards, computer monitors, and
other devices, is almost always used solely to carry analog component video signals. Used
mostly for CRT monitors but many LCD monitors also use these connectors.
The common 15-pin VGA connector found on most video cards, computer monitors, and
other devices, is almost universally called "HD-15". HD stands for "high-density". VGA
connectors are almost always used solely to carry analog signals.
Mini VGA
A Mini-VGA connector is used on laptops and other systems in place of the standard VGA
connector. Apart from its compact form, mini-VGA ports have the added ability to output
both composite and S-Video in addition to VGA signals.
23
DVI
Digital Visual Interface (DVI) is a video interface standard designed to maximize the visual
quality of digital display devices such as flat panel LCD computer displays and digital
projectors.
As well as digital signals, the DVI connector also includes pins providing the same analog
signals found on a VGA connector, allowing a VGA monitor to be connected with a simple
plug adapter. This feature was included in order to make DVI universal, as it allows either
type of monitor (analog or digital) to be operated from the same connector.
The connector also includes provision for a second data link for high resolution displays,
though many devices do not implement this. In those that do, the connector is sometimes
referred to as DVI-DL (dual link).
The DVI connector on a device is therefore given one of three names, depending on which
signals it implements:
DVI-D (digital only)
DVI-A (analog only)
DVI-I (digital & analog)
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HDMi
High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is an all-digital audio/video interface capable

of transmitting uncompressed streams. HDMI is compatible with High-bandwidth Digital
Content Protection (HDCP) Digital Rights Management technology. HDMI provides an
interface between any compatible digital audio/video source, such as a set-top box, a DVD
player, a PC, a video game system, or an AV receiver and a compatible digital audio and/or
video monitor.
The standard Type A HDMI connector has 19 pins, and is backward-compatible with the
single-link Digital Visual Interface carrying digital video (DVI-D or DVI-I, but not DVI-A)
used on modern computer monitors and graphics cards. This means that a DVI-D source can
drive an HDMI monitor, or vice versa, by means of a suitable adapter or cable, but the audio
and remote control features of HDMI will not be available.
Because most DVI PC style displays do not have support for High-bandwidth Digital Content
Protection (HDCP) on the display, the signal source may prevent the end user from viewing
or especially copying certain restricted content.
S-Video
Separate video, (S-Video) is an analog video signal that carries the video data as two separate
signals (brightness and color), unlike composite video which carries the entire set of signals
in one signal line. S-Video, as most commonly implemented, carries high-bandwidth 480i or
576i resolution video, i.e. standard definition video. It does not carry audio on the same cable.
S-Video is mostly used to output a PC's video signal to a Television.
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Component / RGB
Composite video is the format of an analog television (picture only) signal. Is used to output
a PC's video signal to a Television.
Settings:
Refresh rate
The refresh rate is how many times per second the screen is refreshed (redrawn). The faster
the refresh rate, the less the monitor will flicker.
On smaller CRT monitors (14") few people notice any change above 60–72 Hz. On larger
CRT monitors (17", 19") most people would experience mild discomfort unless the refresh is
set to a more comfortable 85 Hz or higher. 100 Hz is comfortable for most people.
LCD monitors do not suffer from the same problems as CRT monitors because the refresh
rate does not mean the same. LCD monitors will provide excellent quality and resolution at
60–Hz. The more important issue for a LCD monitor is its Response Time, Image Brightness
and Image Contrast Ratio.
Different operating systems set the default refresh rate differently. Windows 95 and Windows
98(SE) set the highest possible refresh rate. Windows NT based OS's such as Windows 2000
and its descendant Windows XP, however, by default set the refresh rate to the lowest
supported, usually 60 Hz.
Old monitors could be damaged if a user set the video card to a higher refresh rate than
supported by the monitor. Nowadays most monitors would simply display a notice that the
video signal uses an unsupported refresh rate.
To change the refresh frequency for your monitor
1. Open Display in Control Panel.

2. On the Settings tab, click Advanced.
3. On the Monitor tab, in the Refresh Frequency list, click a new refresh rate.
Resolution
The resolution of a monitor indicates how densely packed the pixels are. In general, the more
pixels (often expressed in dots per inch), the sharper the image. Most modern monitors can
display 1024 by 768 pixels, the SVGA standard. Some high-end models can display 1280 by
1024, or even 1600 by 1200.
26
To change your screen resolution

2. On the Settings tab, under Screen resolution, drag the slider, and then click Apply.
3. When prompted to apply the settings, click OK. Your screen will turn black for a
moment.
4. Once your screen resolution changes, you have 15 seconds to confirm the change.
Click Yes to confirm the change; click No or do nothing to revert to your previous
setting.
> Identify the names, purposes and characteristics of adapter cards
Video including:
PCI
A specification introduced by Intel that defines a local bus system that allows up to 10 PCI-
compliant expansion cards to be installed in the computer. PCI video cards were replaced by
the newer AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port)
Specifications:
• 33.33 MHz clock with synchronous transfers

• peak transfer rate of 133 MB per second for 32-bit bus width (33.33 MHz × 32 bits ×
(1 byte ÷ 8 bits) = 133 MB/s)
• 32-bit or 64-bit bus width
• 32-bit address space (4 gigabytes)
• 256-byte configuration space
• 5-volt signaling
PCIe
PCI Express is a computer system bus that allows expansion cards with various capabilities to
be added to a system. It is a flexible system intended to replace PCI, and AGP. While PCI
Express has the same software interface as PCI and can be bridged to PCI, the cards are
physically and electrically incompatible.
PCIe 1.1 transfers data at 250 MB/s in each direction per lane. With a maximum of 32 lanes,
PCIe allows for a total combined transfer rate of 8 GB/s in each direction. To put these
figures into perspective, a single lane has nearly twice the data rate of normal PCI,
AGP
The Accelerated Graphics Port (also called Advanced Graphics Port, often shortened to AGP)
is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a graphics card to a computer's
motherboard, primarily to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics.
27
Some motherboards have been built with multiple independent AGP slots. AGP is currently
being phased out in favor of PCI Express.
Multimedia:
SCSI
SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) is a set of standards for physically connecting and
transferring data between computers and peripheral devices. The SCSI standards define
commands, protocols, and electrical and optical interfaces. SCSI is most commonly used for
hard disks and tape drives, but it can connect a wide range of other devices, including
scanners, printers, and optical drives (CD, DVD, etc.). The SCSI standards promote device
independence, which means that, at least in theory, almost any type of hardware can be
connected via SCSI.
Serial Port
a serial port is a serial communication physical interface through which information transfers
in or out one bit at a time. Data transfered through serial ports connected the computer to
devices such as terminals or modems. Mice, keyboards, and other peripheral devices.
While such interfaces as Ethernet, FireWire, and USB all send data as a serial stream, the
term "serial port" usually identifies hardware more or less compliant to the RS-232 standard,
intended to interface with a modem or with a similar communication device.
As of 2007, the USB interface has replaced the serial port, most new computers are
connected to devices through a USB connection, and often don't even have a serial port
connection.
Parallel
A parallel port is a type of socket found on personal computers for interfacing with various
peripherals. It is also known as a printer port.
Like the serial port, the USB interface has replaced the parallel port. As of 2006, most
modern printers are connected through a USB connection.
Communications including:
Network Interface Adapters
A hardware device that provides a computer with access to a LAN. Network interface
adapters can be integrated into a computer's motherboard or take the form of an expansion
card, in which case they are called network interface cards or NICs. The adapter, along with
its driver, implements the data-link layer protocol on the computer. The adapter has one or
more connectors for network cables, or some other interface to the network medium. The
network interface adapter and its driver are responsible for functions such as the
encapsulation of network layer protocol data into data-link layer protocol frames, the
encoding and decoding of data into the signals used by the network medium, and the
implementation of the protocol's media access control (MAC) mechanism.
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Modem
Short for modulator/demodulator, a hardware device that converts the digital signals
generated by computers into analog signals suitable for transmission over a telephone line,
and back again. A dial-up connection between two computers requires a modem at each end,
both of which support the same communication protocols. Modems take the form of internal
devices that plug into one of a computer's expansion slots, or external devices that connect to
one of the computer's serial ports.
The term modem is also used incorrectly, in many cases, to describe any device that provides
a connection to a wide area communications service, such as a cable or DSL connection.
These devices are not actually modems, because the service is digital, and no analog/digital
conversion takes place.
> Identify the names, purposes and characteristics of ports and cables for example:
USB (Universal Serial Bus)
Universal Serial Bus, or USB, is a computer standard designed to eliminate the guesswork in
connecting peripherals to a PC. It is expected to replace serial and parallel ports. A single
USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices, such as mice, modems,
keyboards, digital camera's, printers, scanners, MP3 players and many more. USB also
supports Plug-and-Play installation and hot plugging.
• USB 1.1 standard supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps.

• USB 2.0 (Also referred to as Hi-Speed USB) specification defines a new High-speed
transfer rate of 480 Mb/sec.
USB 2.0 is fully compatible with USB 1.1 and uses the same cables and connectors.
USB has with two connector types. The first is Type A (on the right), This connector
connects to the PC's USB port.
The Type B (on the left) connector and is for connecting to the relevant peripheral.
Where as the type A connector is truly standard, the Type B connector could be changed in
size etc. with individual peripherals meaning they require there own unique cables.
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IEEE 1394 (FireWire)
Is a personal computer (and digital audio/video) serial bus interface standard, offering high-
speed communications and isochronous real-time data services. FireWire can be considered a
successor technology to the obsolescent SCSI Parallel Interface. Up to 63 devices can be
daisy-chained to one FireWire port.
IEEE 1394 connectors are used to connect FireWire devices such as host controllers,
adapters, hard drives, hubs, repeaters, and card readers. FireWire, a registered trademark of
Apple Computer, is a communications protocol for the transmission of data, video, and audio
over a single cable at very high bit rates. IEEE 1394 is an interface standard adopted by the
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) for digital data transfers at 400 Mbps.
The popularity of IEEE 1394 is due in part to its use of a bus-powered architecture that does
not require peripherals to supply their own power. Products that support the IEEE 1394
standard adhere to its specifications, but often use proprietary trade names. For example,
Sony uses the term iLink to describe its FireWire products. iLink is a registered trademark of
the Sony Corporation.
There are two basic types of IEEE 1394 connectors: four-pin and six-pin. Four-pin or four-
position FireWire connectors are used with digital video camcorders and other devices that
have a small footprint and do not require external power. By contrast, six-pin or six-position
connectors are used with personal computers (PCs), rewritable compact disc rewritable drives
(CDRWs), external hard drives, digital audio stations, and other larger, more durable
FireWire devices that use external power. Four-pin connectors are rectangular, 1/4” by 1/8”
devices in which one of the longer sides is indented. Six-pin connectors are rectangular, 1/2”
by 3/16” devices in which one of the smaller sides is rounded. Four-pin and six-pin IEEE
1394 connectors are either straight or right-angled.
RJ-11 (Registered Jack)
30
Standard telephone cable connectors, RJ-11 has 4 wires (and RJ-12 has 6 wires).
Pinout of the 1-Wire plug RJ-11

Signal Name
Pin
that connects to the socket VCC (5 volts
1
regulated)
on a TINI E20 Revision C board,
2 Power Ground
or a 9097U adapter. 3 One Wire Data
4 One Wire Ground
5 No Connect
6 V+ (unregulated DC)
RJ-45
RJ-45 The "RJ" stands for Registered Jack. These connectors are used with 10-100BaseT
cables, and resemble telephone RJ-11 connectors, but are larger. They are connected to the
cable by crimping.
Used for Ethernet cable connectors, where usually 8 pins (4 pairs) are used, e.g., a male-to-
male cable to connect a cable or ADSL modem to the computer Ethernet network card.
Applications include other networking services such as ISDN and T1.
25 Pair Color Code Chart

RJ-45 Wiring (EIA/TIA-568B)
31
Pin Pair Wire Color Pins
1 2 1 white/orange
2 2 2 orange
3 3 1 white/green
4 1 2 blue
5 1 1 white/blue
6 3 2 green
7 4 1 white/brown
8 4 2 brown
> Identify the names, purposes and characteristics of cooling systems for example heat
sinks, CPU and case fans, liquid cooling systems, thermal compound
In earlier PC's it was possible to cool most components using convection (passive cooling),
more efficient cooling has become a necessity on many components. To cool these
components, fans are used to move heated air away from the components and draw cooler air
over them. Fans attached to components are usually used in combination with a heatsink to
increase the surface area available for heat conduction, thereby improving the efficiency of
cooling.
CPU topped by heatsink and fan
Areas where cooling fans may be used:
32
• Power Supply (PSU) fans : often play a double role, not only keeping the PSU itself
from overheating, but also removing warm air from inside the case.
• CPU fan: Used to cool the CPU (central processing unit).
• Case fans: move air through the case, usually drawing cooler outside air in through
the front and over the internal motherboard components expelling it through the rear.
• Chipset fan: Used to cool the northbridge of a motherboard's chipset.
• Graphics card fan: Used to cool the GPU and/or memory on graphics cards.
• PCI slot fan: A fan mounted in one of the PCI slots, usually to supply additional
cooling to the PCI and/or graphics cards.
• Hard disk fan: A fan mounted next to or on a hard disk drive.
Install, configure, optimize and upgrade personal computer components part 1
> Add, remove and configure internal and external storage devices
Install Hard Drive
The following procedure is for a Western Digital EIDE hard drive, but is pretty much the
same for all EIDE drives. The only difference being the jumper setting.
Determine Appropriate Drive Configuration
The default jumper setting for most new hard drives is Cable Select (CSEL). However, not all
computer systems and motherboards support this setting. You will first need to determine
whether your system or motherboard supports Cable Select as follows:
1. If your system does not support Cable Select or if you are uncertain, we recommend
using the Master/Slave configuration.
2. If there is an existing IDE device installed, check the jumper settings to see if it is
configured for Cable Select. If it is, then your system supports Cable Select.
3. If the IDE device installed is not configured for Cable Select or if you do not have an
IDE device installed in your computer, check your system documentation or contact
your computer/motherboard manufacturer to determine if Cable Select is supported.
Set the Jumpers
Jumper settings are used to determine the order in which IDE devices (i.e. hard drives, CD-
ROM drive, etc.), attached to a single cable, are detected by the system. Western Digital
EIDE hard drives have a 10-pin jumper block located next to the 40-pin IDE connector on the
hard drive. After you have determined the appropriate drive configuration, you must jumper
the drive(s) accordingly. Identify the procedure that corresponds to your configuration.
Western Digital Jumper Setting
33
Seagate Jumper Settings
Maxtor Jumper Setting
34
Connect the IDE Interface Cable to the hard drive(s):
If installing the hard drive as the only drive on the cable:
• Connect the black connector of the IDE interface cable to the drive.
If installing two drives on the same IDE interface cable:
• Jumper the bootable drive as Master and the other drive as Slave; then connect the
Master drive to the black connector of the IDE interface cable and the Slave drive to
the gray connector.
35
Connect the IDE Interface Cable to the Motherboard:
Attach the blue end of the IDE interface cable to the 40-pin connector on the motherboard.
Match pin 1 on the IDE interface cable to the connector on the motherboard.
note: The 40-pin 80-conductor cable is orientation specific. The cable connectors are color-
coded: blue for the host connector, black and gray for the primary and secondary disk
drives. The blue connector should be installed into the Primary IDE connector.
Primary IDE Connection
All Ultra ATA/66 devices should be attached to a single channel and devices that do not
support Ultra ATA/66 should be connected to a separate channel. In single drive
configurations, connect the primary drive to the end connector on the 40-pin 80-conductor
cable.
Connect the Power Supply Cable:
Attach the computer system power supply cable to the 4-pin power connector on the back of
your new Western Digital hard drive. The 4-pin connector is keyed to ensure proper insertion.
36
Secure the hard drive:
Most drives will function normally whether they are mounted sideways or upside down (any
X, Y, Z orientation). Of course, the physical design of your system may limit the positions in
which the drive can be mounted. However, in all cases, you should mount the drive with all
four screws for good grounding. Also ensure that there is enough air space around the drive
for adequate air flow, and avoid mounting the drive near sources of excessive heat (such as
some CPUs).
Configure the BIOS:
Run the system setup program. (usually by hitting the delete key before windows boots.)
• Enable LBA mode and UDMA mode, if applicable.

• Select the auto-detect option.
• Save and exit the system setup program.
Note: If your hard disk controller requires a third-party original equipment manufacturer
(OEM) driver, press F6 to specify the driver.
3. At the Welcome to Setup page, press ENTER.
4. Press F8 to accept the Windows Licensing Agreement.
5. If an existing Windows installation is detected, you are prompted to repair it. To bypass the
repair, press ESC.
6. All the existing partitions and the unpartitioned spaces are listed for each physical hard
disk. Use the ARROW keys to select the partition or the unpartitioned space where you want
to create a new partition. Press D to delete an existing partition, or press C to create a new
partition by using unpartitioned space. If you press D to delete an existing partition, you must
then press L (or press ENTER, and then press L if it is the System partition) to confirm that
you want to delete the partition. Repeat this step for each of the existing partitions that you
want to use for the new partition. When all the partitions are deleted, select the remaining
unpartitioned space, and then press C to create the new partition.
37
Note If you want to create a partition where one or more partitions already exist, you must
first delete the existing partition or partitions, and then create the new partition.
For drives larger than 137GB you will need Service Pack 3 for Windows 2000, Service Pack
1 for Windows XP, or a controller driver that supports 48 bit addressing to format the full
capacity during installation. Once the OS is installed, you may update the OS to the latest
Service Pack and then partition the remainder of the drive through Disk Management.
7. Type the size in megabytes (MB) that you want to use for the new partition, and then press
ENTER, or just press ENTER to create the partition with the maximum size.
8. Repeat Steps 4 and 5 to create additional partitions if you want them.
9. If you want to install Windows, use the ARROW keys to select the partition where you
want to install Windows, and then press ENTER. If you do not want to format the partition
and install Windows, press F3 two times to quit the Windows Setup program, and then do not
follow the remaining steps. In this case, you must use a different utility to format the
partition.
10. Select the format option that you want to use for the partition, and then press ENTER.
You have the following options:
• Format the partition by using the NTFS file system (Quick)

• Format the partition by using the FAT file system (Quick)
• Format the partition by using the NTFS file system
• Format the partition by using the FAT file system
• Leave the current file system intact (no changes)
The option to leave the current file system intact is not available if the selected partition is a
new partition. The FAT file system option is not available if the selected partition is more
than 32 gigabytes (GB). If the partition is larger than 2 GB, the Windows Setup program uses
the FAT32 file system (you must press ENTER to confirm). If the partition is smaller than 2
GB, the Windows Setup program uses the FAT16 file system.
Note If you deleted and created a new System partition, but you are installing Windows on a
different partition, you will be prompted to select a file system for both the System and
startup partitions.
38
11. After the Windows Setup program formats the partition, follow the instructions that
appear on the screen to continue. After the Windows Setup program is completed, you can
use the Disk Management tools in Windows to create or format more partitions.
Windows 2000/XP hard drive setup through Disk Management
A hard drive must contain at least one formatted partition before it is usable. You can use the
Windows 2000/XP Disk Management tool to set up volumes or partitions on your hard disk.
With Disk Management, you can create and delete partitions; format volumes using a FAT,
FAT32, or NTFS file system; and setup more advanced disk subsystems. You can perform
most disk-related tasks without the need to restart your computer as most configuration
changes take effect immediately upon committing the changes.
Note: You must be logged on as an Administrator or a member of the Administrators group

in order to use the Disk Management utility.
To start Disk Management:
1. Select Start, point to Settings, and then select Control Panel.

2. Open Administrative Tools, and then open Computer Management.
3. Alternatively, select Start, right click on My Computer and select Manage.
4. In the console tree, select Disk Management.
Before a
new, un-
partitioned disk can be used in Windows XP it must contain a disk signature. The first time
that Disk Management is run after a new hard disk is installed, the Disk Signature and
Upgrade Disk Wizard is started. If the wizard is cancelled, you may find that when you
attempt to create a partition on the new hard disk, the New Partition option is unavailable
(appears dimmed). In this case a signature can be written on the hard drive by right clicking
39
on the disk description window (lower pane, typically a red circle with a white dash covering
the hard drive icon) and selecting Initialize Disk.
Note: For drives larger than 137GB you will need Service Pack 3 for Windows 2000, Service
Pack 1 for Windows XP, or a controller driver that supports 48 bit addressing.
To create a new partition or logical drive:
In the Disk Management window, do the following:
1. Right-click the Unallocated space and select New Partition.
2. On the "Welcome to the New Partition Wizard" page, select Next.
3. On the "Select Partition Type" page, select the type of partition that you want to create, and
then select Next.
40
4. On the "Specify Partition Size" page, specify the size in megabytes (MB) of the partition
that you want to create, and then select Next.
5. On the "Assign Drive Letter or Path" page, enter a drive letter or drive path, and then select
Next.
6. On the "Format Partition" page, specify the formatting options that you want, and then
select Next.
41
7. On the "Completing the Create Partition Wizard" page, verify that the options that you
selected are correct and then select Finish.
Install, configure, optimize and upgrade personal computer components Part 2
> Install display devices
Installing A Graphics Card
42
Following example is fo a AGP card, proccess is the similar for PCI(e) cards.
Note: If the computer has an on-board graphics capability, you may need to disable it on the
motherboard or in the motherboard?s BIOS settings. For more information, see your
computer or motherboard documentation.
1. Align the video card with the free AGP slot, and press down firmly. Stop when you feel
the card is not going in any further, or the AGP lock locks in place.
2. Screw the card to the case at the metal bracket near the back of the case. Ensure that the
card is secure and the AGP lock, if present, is in its locked position.
NOTE: Some newer model video cards will require that you connect a power cable from the
power supply to the video card.
3. Replace the computer case side and reconnect all of the other cables. Start the computer.
4. Install the manufacturers Software
Accessing the Display Properties Panel Under Windows 2000 / XP
There are two methods to opening the DISPLAY PROPERTIES panel under Windows 2000 /
XP:
• RIGHT-CLICK on an open area of the Windows desktop and select PROPERTIES

from the drop down menu.
Or
• Click the START button on the Windows taskbar.

• Select CONTROL PANEL from the menu.
• Click APPEARANCE AND THEMES.
• Click DISPLAY
43
BIOS Settings for Graphics Adapters
The following BIOS settings will commonly impact the performance and/or operation of a
graphics adapter. Where applicable, a description of the setting, along with common
symptoms that might occur with an incorrect setting, is noted. The recommended "default" to
use for the setting is also provided.
NOTE: The exact names of various BIOS settings may vary from system to system. Not all
systems will offer the options listed below. For specific information on the BIOS options
available for your system, please consult the manual of your motherboard or check with the
motherboard/BIOS manufacturer directly.
AGP Aperture Size (MB)
Select the aperture size of the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP).
The aperture is a portion of PCI memory dedicated for graphics memory address space.
If the memory aperture size is set too low you may experience:
• Windows Protections Error during startup

• Windows hangs at a black screen while loading
• the system may boot correctly but hangs after a few minutes of operation
44
For most graphics cards, the BIOS default setting (usually 64MB) for the AGP Aperture Size
should be used. If you are using a graphics card with a 128MB or more of memory installed,
a larger aperture size may need to be used.
AGP Bus Mastering
Enable this option to allow the graphics adapter to have priority over the system bus for
transferring data directly to and from system memory. This improves performance on certain
video operations such as 3D acceleration functions that use system memory.
Default settings:
AGP Bus Mastering should generally be Enabled.
AGP Driving Control
This option allows user adjustments to the AGP driving force. The value is adjusted using a
hexadecimal value.
Default settings: AGP Driving Control should be left at AUTO. Most newer graphics cards
will automatically adjust for the appropriate setting.
AGP Mode
Adjusts the bandwidth available for AGP bus data transfers.
The data transfer rate is calculated using the following formula:
• AGP 4X: 66MHz x 4 bytes x 4 = 1056MB/s

If the AGP Mode is set incorrectly you may experience:
• Windows Protections Error during startup

• Windows hangs at a black screen while loading
• the system may boot correctly but hangs after a few minutes of operation
AGP Mode should be set to match the capabilities of the graphics card you are using. For
example, if you are using a AGP 2X capable graphics card, AGP 2X should be selected. If
AGP4X is selected, the system may not function correctly.
In general, there should be no issues with having the AGP Mode set lower (e.g. AGP 2X
when using an AGP 4X card) outside of a slight decrease in performance.
NOTE: If the AGP mode is set appropriately and you experience system hangs, you may wish
to try lowering the setting as a test; for example, try setting it to AGP2X when using a
AGP4X card. If the system functions correctly, this may indicate a problem with the AGP
data path in the system. Several things may affect the AGP data path including other
incorrect BIOS settings, an issue with the system BIOS, a memory issue, excessive bus noise,
a display driver problem, etc.
45
PCI 2.1 Compliance
When enabled, the PCI bus will comply with the PCI 2.1 specification. For more information
about the PCI 2.1 specification, please refer to your motherboard user guide or contact the
motherboard manufacturer.
If all PCI adapters in the system support PCI 2.1, this option should be Enabled. If you have
any PCI adapters which do not support PCI 2.1, this option should be set to Disabled.
Assign IRQ for VGA
Assign an Interrupt Request (IRQ) for the graphics adapter.
Assign IRQ for VGA should be Enabled.
Init. Display First
This setting is generally only a concern if you have both an AGP and PCI display adapter
installed in the system.
Initialize the AGP or PCI video display before initializing any other display device in the
system.
The setting for this option will depend on which display adapter (PCI or AGP) you wish to be
"Primary" in the system.
Video Memory Cache Mode
Select the method in which video memory is cached.
• USWC (Uncached Speculative Write Combining) - Write-Back Cache mode

• UC (Uncached) - Uncached mode
Default settings: Video Memory Cache Mode should be set to the BIOS "default" setting.
46
Install, configure, optimize and upgrade personal computer components Part 3
Connecting A Monitor
Typical CRT
Connections
Typical LCD
Connections (with built in speakers)
Install additional monitors
47
Multiple monitors overview
Windows makes it possible for you to increase your work productivity by expanding the size
of your desktop. Connecting up to ten individual monitors, you can create a desktop large
enough to hold numerous programs or windows.
You can easily work on more than one task at a time by moving items from one monitor to
another or stretching them across numerous monitors. Edit images or text on one monitor
while viewing Web activity on another. Or you can open multiple pages of a single, long
document and drag them across several monitors to easily view the layout of text and
graphics. You could also stretch a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet across two monitors so you
can view numerous columns without scrolling.
One monitor serves as the primary display and will hold the logon dialog box when you start
your computer. In addition, most programs will display windows on the primary monitor
when you initially open them. Different screen resolutions and different color quality settings
can be selected for each monitor. Multiple monitors can be connected to individual graphics
adapters or to a single adapter that supports multiple outputs.
Using Dualview
On many portable computers and some desktop computers (those with two video ports on one
video card), you can expand your display to a second monitor by using Dualview. Dualview
is very similar to the multiple monitor feature, with the exception that you cannot select the
primary display. On a portable computer, the primary monitor is always the LCD display
screen. On a desktop computer, it is the monitor attached to the first video out port.
Once you attach the second monitor and turn on your computer, use Display in Control Panel
to configure your settings, just as you do with multiple monitors. Dualview can be used with
docked or undocked portable computers.
To use the multiple monitor support feature, you need a video adapter for each monitor. If
you have an onboard video adapter (one that is not a plug-in card but is part of the
motherboard) that you want to use as part of a multiple-monitor configuration, it must be set
as VGA.
To install additional monitors:
1. Turn off your computer.

2. Insert your additional video card adapter into an available slot.
3. Plug your additional monitor into the card.
4. Turn on your computer. Windows will detect the new video adapter and install the
appropriate drivers.
6. On the Settings tab, click the monitor icon that represents the monitor you want to use
in addition to your primary monitor.
7. Select the Extend my Windows desktop onto this monitor check box, and then click
Apply or OK.
8. If the check box is not displayed on your computer, it may be because your video
adapter does not support multiple monitors.
48
If you are using Dualview, skip steps 2 and 3 above. Just plug your second monitor into the
video out port on your portable computer, or into the second video out port on your desktop
computer. When you turn on your computer, it should recognize the second monitor. Follow
steps 5 through 7 to extend your display to the second monitor. If the second monitor is not
shown on the Settings tab, you might need to update your display driver.
> Add, remove and configure basic input and multimedia devices
Access Device Manager Under Windows 2000 / XP
There are two different methods that can be used to access the device Manager under
Windows XP:

• Select PERFORMANCE AND MAINTENANCE.
• Select SHOW BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT YOUR COMPUTER.
• Select the HARDWARE tab.
• Click on the DEVICE MANAGER button.
49
Identify tools, diagnostic procedures and troubleshooting techniques for personal
computer components
> Recognize the basic aspects of troubleshooting theory for example:
Assess a problem systematically and divide large problems into smaller components to
be analyzed individually
You can usually divid common PC problems into four categories hardware, software, user
and environment. Each of these problem areas can be broken down further.
Hardware
• Failure - One or more components fail inside the computer.

• Compatibility - A component is not compatible with another component.
• Configuration - The hardware has not been installed or configured properly.
Software
• Configuration - Software (Operating System or Application Software) is not installed

or configured properly.
• Failure - Software glitch. (This can range from corrupted data to a flaw in the
programming)
• Compatibility - Software may not be compatible with some hardware or other
software.
50
Environment
• The location of the computer and its environment (temperature, air flow, dust,
electromagnetic interference ect).
User Error
• User hits the wrong keys. (sometimes as simple as the user hitting the zero (0) key
rather than the letter O)
• Is not familiar with the computer
• Is not familiar with the software.
> Identify and apply basic diagnostic procedures and troubleshooting techniques for
example:
Before trying to fix a problem, you need to gather information. First, make sure that you can
duplicate the problem and that the user is not part of the problem. In addition, determine if
the problem is always repeatable or is an intermittent problem. If it is an intermittent
problem, does the problem follow a certain pattern (such as when the computer is on for a
while) or does it occur completely randomly.
You can gather additional information by trying to use software utilities to test your system
and by using a digital multimeter (DMM). Some of the utilities include software to test the
computer components, check for viruses, look for formatting errors on a disk or check
software configuration. In addition, find out if the computer was serviced or changed
recently. Many times servicing or changes can cause other problems.
Other solutions including reconfiguring the software or hardware, reloading the operating
system, application software or drivers, making changes to the CMOS Setup program or
reconfigure the software. Whatever course of action that you choose, you should only make
one change at a time. If the problem still exists, you will then make another change until the
problem no longer exist. When determining which item to check or swap, you should first try
to check items that are likely to cause the problem and are the easiest and quickest to check.
Before replacing any components, you should do the following:
• Confirm that all cables and connectors are connected properly and securely
• Verify CMOS setup programs
• Update the BIOS
• Verify that all drivers are installed properly and that you have loaded the newest
drivers
• Look for updated device drivers
After you fixed the problem, you should always thoroughly test the computer before
returning it to the customer or client. This will make sure that the problem did go away and
that you did not cause another problem when fixing the first problem.
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> Apply basic troubleshooting techniques to check for problems with components:
Use Windows XP Help and Support
If running Windows XP, there's a simple system health monitoring tool available. The tool
can be found in the Help and Support Center.
To monitor system health using Help and Support
1. Log on as a local administrator on your computer, click Start, and then click Help and
Support.
2. Under the Pick a task, click Use Tools to view your computer information and
diagnose problems.
3. In the Task pane, click My Computer Information, and then click View the status of
my system hardware and software.
52
You can check what programs and hardware are installed on this computer, the amount of
memory available, or review diagnostic information about the health of the computer system.
> Motherboard Troubleshooting
The PC will not power on:
• Double check the power cable connection from the power supply to your AC power
source.
• Ensure you are using the proper power supply.
• Ensure that the power supply connections to the motherboard are secure.
• Check for external power switch on back of power supply, Ensure it is turned ON.
• Remove and re-insert the processor, memory, and any add-in cards to make sure they
are fully seated.
• Remove any non-essential hardware components and boot the system.
• Disconnect all power and remove the CMOS battery. Wait 10 minutes, then re-install
the battery, reconnect power, and boot the system.
53
Processor heat sink fan will not turn:
• Connect the processor's fan heatsink cable to the processor fan connector labeled CPU
FAN.
• Ensure that the power supply cable with the 4-pin connector is plugged into the 12 V
processor core voltage connector located near the processor socket on the desktop
board.
Floppy drive or CD-ROM not detected during boot:
• If you make any hardware changes related to drives, such as adding/removing hard
drives, floppy drives or CD-ROMs, the specified boot order may change.
• Additionally, after you upgrade to a new BIOS or if you set the BIOS to factory
defaults, your floppy drive or CD-ROM may not be detected in the desired boot order.
• Enter the BIOS Setup program and re-specify the boot order.
> Power Supply Troubleshooting
Besides supplying the power to the PC components, the power supply also provides the
power-good signal. During boot up, the processor tells the computer to constantly reset. As
soon as the power supply performs a self-test, testing if all voltage and current levels are
acceptable, the power supply will send a power good signal (+5 volts) to the microprocessor.
When the power good signal is sent, the computer will finish the boot process. If the power
supply detects a short or overload, the power supply will stop sending the power good signal
and the system will reboot.
Use a voltmeter to verify that each output from the power supply is correct. If any output is
very low (especially the +5 volt output), replace the power supply.
54
To check for shorts and overloads, you need to use isolation:
1. Take out all of the expansion cards except the video card.
2. Disconnect any drives except your floppy disk drive and your primary hard drive.
3. If the system powers on with the minimum devices, one of the components which you
removed or disconnected is causing a short or overload or all of the components
together is too much for the power supply.
4. To find out which one is causing the problem, put one expansion card or connect one
drive at a time and turn on the system to find out if that device causes the power
supply to go into idle mode.
If it still does not work after removing all of the extra devices, it could be the
motherboard/RAM, video card, floppy drive/hard drive controller card, floppy drive or the
hard drive, which is causing the problem. In this case, you must then replace one device at a
time until you find out which one is causing the problem.
ATX Troubleshooting Guide
From PC Power & Cooling (http://www.pcpower.com/)
1. Unplug the drive power supply connectors.
2. Turn the computer on. If computer will not turn on proceed to step 3. If the computer does
turn on, one of the drives was connected incorrectly or shorted. Reconnect the drive
connectors with proper polarity.
3. Unplug the AC power cord from the power supply.
4. Unplug the power supply from all connections on the motherboard and all drives, except
for one hard drive.
5. Plug the AC power cord into the power supply. Have the AC power coming directly from a
wall outlet with no UPS, surge protector, or line conditioner in between.
6. Short between the green and black wires on the 20 or 24-pin connector, with a paper clip or
piece of wire (see diagram below).
55
7. See if the power supply fan is running. If so, your power supply is probably good.
8. Plug components back in - one at a time - to see what component is causing the short.
> Processor / CPU Troubleshooting
CPU is not identified correctly during POST or in the BIOS setup program
• Check the CMOS parameters or jumpers settings on the motherboard for the
processor.
• Check to make sure the motherboard supports the processor.
• Update to the newest BIOS version.
CPU is not identified correctly by the operating system.
• Check the CMOS parameters or jumpers settings on the motherboard for the
processor.
• Check to make sure the motherboard supports the processor.
• Update to the newest BIOS version.
• Since many programs detect the processor so that they can better utilize their features,
the software may have been written before the processor existed. Therefore, check
with the software manufacturer for a patch or update.
Frequent processor failures.
• Make sure the motherboard supports the specific processor.

• Check the jumpers or BIOS setup program for the voltage settings of the processor.
• Check the jumpers or BIOS setup program for the operating frequency settings for the
processor.
• Is the CPU fan working?
• Is the CPU heatsink clean? thus not allowing proper cooling from the fan.
• Is the chassis/case and power supply appropriate for the processor model and
frequency and the motherboard?
• Check that the power supply fan is running properly and any other external case fans
are running properly.
• Check that the air intakes for the external fans are unobstructed and have at least
several inches away from walls and other items.
• Check that the power cable for the fan connected to the correct fan header specifically
for the processor.
• Check that the thermal grease is applied properly.
• Check for power fluctuations.
• Use a voltmeter to verify that each output from the power supply is correct. If any
output is very low (especially the +5 volt output), replace the power supply.
Processor is running hot
• Is the CPU fan working?

• Is the CPU heatsink clean? thus not allowing proper cooling from the fan.
• Is the chassis/case and power supply appropriate for the processor model and
frequency and the motherboard?
56
• Check that the power supply fan is running properly and any other external case fans
are running properly.
• Check that the air intakes for the external fans are unobstructed and have at least
several inches away from walls and other items.
• Check that the power cable for the fan connected to the correct fan header specifically
for the processor.
• Check that the thermal grease is applied properly.
Computer Components Part- 10

computer components Part 2
> Memory Troubleshooting
Common problems with memory:
• The computer won’t boot, merely beeps.

• The computer boots but doesn’t recognize all the installed memory.
• The computer boots but the screen is blank.
• The computer reports a memory error.
• Memory mismatch error
• Memory parity interrupt at xxxxx
• Memory address error at xxxxx
• Memory failure at xxxxx, read xxxxx, expecting xxxxx
• Memory verify error at xxxxx
• The computer intermittently reports errors, crashes frequently, or spontaneously
reboots.
• Registry Errors
• General-protection faults, page faults, and exception errors
• The server system manager reports a memory error
• Serial Presence Detect (SPD) not detected
The fact that many computer problems manifest themselves as memory problems makes
troubleshooting difficult. For example, a problem with the motherboard or software may
produce a memory error message.
Common Memory Problem Solutions:
Improper Configuration including having the wrong memory module for your computer
• Make sure you have the right memory part for your computer. At the manufacturer’s
Web site you can look up the part number. Many memory manufacturers have
configurators, which indicate the compatibilities of your module. If not, phone the
memory manufacturer, consult your computer manual, or phone the computer
manufacturer.
57
Incompatibilities with memory modules from different manufacturers, different part numbers
or different speeds.
• Confirm that you configured the memory correctly.

• Many computers require module installation in banks of equal-capacity modules.
• Some computers require the highest capacity module to be in the lowest labeled bank.
• Other computers require that all sockets be filled; still others require single-banked
memory.
Improper Installation including the memory may not be seated correctly may need cleaning.
• Re-install the module. Push the module firmly into the socket. In most cases you hear
a click when the module is in position. To make sure you have a module all the way
in the socket, compare the height of the module to the height of other modules in
neighboring sockets.
• Clean the socket and pins on the memory module. Use a soft cloth to wipe the pins on
the module. Use a PC vacuum or compressed air to blow dust off the socket. Do NOT
use solvent, which may corrode the metal or prevent the leads from making full
contact.
Defective Hardware including a faulty motherboard or memory module. Swapping modules

will reveal whether the problem is a particular memory module or socket, or whether two
types of memory aren’t compatible.
• Remove the new memory and see whether the problem disappears.
• Remove the old memory, reinstall the new, and see whether the problem persists.
• Try the memory in different sockets.
For RDRAM systems
• All memory slots or sockets for a channel must contain a RIMM or a Continuity
RIMM
• Check that the RIMM or Continuity RIMM is installed properly.
Update the BIOS. Computer manufacturers update BIOS information frequently and post
revisions on their Web sites. Make sure you have the most recent BIOS for your computer.
This applies especially when you have recently installed new software or you are
significantly upgrading memory.
Memory Problems Error Codes: (ahhhhhhhhhh! I can't take it anymore)
Parity Error
• Reseat the memory.

• Make sure that the contacts on the memory and the socket are clean.
• Check the memory parameters in the BIOS setup program including the number of
wait states. If the memory is too slow, you need to increase the number of wait states.
• Make sure that you have the right memory module for your system.
• Try removing one bank of memory modules at a time.
58
• Try using RAM chips from the same manufacturer with the same part number and
speed.
• Check for a faulty memory module by trying the memory in a known good system.
• Trying known good memory in the system.
ROM Error displayed on the monitor during POST
• Try reflashing the System ROM BIOS (if possible).

• Some motherboards have a dual system ROM BIOS so that the second can be used to
restore the first one when the first becomes corrupt.
• Replace the System ROM BIOS chip or the motherboard.
RAM error with fault addresses listed. For example: Memory address line failure at
<XXXX>, read <YYYY>, expecting <ZZZZ> Memory read/write failure at <XXXX>, read
<YYYY>, expecting <ZZZZ>

speed.
• Check the power supply and check for power fluctuations.
HIMEM.SYS had Detected Unreliable XMS Memory at <address>

speed.
• Check the power supply and check for power fluctuations.
• Replace the motherboard.
Limited Virtual Memory. (Your system is running without a properly sized paging file.
Please use the virtual memory option of the System applet in the Control Panel to create a
paging file, or to increase the initial size of your paging file.)
1. Make sure that you have plenty of free disk space on your hard drive.
2. Use the System applet in the Control Panel, access the virtual memory tool to set the
paging file size to 0.
3. Reboot the system and access the virtual memory tool again. Look for the
recommended minimum and maximum sizes and set the values accordingly.
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4. Reboot the system.
TROUBLESHOOTING MEMORY PROBLEMS
COMMON MEMORY PROBLEMS
When you have a problem with memory, the cause is usually one of three things:
• Improper Configuration: You have the wrong part for your computer or did not
follow the configuration rules.
• Improper Installation: The memory may not be seated correctly, a socket is bad, or
the socket may need cleaning.
• Defective Hardware: The memory module itself is defective.
The fact that many computer problems manifest themselves as memory problems makes
troubleshooting difficult. For example, a problem with the motherboard or software may
produce a memory error message.
BASIC TROUBLESHOOTING
The following basic steps apply to almost all situations:
Make sure you have the right memory part for your computer. At the manufacturer's
Web site you can look up the part number. Many memory manufacturers have configurators,
which indicate the compatibilities of your module.
Confirm that you configured the memory correctly. Many computers require module
installation in banks of equal-capacitymodules. Some computers require the highest capacity
module to be in thelowest labeled bank. Other computers require that all sockets be filled;
stillothers require single-banked memory.
Re-install the module. Push the module firmly into the socket. In most cases you hear a
click whenthe module is in position. To make sure you have a module all the way in
thesocket, compare the height of the module to the height of other modules inneighboring
sockets.
Swap modules. Remove the new memory and see whether the problem disappears. Remove
theold memory, reinstall the new, and see whether the problem persists. Try thememory in
different sockets. Swapping reveals whether the problem is a particularmemory module or
socket, or whether two types of memory aren't compatible.
Clean the socket and pins on the memory module. Use a soft cloth to wipe the pins on the
module. Use a PC vacuum or compressedair to blow dust off the socket. Do NOT use
solvent, which may corrode themetal or prevent the leads from making full contact. Flux Off
is a cleanerused specifically for contacts. You can purchase it at electronics or
computerequipment stores.
Update the BIOS. Computer manufacturers update BIOS information frequently and post
revisionson their Web sites. Make sure you have the most recent BIOS for your
60
computer.This applies especially when you have recently installed new software or you
aresignificantly upgrading memory.
WHEN THE PROBLEM OCCURS
When the problem occurs is a clue as to the cause.
YOU'VE JUST BOUGHT A NEW COMPUTER: If you have just purchased a new
computer and it is producing memory errors, the problem could be related to anything,
including a bad computer board. In this case, you need to troubleshoot the entire computer,
including memory. Because the computer dealer will have configured memory and run
system tests before shipping, they can best help.
YOU'VE JUST INSTALLED NEW MEMORY: If you have just installed new memory,
the first possibility is that you installed incorrect parts. Double-check the part numbers.
Confirm that you have configured and installed the memory correctly.
YOU'VE INSTALLED NEW SOFTWARE OR OPERATING SYSTEM: Newer

software or operating systems tend to push memory harder than older operating systems.
Sometimes memory that worked fine prior to a software installation begins producing errors
once it runs memory-intensive software. New software also has bugs, and beta versions are
notorious for producing memory errors. In these cases, your first step should be to ensure you
have the latest BIOS and service patches for your software. Otherwise contact the memory
vendor. A technical support representative may have experience with other software incidents
and can walk you through more-detailed troubleshooting.
YOU'VE INSTALLED OR REMOVED HARDWARE: If you have just installed or

removed hardware and suddenly receive memory error messages, the first place to look is in
the computer itself. A connection may have come loose during the installation or the new
hardware may be defective; in either case the errors are manifesting themselves as memory
problems. Make sure you have the latest drivers and firmware. Most hardware manufacturers
will post updates on their Web sites.
UNEXPECTED PROBLEMS:
If your system has been running fine, but suddenly starts to produce memory errors, and
crash or lock up frequently, the chance of a hardware failure is more likely, since
configuration and installation problems show up as soon as the computer turns on. Sometimes
you can get memory problems if your computer is overheating, if you are having a problem
with your power supply, or if corrosion has developed between the memory module and the
socket, weakening the connection.
HANDLING SPECIFIC PROBLEMS
Here is a list of the most common ways the computer informs you of a memory problem.
• The computer won't boot, merely beeps.

• Computer boots but doesn't recognize all the installed memory.
• The computer boots but the screen is blank.
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• The computer reports a memory error.
o Memory mismatch error
o Memory parity interrupt at xxxxx
o Memory address error at xxxxx
o Memory failure at xxxxx, read xxxxx, expecting xxxxx
o Memory verify error at xxxxx
• The computer has other problems caused by memory.
o The computer intermittently reports errors, crashes frequently, or
spontaneously reboots.
o Registry Errors
o General-protection faults, page faults, and exception errors
• The server system manager reports a memory error.
The following translations help you understand what the computer means when it gives you
one of these signals.
Computer won't boot, merely beeps.

Every time the computer starts, it takes inventory of hardware. Inventoryconsists of the
computer BIOS recognizing, acknowledging, and in some cases,assigning addresses to, the
components in the computer. If the computer won'tboot, the CPU is unable to communicate
with hardware. The cause can beimproper installation or failure of the BIOS to recognize
hardware.Follow basic troubleshooting, paying special attention to whether the
memorymodule is completely installed and that you have the latest version of the BIOS.
Computer boots but doesn't recognize all the installed memory.

When the computer boots, a part of the process is counting memory. On somemachines the
count appears on the screen and on others is masked. If thecount is masked, from the
computer set-up menu see how much memory thecomputer thinks it has. If the computer
counts to or lists a number less thanthe memory you installed, the computer hasn't recognized
all the memory.
Sometimes the computer will recognize only part of a module. This is almostalways due to
using the wrong kind of memory. For example, if your computeraccepts only single-banked
memory and you have installed dual-banked, thecomputer will read only half the memory on
the module. Sometimes thecomputer will accept only modules containing memory chips with
specificorganizations. For example, the VX chipset doesn't work well with 64 Mbit chips.
In many computers the maximum amount of memory the computer canrecognize is lower
than the maximum amount you can physically install. Forexample, your computer may have
three sockets, each of which can hold a128MB module. If you filled every socket with
128MB, you would have 384MBof memory. However, your computer may recognize a
maximum of 256MB. Inmost cases you can avoid this problem by consulting your computer
manual ora memory configuration Web site before purchasing memory. Or visit theKingston
Web site.
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The computer boots but the screen is blank.
The most common reason for a blank screen is a dislodged card, memorynot fully seated, or
memory the computer doesn't support. Confirm that thememory is installed properly and that
other components in the computer werenot accidentally disconnected or dislodged while you
installed memory.
Double-check that you have the right part number for the computer. If you havenonparity
memory in a computer that requires error-checking memory, orSDRAM memory in a
computer that supports only EDO, the screen may beblank at boot up.
The computer reports a memory error.

Memory mismatch error: This is not actually an error. Some computers requireyou to tell
them that it's OK to have a new amount of memory. Use the set-upmenu to tell the computer.
Follow the prompts, enter the new amount, selectSave, and exit.
Computer memory or address errors:

All of the following errors, and those similar to them, indicate that the computer has a
problem with memory:
• Memory parity interrupt at xxxxx

• Memory address error at xxxxx
• Memory failure at xxxxx, read xxxxx, expecting xxxxx
• Memory verification error at xxxxx
Typically the computer will perform a simple memory test as it boots. Thecomputer will
write information to memory and read it back. If the computerdoesn't get what it was
expecting, then it will report an error and sometimesgive the address where the error
occurred.
Such errors normally indicate a problem with a memory module but cansometimes indicate a
defective motherboard or incompatibility between oldand new memory. To verify that the
new memory is causing the problem, remove the new memory and see whether the problem
goes away. Thenremove the old memory and install only the new memory. If the error
persists,phone the memory manufacturer and ask for a replacement.
The computer has other problems caused by memory.

The Computer Intermittently Reports Errors, Crashes Frequently, orSpontaneously
Reboots: Because of the large number of causes, these problemsare difficult to diagnose.
Possible causes are ESD (Electro-static Discharge), overheating, corrosion, or a faulty power
supply. If you suspect ESD damage, contact the memory manufacturer and ask for a
replacement. Before you installnew memory, see page 85 for information on how to prevent
ESD. If you suspectcorrosion, clean the memory contacts and the sockets as explained on
page 96.If you suspect the power supply, you will have to do overall
computertroubleshooting with a focus on the power supply.
Registry Errors: Windows writes a large portion of the registry to RAM. Sometimes
defective memory will cause registry errors. Windows reports aregistry error and prompts
you to restart and restore. If the prompts repeat, remove your newly installed memory and
restart the computer. If the errorsdisappear, ask the memory manufacturer for replacement
modules.
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General-Protection Faults, Page Faults, and Exception Errors: The most commoncause
is software. For example, one application may not have released thememory after quitting or
occupies the same memory addresses as another. Inthese cases, rebooting should solve the
problem. If the computer suddenlydisplays general-protection faults, exception errors, or
page faults after youhave installed new memory, remove the new memory and see whether
theerrors stop. If they occur only when the new memory is installed, contact thememory
manufacturer for assistance.
The server system manager reports a memory error.

Most servers ship with system managers that monitor component utilizationand test for
abnormalities. Some of these system managers count soft errors inmemory. Soft errors have
been corrected by ECC memory. If the rate of softerrors is higher than specifications,
however, the system manager issues apre-failure warning. This warning enables the network
administrator to replacethe memory and prevent system downtime.
If the system manager on your server issues a pre-failure warning or othermemory error, ask
your memory manufacturer for a replacement. If the systemmanager continues to issue errors
after memory replacement, make sure youhave the latest BIOS, software service patches, and
firmware. The chance ofreceiving two bad memory modules in a row is low. Contact the
memorymanufacturer for compatibility troubleshooting. Sometimes the server does notwork
well with certain types of memory chips or certain memory designs.
Computer Components Part- 11

computer components Part 3
> Display Device Troubleshooting
CRT Monitor Troubleshooting
No power:
• Make sure power button (or switch) is ON.

• Make sure A/C power cord is securely connected to the back of the monitor and to a
power outlet.
• Plug another electrical device into the power outlet to verify that the outlet is
supplying proper voltage.
Power is ON but no screen image:
• Make sure the video cable supplied with the monitor is tightly secured to the video
output port on the back of the computer. If the other end of the video cable is not
attached permanently to the monitor, tightly secure it to the monitor.
• Adjust brightness and contrast.
• Verify whether an adapter is required for proper signal continuity between graphics
card and monitor.
Flickering:
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• Not enough power supplied. Connect the monitor to a different outlet. If using a surge
protector, reduce the number of devices plugged in.
• Check the refresh rate (vertical frequency) is set correctly for that specific monitor.
• Remove any devices from the area around the monitor that emit magnetic fields such
as radios, surge protectors, unshielded speakers, fluorescent lights, AC power
converters, desk fans, etc.
• Make sure the graphics card in your computer can use non-interlaced mode at the
desired frequencies. To enable your graphics card to support higher refresh rates, try
selecting fewer colors or running lower resolutions.
Wrong or abnormal colors:
• If any colors (red, green, or blue) are missing, check the video cable to make sure it is
securely connected. Loose or broken pins in the cable connector could cause an
improper connection.
• Connect the monitor to another computer.
• Select Degauss from the Monitors Menu. Do this only once.
Screen image rolls vertically:
• Make sure video input signals are within the monitor's specified frequency range.
• Try the monitor with another power source, graphics card, or computer system.
• Connect the video cable securely.
LCD Monitor Troubleshooting
No power:
• Make sure power button (or switch) is ON.

• Make sure A/C power cord is securely connected to the back of the monitor and to a
power outlet.
• Plug another electrical device into the power outlet to verify that the outlet is
supplying proper voltage.
Power is ON but no screen image:
• Make sure the video cable supplied with the LCD display is tightly secured to the
video output port on the back of the computer. If the other end of the video cable is
not attached permanently to the LCD display, tightly secure it to the LCD display.
• Adjust brightness and contrast.
Wrong or abnormal colors:
• If any colors (red, green, or blue) are missing, check the video cable to make sure it is
securely connected. Loose or broken pins in the cable connector could cause an
improper connection.
• Connect the LCD display to another computer.
65
> Adapter Card Troubleshooting
“Optional XXXX Optional ROM Bad, Checksum=YYYY” error message. (ROM chip
on an expansion card is having problems.)
• Remove one card at a time until you can isolate which card is causing the conflict.
• Check to see if you have a memory address conflict with another card, especially if
you just installed another device recently.
• Replace the expansion card with the faulty ROM chip.
Modems:
No dial tone for modem:
• If it is a modem built into the motherboard, check the CMOS setup program to ensure
that the modem is enabled.
• Ensure that the appropriate drivers are loaded and working correctly.
• If it is an external modem, make sure the modem has power and is connected properly
to the PC.
• Check that the phone line is active.
• Replace the phone cable.
• Replace the modem.
Receive an error message such as “Could not open port.”:
• Check for resource conflicts such as I/O addresses and IRQs.

• A program is loading in the Windows Startup folder that opens a COM port for some
other use other than the modem.
• Try rebooting to see if the port was opened by another program. Rebooting may
correct the problem.
PC or communication software refuses to recognize the modem.
• If it is an external modem, make sure the modem has power and it is turned on. In
addition, make sure the cables are connected to the serial port.
• If it is an internal modem, make sure the modem is seated properly in the slot.
• Check in the BIOS setup program that the modem and/or serial port is enabled.
• Check for resource conflicts such as I/O addresses and IRQs.
• Try the modem in another system.
• Try the modem in another system.
• Replace the modem.
Sound Problems:
Speakers do not produce any sound
66
• Check the volume control in Windows and the volume control in the application to
see if the sound has been muted or has been adjusted low.
• Check the volume control on speakers.
• Make sure the speakers are turned on and have power.
• Check the speaker cable is installed into the correct port on the back of the sound
card.
• Check that the sound drivers are installed and functioning properly.
• Swap the speaker cables and power cable one at a time.
No audio when playing an Audio CD
• Check the volume control (specifically Master Volume and CD Player) in Windows
and the volume control in the application to see if the sound has been muted or low.
• Check the volume control on speakers.
• Make sure the speakers are turned on and have power.
• Check to see if the four-wire CD audio cable is connected between the CD drive and
the sound card.
When trying to play a high-quality audio file through a USB speaker system, you get an error
message saying “Out of bandwidth”
• Disconnect extraneous USB devices such as joysticks, scanners, and others.

• Purchase an additional USB controller and attach the speakers to it so that they can
have sole access to all of its bandwidth.
• Play the audio file at a lower playback quality or use a lower-quality version of the
file.
When an expansion card is inserted into a system, it must be configured to use the proper
resources. The resources include I/O addresses (including COMx/LTPx), IRQs, DMAs and
Memory addresses. When configuring a card, one general rule should apply. No two devices
can use the same resource. Therefore, two expansion cards should not be set to use the same
DMA channel or the same I/O address. If two devices are using the same setting, the devices
will not work properly or not work at all.
To determine what the available resources are, use utilities, which come with the operating
system such as Windows Device Manager located within the control panel.
Access Device Manager Under Windows 2000 / XP
There are two different methods that can be used to access the device Manager under
Windows XP:

• Select PERFORMANCE AND MAINTENANCE.
• Select SHOW BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT YOUR COMPUTER.
• Select the HARDWARE tab.
• Click on the DEVICE MANAGER button.
67
After determining which resources the card can use, the card itself can be configured one of
several ways:
• DIP switches and/or Jumpers

• A software setup program
• Using Plug and Play (PnP)
Normally, the BIOS assigns unique IRQs to PCI devices. If your system supports PCI IRQ
Steering, and it is enabled, the BIOS will assign the IRQs to the PCI devices and Windows
will typically only change the IRQ settings if it detects a conflict. If there are free IRQs to go
around, IRQ Steering allows Windows to assign multiple PCI devices to a single IRQ, thus
enabling all the devices in the system to function properly.
Trouble Shooting Input Devices
Keyboards
Keyboard fails to be recognized during boot up or the keyboard is completely dead and no
keys appear to function.
68
• Swap the keyboard, reboot the system when a keyboard is replaced.
• Use a multimeter to check the +5 V supply at the keyboard connector.
• Check to see if the motherboard has a fuse to protect the +5 V supply feeding the
keyboard connector.
> Recognize the names, purposes, characteristics and appropriate application of tools
for example:
BIOS, self-test, hard drive self-test and software diagnostics test
Power-on self-test (POST) is the common term for a computer's pre-boot sequence. The
same basic sequence is present on all computer architectures. It is the first step of the more
general process called initial program load (IPL), booting, or bootstrapping.
Duties of the main BIOS during POST are as follows:
• verify the integrity of the BIOS code itself

• determine the reason POST is being executed
• find, size, and verify system main memory
• discover, initialize, and catalog all system buses and devices
• pass control to other specialized BIOSes (if and when required)
• provide a user interface for systems configuration
• identify, organize, and select which devices are available for booting
• construct whatever system environment that is required by the target OS
The BIOS will begin its POST duties when the CPU is reset. The first memory location the
CPU tries to execute is known as the reset vector. In the case of a hard reboot, the northbridge
will direct this code fetch (request) to the BIOS located on the system flash memory. For a
warm boot, the BIOS will be located in the proper place in RAM and the northbridge will
direct the reset vector call to the RAM.
During the POST flow of a contemporary BIOS, one of the first things a BIOS should do is
determine the reason it is executing. For a cold boot, for example, it may need to execute all
of its functionality. If, however, the system supports power savings or quick boot methods,
the BIOS may be able to circumvent the standard POST device discovery, and simply
program the devices from a preloaded system device table.
The POST flow for the PC has developed from a very simple, straightforward process to one
that is complex and convoluted. During POST, the BIOS must integrate a plethora of
competing, evolving, and even mutually exclusive standards and initiatives for the matrix of
hardware and OSes the PC is expected to support. However, the average user still knows the
POST and BIOS only through its simple visible memory test and setup screen.
The following POST beep codes were sometimes found on the CompTIA A+ Core Hardware
Exam:
Beeps Meaning
Steady, short beep Power supply may be bad
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Long continuous beep
Power supply bad or not plugged into motherboard correctly
tone
Steady, long beeps Power supply bad
No beep Power supply bad, system not plugged in, or power not turned on
If everything seems to be functioning correctly there may be a
No beep
problem with the 'beeper' itself.
One long, two short
Video card failure
beeps
S.M.A.R.T. stands for Self-Monitoring Analysis and Reporting Technology. S.M.A.R.T. is

reliability prediction technology for both ATA/IDE and SCSI environments. Pioneered by
Compaq, S.M.A.R.T. is under continued development by the top five disc drive
manufacturers in the world: Seagate Technology Inc., IBM, Conner Peripherals Inc., Western
Digital Corporation, and Quantum Corporation.
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Computer Components Presented by Wahidullah Shahaadat

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Computer Components Part 1

Floppy Connection on Motherboard Floppy Drive

Types of Hard Drives

• ESDI (Enhanced Small Disk Interface) was an interface developed by Maxtor to

CD / DVD / RW (e.g. drive speeds, media types)

> Removable storage

> Identify the names, purposes and characteristics of motherboards

Form factor refers to the size and format of motherboards

Common Motherboard Layout (INTEL Socket T (LGA775))

3 DIMM1~2 - 240-pin DDR2 SDRAM 15 WOL1 - Wake On LAN connector

7 IDE1 - Primary IDE channel 20 PCIE1 - PCI Express x1 slot

12 1394a - IEEE 1394a header

> Integrated I/Os

PS2 Mouse Used to connect a PS/2 pointing device.

PS2 Keyboard Used to connect a PS/2 keyboard.

VGA Port Connect your monitor to the VGA port.

LAN Port Used to connect an RJ-45 cable to a Network hub or router.

Audio Ports Used to connect audio devices.

• A. Center & Woofer

Computer Components Part 2

Identify the fundamental principles of using personal computers part 2

> Memory slots

< Installed DIMM

< Open DIMM Slots

DIMM Slots: come in three common pin configurations.

• 240-pin slots - for DDR2 SDRAM memory for desktop

CPU Socket Processors PIN's

AMD Athlon (650 MHz - 1400 MHz)

AMD Athlon XP (1500+ - 3200+)

Socket A AMD Duron (600 MHz - 1800 MHz) 453

AMD Sempron (2000+ - 3300+)

AMD Athlon MP (1000 MHz - 3000+)

AMD Athlon 64 (2800+ - 3700+)

Socket 754 AMD Sempron (2500+ - ) 754

AMD Turion 64 (ML and MT)

AMD Athlon 64 (3000+ - 4000+)

Socket 939 AMD Athlon 64 X2 939

Some AMD Opteron 1xx series

Some Sempron 3xxx

CPU Socket Processors PIN's

Intel Pentium 4 (1.4 - 3.4 GHz)

Intel Celeron (1.7 - 3.2 GHz)

Intel Pentium 4 Extreme Edition (3.2, 3.4 GHz)

Intel Pentium M (900 MHz - 2.267 GHz)

Intel Celeron M (800 MHz - 1.733 GHz)

Socket 479 Intel Core Duo (1.667 - 2.167 GHz) 479

Intel Core Solo (1.667 GHz)

VIA C7-M (1,5 GHz and 1,8 GHz)

LGA775 Intel Pentium 4 (2.66 - 3.80 GHz) 775

Intel Celeron D (2.53 - 3.46 GHz )

Intel Pentium 4 Extreme Edition

Intel Pentium D (2.66 - 3.60 GHz)

Intel Pentium Extreme Edition

(3.20 - 3.73 GHz)

Intel Core 2 Duo (1.60 - 2.67 GHz)

Intel Core 2 Extreme (2.66 - 2.93 GHz)

Intel Core Solo

Intel Core Duo

Intel Core 2 Duo (T5x00, T7x00)

External cache memory

PCI: Peripheral Component Interconnect, is a specification

The PCI bus is being replaced by PCI Express