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diagonal
polarization filters
sender
ALICE
receiver
BOB
+
+
+ +
+ + + + +
+ + + +
1
0
0
1
Fig. 1. The principle of QC according to the BB84 protocol. Alice sends down an optical ber photons polarized randomly either horizontally, vertically, at
+45
, or at 45
(row 1), Bob randomly chooses one of his analyzer basis (row 2) and records his result (row 3). Then they compare the used basis and
retain all results with compatible basis (row 4)
channel is usually an optical ber. The public channel can
be any communication link, such as a phone line or an In-
ternet connection (which is often an optical ber, too, but
this time with macroscopic pulses). The procedure consists of
four steps.
First, Alice sends single photons in one of the four follow-
ing polarization states: vertical, horizontal, +45
, and 45
.
She chooses randomly one of the polarization states for each
bit and records her choice. Bob has two analyzers available
and selects one randomly before recording each photon. One
of the analyzers allows him to distinguish between horizon-
tally and vertically polarized photons, whereas the second one
distinguishes between +45
and 45
, 90
, 45
,
and 135
Faraday rota-
tor and a mirror. A light pulse injected in any arbitrary po-
larization into a ber terminated by a FM will come back
exactly orthogonally polarized, regardless of the polariza-
tion transformations in the ber. Therefore both pulses un-
dergo three identical polarization transformations and im-
pinge on the beamsplitter with identical polarizations. To
quantify the performance of the interferometer, the ratio
of the count rates for constructive and destructive interfer-
ence is measured. This ratio is as large as 30 dB! Replac-
ing one Faraday mirror by an ordinary mirror, the extinc-
tion is strongly uctuating and can be reduced to 20 dB. If
two Faraday mirrors are removed, essentially no interference
is visible.
We successfully performed a rst test with a Faraday
setup using a 23-km-long telecom link [10]. The setup fea-
tured an impressive stability and a fringe visibility of 99.8%.
We produced a secret key of 20 kbit length with a quantumbit
error rate (see below) of 1.35% for 0.1 photon per pulse. The
bit rate, however, was only about 1 Hz due to the low pulse
rate. At the moment we are building up a setup with a pulse
frequency of 2.5 MHz that will result in a raw bit rate of about
1 kHz over 20 km.
The great advantage of this setup is of course that no con-
tinuous alignment is needed. It is also noteworthy that the
timing of Alices apparatus can be pre-adjusted in the lab, and
will not change, even if the apparatus is plugged to another
ber to communicate with another party. This is the reason
why we informally refer to our system as a plug and play
system. The timing of Bobs apparatus, especially of his pho-
ton counter has to be adjusted once for every link. Going
to higher pulse rates, however, this system suffers from an
increased noise level due to Raleigh backscattering and par-
asitic reections. We are currently working on a modication
of the setup that considerably reduces this effect.
3 Practical limits of QC
In the preceding chapters we learned about the principles of
QC and a rather elegant and promising experimental imple-
mentation. In this chapter we want to establish the practical
limits of the QC. The transmission length, the data rate, and
the quantum bit error rate are the three values of interest. We
will discuss how these values depend on the used wavelength
and performance of the corresponding detector.
3.1 Data rate and QBER
Let us consider a QC setup with a laser pulse rate . is the
average number of photons at the output of Alice,
d
and
t
are the detector and transfer efciency, respectively. Hence
the raw data rate R, i.e. the number of exchanged bits per
second before any error correction, is given by:
R =q
t
d
. (1)
q is a systematic factor depending on the chosen implemen-
tation. It cannot be bigger than 1/2 due to the fact that half
of the time the randomly chosen bases of Alice and Bob are
not compatible. The raw bit rate R will be further reduced
when error correction and privacy amplication are applied,
depending on the error rate and the used algorithm. The total
transfer
t
efciency between the output of Alice to the detec-
tor can be expressed as:
t
=10
(L
f
l+L
B
)
10
, (2)
where L
f
is the losses in the ber in dB/km, l is the length
of the link in km and L
B
are internal losses at Bob in dB.
The losses in optical bers are typically around 2 dB/km at
800 nm, 0.35 dB/km in the 1300 nm telecom window, and
0.2 dB/km in the 1550 nm telecom window.
The error is generally expressed as the ratio of wrong bits
to the total amount of detected bits. We call this quantity
quantum bit error rate (QBER). It is equivalent to the ratio of
the probability of getting a false detection to the total proba-
bility of detection per pulse:
QBER =
p
opt
p
phot
+ p
dark
p
phot
+2p
dark
= p
opt
+
p
dark
p
phot
QBER
opt
+QBER
det
. (3)
with p
dark
=n
dark
, and p
phot
=
t
d
we obtain:
QBER
det
=
n
dark
t
d
. (4)
p
dark
, p
phot
, and p
opt
are the probabilities to get a darkcount,
to detect a photon, and the probability that a photon went to
an erroneous detector, respectively. n
dark
is the dark count rate
of the detector and is the detection time window. This
formula applies for a setup with two detectors. Since a dark-
count will with a 50% chance not lead to an error, but just to
an additional count, there is a factor two in the denominator,
but not in the numerator. Note that the QBER is independent
of the factor q of (1), since we do not consider errors when
incompatible bases are used.
The QBER consists of two parts. The rst part is what we
call QBER
opt
, that is the fraction of photons p
opt
whose po-
larization or phase is erroneously determined, i.e. the fraction
of photons who end up in the wrong detector. This is mainly
due to depolarization and to poor polarization alignments or
due to the limited visibility of the interferometers. p
opt
can be
determined by measuring the polarization ratio, the extinction
ratio or the classical fringe visibility V. In our interferometric
setup presented in the preceding section we measured a p
opt
of 0.15%. Generally p
opt
below 1% can be easily achieved
with any setup.
747
The second part, QBER
det
, is due to the dark count rate
of the photon counters and increases with decreasing trans-
fer efciency
t
. Hence QBER
det
is the determining factor for
longer transmission distances. The detector dark count rate -
nally limits in combination with the losses in the bers the
transmission distance. Since ber losses have already attained
the physical limits, the detectors deserve a thorough discus-
sion.
3.2 Near-IR photon counting
To take advantage of the low losses in optical bers, we
need photon counters in the near IR that are unfortunately
not commercially available. However, photon counting can
be achieved with liquid nitrogen (LN
2
)-cooled Ge avalanche
photodiodes working in the passively quenched Geiger
mode [12]. In this mode the diodes are driven above break-
down, i.e. the bias voltage is so high that one electronhole
pair created by an absorbed photon will be able to produce an
avalanche of thousands of carriers. The avalanche only stops
when the created current through the resistance in series with
the diode lowers the applied voltage below the breakdown
value. The noise in such detectors is due to carriers gener-
ated in the detector volume by causes other than an impinging
photon (darkcounts). They can be created thermally or by
band-to-band tunneling processes, or can be emitted from
trapping levels that were populated in previous avalanches
(after pulsing). The quantum efciency
d
and the darkcount
rate n
dark
both increase with increasing bias voltage U
bias
.
However, the ratio n
dark
to
d
is not constant, so QBER
det
will
depend on U
bias
, i.e. a tradeoff between high efciency and
low noise has to be found.
The photon counting performance of APDs can be im-
proved with a so-called active biasing or gating. The bias
voltage of diode is the sum of a dc part well below breakdown
and a short (say, 2 ns) almost rectangular pulse of a few V
amplitude that pushes the diode over breakdown at the time
when the photon is expected. Since the diode is below thresh-
old, no spontaneous avalanches can occur before the detection
interval and consequently no afterpulses will fall into the de-
tection time interval. This allows us to increase considerably
the voltage (therefore the efciency) without excessively in-
creasing the noise. Moreover the time jitter is reduced to
a value below 100 ps.
Moreover InGaAs APDs, not suitable for single-photon
counting with passive quenching, show a promising behavior
with active biasing [13]. Figure 4 shows the noise as a func-
tion of the quantum efciency at 1300 nm for actively and
Temperature
d
p
dark
Time jitter
(FWHM)
Si (800 nm) Room temperature 50% 10
8
< 400 ps
EG&G SPCM200-PQ (Peltier cooled) (n
dark
=10 s
1
)
Ge (1300 nm) 77 K 10%
710
6
NEC NDL5131 20%
2110
6
< 100 ps
InGaAs 1300 nm 77 K 20% 3.310
6
< 200 ps
Fujitsu FPD5W1KS 30%
1010
6
InGaAs 1300 nm 173 K 10% 2010
6
< 300 ps
InGaAs 1550 nm 173 K 2% 1010
6
< 300 ps
Table 1. Photon counting performance of APDs.
The Ge and the InGaAs diodes were actively bi-
ased with 2.6-ns pulses. The resulting bit rates
are given in Fig. 5 (except for values designed
with
)
1E-7
1E-6
1E-5
1E-4
1E-3
1E-2
1E-1
1E+0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
efficiency d
p
d
a
r
k
Ge active
InGaAs/InP active
Ge passive
InGaAs/InP passive
Fig. 4. The probability of getting a darkcount per pulse p
dark
vs. the
quantum efciency
d
for Ge (NEC NDL5131) and InGaAs (Fujitsu
FPD5W1KS) APDs. Comparison of active gating and normal passive
quenching mode (from [13])
passively biased Ge and InGaAs diodes at 77 K. One can eas-
ily see that active biasing considerably decreases the noise
with respect to passive quenching. For higher efciencies
actively biased InGaAs diodes show smaller noise than Ge
diodes.
The quantum efciency at 1550 nm being very low at
77 K increases with higher temperature, but so does the noise.
InGaAs diodes in contrast to Ge, however, feature at 100
C
(173 K) a temperature at the limit of Peltier cooling, certainly
increased but still quite reasonable noise levels. So there is le-
gitimate hope that such diodes will be practical without LN
2
cooling and open the second telecom window at 1550 nm.
In Table 1 the actual performances of photon counters are
summarized.
3.3 Actual limits of ber-based QC
With the help of (1), (2), and (4) we can easily calculate the
raw data rate R and QBER in function of the transmission
distance for a given
d
and p
dark
of the detector at a given
wavelength. As long as the QBER remains below the theor-
etical limit for the creation of absolutely secure key of 15%,
we can actually forget about the QBER and the only gure of
merit is the nal bit rate B after error correction and privacy
amplication. Hence, we need to estimate to what extent R is
reduced by error correction and privacy amplication proced-
ure in function of the error rate.
On the one hand, by using an estimate of Tancevski et
al. [14] the fraction of bits lost due to error correction as
748
a function of the QBER(q) can be given as follows (for long
strings, > 100 bit):
r
ec
=
7
2
q q log
2
q . (5)
This estimation works well for small q. Note that r
ec
is almost
1 for q =15% and roughly 0.4 for q =5%. The fraction of
bits lost by privacy amplication [2, 15] on the other hand is:
r
pa
=1+log
2
1+4q4q
2
2
. (6)
We assume that the whole error q is due to the interaction
of Eve and that she can gain a maximum information of
q(4/