1

PE2213Thermodynamics
Chapter1.IntroductionandBasicConcepts
Ch.11Thermodynamicsandenergy
Therme(heat)Greekword
Dynamis(power)dunamis(GK)
Conservationofenergy:
Energyformmaychangeduringinteraction
Totalamountofenergy=constant

Thefirst(1
st
)lawofthermodynamics:
Energycannotbecreatedordestroyeditcanonlychangeforms
Thesecond(2
nd
)lawofthermodynamics:
Energyhasqualityandquantity
Processdirectionactualprocessesoccurinthedirectionofdecreasing
qualityofenergy
Example:
Coffeemud

1
st
law,and2
nd
lawofThemodynamicsemergedin1850s.
WilliamRankine
2

RudolphClausius
LordKelvin(FormerlyWilliamThomson)firstusedthetermthermodynamics,
1849
Substanceconsistsofalargenumberofparticles(ormolecules)

Thepropertiesofthesubstancedependsonthebehavioroftheseparticles
e.g.,

Pressure=momentumtransferbetweenthemoleculesandthewallsofthe
container
Classicalthermodynamicsmacroscopicapproach

Sticksandchain
Advantanges
Pressure,P
3

Direct
Easy
Statisticalthermodynamicsmicroscopicapproach

Averagebehavioroflargegroupsofindividualparticles
Moreelaborate
Dealingwithmolecularlevelproblems
Thermo.Applicationactivitiesinvolveenergyandmatter

Ch.12Importanceofdimensionsandunits
Definition
Dimensionscharacterizephysicalquantity
Unitsarbitrarymagnitudesassignedtodimensions
Primary(fundamental)dimensionssevenprimarydimensionsTable11,mass
m,lengthL,timet,temperatureT
Secondarydimensions(deriveddimensions)expressedinprimarydimensions,
Velocity=
Lcngth
tmc

4

Energy=forcedistance=mass
Icngth
tmc `
length=
muss Icngth`
tmc`

e.g., joules=
kg m`
scc`

Unitsystem:
Englishsystem(UnitedStatesCustomarySystem,USCS)
MetricsystemSIInternationalsystem
SIdecimalrelationshipbetweenunits
StandardprefixesTable12
ForcesecondarydimensionsderivedfromNewtonssecondlaw
Force=massaccelerationorF=ma
SI:newton(N)=forcerequiredtoaccelerateamassof1Kgatarateof1m/s
2
.
English:poundforce(lb
f
)=forcerequiredtoaccelerateamassof32.174lbm(1
slug)atarateof1ft/s
2
.

1Nweight(aforce)ofasmallapple(m=102gram)
Force,ma=0.1kg9.807m/s
2
=1N
1lb
f
weightoffourmediumapple(m=454g)
Force,ma=1lbm32.174ft/s
2
=32.174lbmft/s
2
=1lb
f

Kilogramforce(Kgf)weightof1kgmassatsealevel(Europeancountries)
1Kgf=9.807N
5

WeightWisaforce(unlikemassm)confusion
W:gravitationalforceappliedtoabody,determinedbyNewtons2
nd
law
W=mg(N)
Wherem:themassofthebody
g:thelocalgravitationalacceleration,
g=9.807m/s
2
(atsealeveland45latitude)
=32.174ft/s
2
(=9.807m/s
2

X(
1 ]t
0.3048 m
))
Note:Abathroomscalemeasuresthegravitationalforceactingonabody.
Specificweight:weightofaunitvolumeofasubstance
=g,whereisdensity
Massofabodyremainthesamef(location)
Weight=f(location),changingwithachangeingravitationalacceleration
g
moutaintop

,
W g
moon
=1/6g
earth
,W
1,moon
=1/6W
1,earth
Workforcetimesdistance(aformofenergy),unit:newtonmeter(Nm)
WeusemorecommontermjouleJ,1J=1Nm
1kilojouleKJ=10
3
J
EnglishsystemtheenergyunitisBtu(Britishthermalunit)
1Btu=energyrequiredtoraise1Fof1lbmH
2
Oat68F
SIsystem1calorie(cal)=energyrequiredtoraise1Cof1gH
2
Oat14.5C
Conversion: 1cal=4.1868J
1Btu=1.0551KJ(BtuKJ)
DimensionalHomogeneity:everyterminanequationmusthavethesameunit
6

*Allequationsmustbedimensionallyhomogeneouspractices&exercises
duringthiscourse!!!
*Aformulathatisnotdimensionallyhomogeneousisdefinitelywrong,buta
dimensionallyhomogeneousformulaisnotnecessarilyright.
UnityConversionRatios(UCR)
Force N=Kg
m
s`
&lbf=32.174lbm
]t
s`

UCR
N
kgms`
=1,&
Ib]
32.174 Ibm]ts`
=1
*equalto1
*unitless
*canbeinsertedconvenientlytoconvertunitsproperly
Example1.3
Determinetheweightof1lbmonearth?
W=mg=(1lbm)(32.174ft/s2)(
Ib]
32.174 Ibm]ts`
)

Ch.13SystemsandControlVolumes
System:aquantityofmatteroraregioninspacechosenforstudy

Boundary:surface(realorimaginary)separatesthesystemfromsurroundings
Zerothickness
Fixedormovable
Containsnomass,oroccupyanyvolume
7

Closedsystem(oracontrolmass):
Fixedamountofmass
Nomasscrossitsboundary
Energy(heatorwork)cancrossboundary
Volumemaychange
Isolatedsystemaspecialcaseofclosedsystem,noenergyisallowedtocross
theboundary
Opensystem(orcontrolvolume,C.V.):
Properlyselectedregioninspace
Typicallyencloseadeviceinvolvingmassflow,e.g.compressor,turbine,or
nozzle
Bothmassandenergy(heatorwork)cancrossboundary
Controlsurfacetheboundariesofacontrolvolume
Canberealorimaginary

Ch.14PropertiesofASystem
PropertyAnycharacteristicofasystem
Intensivepropertiesindependentofasystemmass
Extensivepropertiesvaluesdependonthesize,orextentofthesystem
8

Uppercaselettersextensiveproperties(exceptm)
Lowercaselettersintensiveproperties(exceptP,T)

Specificproperties:extensivepropertiesperunitmass,
e.g.,specificvolume,v=
v
m

specifictotalenergy,e=
L
m

Continuum:asubstancecanbetreatedasacontinuous,homogeneousmatter
withnoholes
Applicableforallsubstances&conditionsexceptatveryhighvacuumor
veryhighelevation
Ch.15DensityandSpecificGravity
Densitymassperunitvolume
=
m
v
(kg/m
3
)
specificvolumev(reciprocalofdensity)
v=
1
p
=
v
m

foradifferentialvolumeelementofmassmandvolumeV
=
8m
8V

gasdensity
g
asP,
g
asT
9

Liquids,solidsdensity
l
,
s
lessdependonPchange,
l
,
s
asT

SpecificgravitySG(orrelativedensity):theratioofthedensityofasubstanceto
thedensityofsomestandardsubstanceataspecifictemperature

e.g.,waterat4C,
H2O
=1000kg/m
3

oilspecificgravity
o
=
o
/
w
(
Ib oI]t
3
oI
Ib wutc]t
3
wutc
)
Note:gasspecificgravity
g
=
g
/
air
SpecificgravitySGofasubstanceisdimensionlessquantity(butnotalwaystrue!)
e.g.,densityofH
2
O@4C=1g/cm
3
=1Kg/L=1000Kg/m
3

SGofmercury(Hg)=13.6@0C(seeTable13,Cengl&Boles)
Determinethedensityofmercury
Hg
=SG
H2O
=13.6x1g/cm
3

=13.6g/cm
3

Or13.6Kg/L(x
10 L
m
) = 1S,6uu Kgm
SG<1oil,lightnonaqueousphaseliquids(LNAPLs)(lighterthanwater),afloater
SG<1oil,densenonaqueousphaseliquids(DNAPLs)(denserthanwater),a
sinker
Specificweight:theweightofaunitvolumeofsubstance

s
=g(N/m
3
)

Ch.16StateandEquilibrium
State:whenasystemnotundergoinganychange
Propertiescanbemeasuredthroughouttheentiresystem
10

Note:Thermowearedealingwithequilibriumstates
Equilibriumastateofbalance
e.g.,
Thermalequilibrium=sametemperatureintheentiresystem
Phaseequilibrium=involvetwophases,themassofeachphasereachequilibrium
StatePostulate:todescribethenumberofpropertiesrequiredtofixthestate
(ofasystem)
Thestateofasimplecompressiblesystemiscompletelyspecifiedbytwo
independent,intensiveproperties.
Asimplecompressiblesystem:
Asystemwithabsenceofthefollowingeffectssuchaselectrical,
magnetic,gravitational,motion,surfacetension.Theseeffectsaredueto
externalforcefields,whicharetypicallynegligibleformostengineeringproblems.
However,iftheeffectissignificant,wewillneedtoaddanadditionalintensive
propertytospecifythesystem(e.g.,elevationforgravitationaleffect).
PropertiesareIndependent:Onechange,theotheroneisheldconstant.

ThestateofN2isfixedbytwoindependentintensivepropertiesT,v(specific
volume)
Note:temperatureandpressureareindependentpropertiesonlyforsinglephase
system.Theybecomedependentformultiplephasesystems.
11

Ch.17ProcessesandCycles
Asystemundergoesfromoneequilibriumstatetoanotheraprocess

Processpathaseriesofstatesitwent
Todescribeaprocessoneshouldspecify
theinitialandfinalstatesoftheprocess
thepathitfollows
theinteractionswiththesurroundings
quasiequilibrium(orquasistatic)processaprocessproceedsinfinitesimally
closetoanequilibriumstate

quasiequilibriumprocess
anidealizedprcess
closelyapproximateactualprocess(withnegligibleerror)
Twobenefitswiththisquasiapproach
easytoanalyze
workproducingdeviceswoulddeliverthemostworkunderquasi
equilibriumprocesses
12

*Thus,quasiequilibriumprocessesserveasstandardstocomparetheactual
processes

13

Ch. 1-7 Processes and Cycles (Cont.)
Process Diagram visualize the processes by plotting a figure with
thermodynamic properties as coordinates
e.g., recall a compression process

Use of Iso- as prefix to designate a process for which a particular property
remains constant
Isothermal process temperature constant
Isobaric process P = constant
Isochoric (or Isometric) process specific volume = constant
A Cycle: a process returns to initial state at the end; i.e., the final state and initial
state are identical
The Steady-Flow Process
Steady no change with time
Unsteady (or transient) change with time
Uniform no change with location
Steady-flow process a process during which a fluid flows through a control
volume steadily.
14


Fluid properties may change with position but not with time
The mass and energy contents of a control volume remain constant
Stead-flow process
Ch. 1-8 Temperature and The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Temperature:
qualitatively our sense
quantitatively measurement in a repeatable and predictable way
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics R.H. Fowler, 1931
if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

Temperature of S
1
= Temperature of S
3

Recall - thermal equilibrium
Temperature of S
2
= Temperature of S
3

Thus S
1
, S
2
in thermal equilibrium even if they are not in contact
Temperature scales
15

C (Celsius scale) F (Fahrenheit scale) so called two point scale (ice-
steam scale: 0 C vs. 100 C; 32 F vs. 212 F)
Thermo- temperature scale
K (Kelvin scale, K-past) SI
R (Rankine scale, R-past) - English
Independent of the properties of any substance
Scale relation:
T (K) = T (C) + 273.15 ( 273)
T (R) = T (F) + 459.67 ( 460)
T (R) = 1.8 T (K)
T (F) = 1.8 T (C) + 32
0 K absolute zero
Temperature difference, T (K) = T (C)
T (R) = T (F)
Ch. 1-9 Pressure
Pressure: a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area
When we deal with a gas or a liquid we call it pressure
When we deal with a solid (in solid) we call it normal stress
Unit of pressure =

1 pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m
2

16


1N = weight of one small apple : quite small
Commonly used
1 KPa = 10
3
Pa, kilopascal
1 MPa = 10
6
Pa, megapascal
Bar (standard atmosphere)
1 bar = 10
5
Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 KPa
1 atm = 1.01325 bars = 101.325 KPa
Kilogram-force (= 9.807 N) per square centimeter
1 Kg
f
/ cm2 = 9.807 N/cm
2
= 9.807 x 10
4
N/m
2

= 9.807 x 10
4
Pa
= 0.9807 bar
= 0.9679 atm
English system pound-force per square inch, lb
f
/in
2
, or psi
1 atm = 14.696 psi
Normal stress (pressure in solids)
17


Pressure (in proportion to) force, weight , pressure (normal stress)
P 1/A, area , pressure
Absolute pressure: actual pressure at a given position measured related to
absolute vacuum, 0 pressure.
Note: most P-measurement devices will read zero in the atmosphere
Thus the readings (from these devices) are actually the difference between the
absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure this difference is called
gage pressure.
Vacuum pressures = pressure below atmospheric pressure
Commonly measured by a vacuum gage
Pgage = Pabs Patm
Pvac = Patm Pabs
Thus Pabs, Pgage, Pvac all positive quantities

In thermodynamics relations and tables, Pabs is used (or in Psia)

For gage pressure, Psig is used

Note: Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all direction (a scalar quantity,
not a vector!)

Variation of pressure with depth
18





Consider a rectanglular fluid element
height z, length x, unit depth 1 (into the page) in equilibrium

assume density of the fluid, = constant

A force balance in Z

F
z
= ma = 0

P
2
x1 - P
1
x1 - gxz = 0 (Eqn. 1-17)

Where W = mg = g x z, weight of the fluid element

Eqn 1-17, dividing by x and rearranging

Important!! P
2
- P
1
= P = gz =
s
z (Eqn. 1-18)

recall
s
= g = specific weight of the fluid

Pressure difference between two points in a constant density fluid
is the vertical distance z between the points
19


& also the density of the fluid

e.g., diver experience when diving deeper in a lake or ocean

For a given fluid, the vertical distance z is used as a measure of pressure

commonly called the pressure head.

For small to moderate (vertical) distances, and gases, the variation of pressure
with depth is negligible = 0, because of low density of gases (air specific gravity,
SG, = 0.0013, Tbl.1-3)

e.g., the pressure in a room filled with air
can be assumed to be constant



Point 1, free surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere, P
1
= P
atm


at Point 2, at a depth L from the free surface,

P
2
= P
atm
+ gh

Recall P
gage
= P2 - Patm = gh (Eqn. 1-19)

Since we can safely assume liquids are incompressible, thus variation of density
with depth is negligible!

This is also true for gases when the elevation change (h, h) is not very large

g
,
w
= const,
o
= constant
20


These assumptions may not be true, when temperature change is large, or in
oceans, the density of a liquid would vary due to at great depths

g, assumed constant = 9.807 m/s
2
at sea level
= 9.764 m/s
2
at 14,000 m (airplane cruise)

When change significantly w/ elevation

dividing 1-17 by xz, and taking the limit z 0

Gives dP/dz = - g

dP is negative when dz is positive when the variation of with elevation is known

The pressure difference between points 1 & 2 can be determined by integration

P = P
2
- P
1
= -

(1-21)

P the shape or cross section of the container


Mercury

* assume these points are interconnected by the same fluids

Pascal's law: the pressure applied to a confined fluid increase the pressure
throughout by the same amount


21





e.g., hydraulic car jack

Ch. 1-10 The Manometer

Z = P/g (Eqn. 1-18)

A fluid column can be used to measure pressure difference!! - A device called
manometer

Commonly used for small and moderate pressure difference


U-tube
Contain one or more fluids (mercury, water, alcohol, oil)
for manageable z, use high fluid such as mercury

22


We know the differential fluid column height (in equilibrium), h

P
2
= P
atm
+ gh
= density of fluid used in manometer

h x-section area of the tube

Commonly, the diameter of the tube should be greater than few mm (minimize
the surface tension effect)




Remembering:

pressure difference across a fluid column, h
P = gh
23

P increase, go downward in a fluid
P
1
= P
2
, when at same elevation in a continuous fluid

Figure 1-48.


Common pressure measurement devices:

Pressure transducer (a sensor, P.T.), range between 10
-6
to 10
3
atm
available in gage, absolute, or differential

Diaphram deflect - strain-gage P.T
Solid-state (press-electric) - Piezoelectric P.T.

Ch. 1-11 The Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure




24

Standard atmosphere - pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm
in height at 0 C (
Hg
= 13,595 Kg/m
3
) under standard gravitational
acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s
2
)

If water column is used instead of Hg column, it requires 10.3m height of H2O
column
Thus we commonly used (for weather forecasting) 760 mmHg as the standard
atmospheric pressure

mmHg = torr

The standard atmosphere pressure decreases, P
atm
as altitude increases

101.325 KPa at sea level

89.88 KPa at 1,000 m

26.5 kPa at 10,000 m

For a given temperature, the density of air is lower at high altitudes

Thus, a given volume contains less air and less

Oxygen, O
2






25


If the volume double, how about P value?

The force analysis doesn't change, if V increase , 2X

P maintains at 1.12 bar.

However, for an ideal gas in the device (e.g., tank)

If V, 2X, Temperature, 2X, when P = const.
1

Chapter 2. Energy, Energy Transfer, & General Energy Analysis
Ch. 2-1 Introduction


A room - well-sealed and well-insulated
A refrigerator is on and wide-opened
The room temperature will increase? or decrease?
Recall: The conservation of energy
The system selected: entire room
energy transformation involved:
electrical energy: power outlet
thermal energy: air temperature
negligible energy storage by the frig. or motor
Thus, room temperature is
To better describe the energy transformations in different devices, we will need
to study various forms of energy, then we will study the mechanisms
Ch. 2-2 Forms of Energy
Energy exist in numerous forms,
e.g., thermal, mechanicals, kinetics, potential,
2

electrical, magnetic, chemical, & nuclear.
Total Energy, E, of a system: sum of all form of energy
on a unit mass basis,
Commonly use e =

(kJ/kg) (2-1)
Themodynamics - provides no info about the absolute value of total energy, E
It provides an useful tool to assess the change of the total energy, E, in-many
engineering problems & applications.
We can conveniently assign a value of zero, E = 0,
at a pre-selected reference point !
For total energy analysis, we can divide them into two groups,
Macroscopic - energy possessed by a system as a whole with respect to an
outside reference frame.
Microscopic - related to the molecular structure of a system, the degree of
molecular activity
*independent of the outside reference frame
Internal Energy, U, = the sum of all microscopic forms energy
Macroscopic energy is related to motion &
the influence of such external effects as
gravity
magnetism
electricity
surface tension
Kinetic energy, KE, - possessed by a system as a result of Its motion relative to
some reference frame
3

KE= m

(kJ)
m: mass of a system
V: velocity of system relative to a (fixed) ref. frame
or on a unit mass basis,
ke =

)
Kinetic energy for a rotating solid body
KE = (I)
2

Where
I: the moment of inertia
: angular velocity
Potential energy, PE, - as a result of elevation in a gravitational field
PE = mgz (kJ) (2-4)
Or on a unit mass basis.
pe= gz (kJ/kg)
Where g = gravitational acceleration
z: elevation of the center of gravity relative to a selected reference level.
Specialized cases - impacted by magnetic, electric, and surface tension
mostly negligible!
Thus total energy, E, of a system can be
expressed as
E = U + KE + PE = U + m

+ mgz (kJ) (2-6)

4

or on a unit mass basis,
e = u + ke + pe = u +

+ gz (kJ/kg) (2-7)
A Closed System, m = const
remains stationary during a process
change of KE & PE = absence,
so called Stationary System,
Total energy change, E = U, internal energy change
for a Control Volume (C.VC.) - involve fluid flow (mass change) for long period of
time

we commonly express the energy flow associated with a fluid stream in their rate
We did this try introducing two new terms called
mass flow rate, , the amount of mass flowing through a cross-section per unit
time
5


& volume flow rate, , the volume of a fluid flowing through a cross section per
unit time,
Mass flow rate, = = A
c
V
avg
(kg/s)
g: the fluid density
A
c
: the x-sectional area of flow
V
avg
= avenge flow velocity normal to A
c

We use , dot over a property, time rate in this textbook.
Thus the energy flow rate associated with a fluid
flowing at a rate of

Mass and energy flow rates associated with the flow of steam in a pipe of inner
diameter D with an average velocity of V
avg

Energy flow rate,
= e (kJ/s or kW)
6

which is analogous to E = me
Physical Insight to Internal Energy
U - related to molecular structure and degree of activity
Motion of molecules and electrons
1. translational energy,
2. rotational energy,
3. vibrational energy
(all 3 are kinetic energy)
Sensible energy = part of internal energy associated with the kinetic energies of
molecules
for a gas, increasing temperature, T
molecular activities
internal energy, U

Besides kinetic energies of the molecules (sensible energy)
portion of the internal energy is associated with various binding forces
Molecular binding force (M.B.F.) for Solid Molecular binding force for gas


7

Thus if addition of energy
Energy Energy

Solid Liquid Gas
A phase-change process occurs
Solid - lowest internal energy level
Gas - higher internal energy level
Latent energy -internal energy associated with the phase of a system
During a phase-change process
chemical composition not change
related to molecular level force
not depend on the binding forces of atoms
*Additional binding forces of internal energy
Chemical energy - atomic bonds in a molecule
e.g., occur in combustion process
Nuclear energy - bonds within the nucleus of the atom
e.g., occur in fusion or fission reaction
Fusion combine, e.g., 2 X H-2 He-3
Fission split, e.g., U-235 Ce-140 + Rb-93
Total internal energy includes
Sensible energy
Latent energy
Chemical energy
8

Nuclear energy, and
Such energies as electric & magnetic dipole moment energies
If total energy can be contained or stored in a system - Static form of energy, e.g.
battery

Dynamic forms of energy - so called energy interactions
- energies not stored in a system
- only recognized at the system boundary as they cross it!

For a closed system, (m = constant) two energy interactions involved
are
heat transfer &
work

Heat transfer - the driving force is a temperature difference

Work - energy interactions not due to temperature difference

For a control volume system, besides heat transfer & work
exchange energy as a result of mass transfer
Note: in thermodynamics
Sensible + latent energy - called thermal energy

instead of heat or heat content of bodies
(where the confusion occur!)
Distinctions between
*macroscopic kinetic energy of an object
*microscopic kinetic energies of molecules sensible internal energy
Macroscopic kinetic energy of an object - organized energy
**as a result of orderly motion of all molecules in one direction
Microscopic kinetic energies of molecules
- random and highly disorganized
9

- less valuable than macroscopic kinetic energy
**Thermodynamics application
converting disorganized energy ( sensible energy - heat) into organized
energy (work)
Convert
!!Organized energy (convert) disorganized energy
more completely!
yet disorganized energy (convert) organized energy
**only portion converted!!

Similar analogy and difference for macroscopic potential energy and
microscopic potential energy

Nuclear energy - complete fission of I Kg of uranium-235 releases 6.73 x
10
10
KJ of heat = 3,000 tons of coal burned!

For same amount of fuel, energy release of fussion reaction = x10
6
more
than chemical reaction.
However safe disposal of used nucluear fuel remains a BIG CONCERN!














10

Ch. 2-2 Forms of Energy (Cont.)

Fusion reaction - much more challenge to achieve
*no success to achieve controlled fusion so far!! (1950 - uncontrolled fusion
the A-bomb l H-bombs.)

* Mechanical energy
- mechanical forms of energy
- does not involve conversion of nuclear/ chemical/ thermal energy
- negligible heat transfer
- considering the frictional effects causing mechanical energy to be lost

* Definition: form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device, such as turbine.

Note: Kinetic and potential energies one familiar mechanical energy

Also, Thermal energy are not mechanical energy due to it cannot be
converted to work directly and completely!

The pressure of a flowing fluid is associated with its mechanical energy





Recall pressure unit (pascal), Pa
11

Pa =

Pv or P/ unit of J/kg

Pressure itself is not a form of energy
yet pressure force acting on a fluid through a distance produces work so
called flow work in the amount of P/ #

Flow work commonly expressed in terms of fluid properties
- part of the energy of a flowing fluid flow energy

The mechanical energy of a flowing fluid on a unit mass basis

e
mech
=

+ gz (Eqn. 2-10)

= flow energy

= kinetic energy
gz = potential energy

If expressed in rate form

mech
= e
mech
= (

+ gz ) (Eqn. 2-11)

: mass flow rate of the fluid

When = constant (incompressible flow), the mechanical energy change
( e
mech
) becomes

e
mech
=

+ g (Z
2
Z
1
) (kJ/kg) (2-12)


&
12


= e
mech
= (

+ g (Z
2
Z
1
)) (KW) (2-13)

If P, , V (velocity), Z (elevation) = Constant

e = Constant or e
mech
= 0

If negligible energy loss occurs

e
mech
0, mechanical work supplied to the fluid (e.g., pump)

e
mech
0, work extracted from the fluid (e.g., turbine)

Ch. 2-3 Energy Transfer By Heat



Recall:
Energy cross a closed system boundary
heat
work



Energy transfer takes place until thermal equilibrium achieved (same temp
no temperature difference driving force).
13


Heat transfer - always from the higher temperature body to the lower
temperature one

Heat: energy form that is transferred between two systems
(or a system and its surroundings) due to a temperature difference

heat-only energy interaction it must be due to temperature difference
Or temperature same no heat transfer

Note: Heat is energy in transition => it is recognized only as it crosses the
boundary of a system

Thus in thermodynamics,
heat => heat transfer

Adiabatic process a process no heat transfer involved, Q = 0
adiabatos (Greek) => not to be passed
Commonly
(1) A system is well insulated & negligible heat transfer occur
(2) both system & surroundings are same temperature

Note that - the energy content/ temperature of the system can be changed
for an adiabatic process due to work or other means

Heat transfer Q unit, KJ (or Btu), or Q
12
(state 1 & 2)
for a unit mass, q = Q/m (kJ/kg)

Also commonly used, rate of heat transfer
, kJ/s (= KW)
if varies with time, the amount of heat transfer

14

Q =

(kJ)

when remains constant
Q = t (kJ)

t (= t
2
t
1
), time interval when process occurs

Heat is transferred by three mechanisms:
Conduction - interaction between particles, from more energetic
particles to Less energetic ones
Convection - energy transfer between a solid surface and a fluid in
motion
Radiation - energy transfer due to the emission of electromagnetic
waves (or photons)
Ch. 2-4 Energy transfer by work
For a closed system, the energy crossing boundary should be work, if not due to
heat transfer
Work is not caused by temperature difference
Work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a
distance
e.g., a rising piston
a rotating shaft
an electric wire crossing the system boundary
Unit of work (energy), kJ
work done during a process, from State I to State 2
expressed as W
12
, or simply W
On a unit mass basis
15

w = W/m (kJ/kg)
Power: The work done per unit time denoted as is
unit of power: kJ/s or kW (1 W = 1 J/s)
Note: heat and work are directional quantities
Thus to describe a heat or work interaction we need both magnitude and
direction
Sign Convention:
(1) formal sign convention -


Tip: opposite direction for heat and work
(2) use of subscripts in and out to indicate direction

W
in
: 5 KJ work input
Q
out
: 3 KJ heat loss

In this textbook,
16

Assume a direction for the interaction
Solve it
A positive result indicates the assumed direction is correct
A negative value-direction of interaction is the opposite of the assumed
direction
an intuitive approach
Note: a quantity that is transferred to or from a system during an interaction is
not a property the amount of such a quantity cannot be determined only by
the state of system
#

Thus, heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system and its
surroundings
Similarities between heat & work
1. They are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the
boundaries, they are boundary phenomena.
2. Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
3. Both are associated with a process, not a state heat or work has no meaning at
a state-unlike properties.
4. They are path functions (i.e., magnitudes depend on the path of the process
and the end states).
Path functions possess inexact differentials, expressed by
Q, W (not dQ, dW)
Point functions (such as properties) - depend on the state only, and not on how a
system reaches that state
Point function: possess exact differentials, expressed by d
e.g., "small change of volume, dV
17

Total volume change during a process between States I & 2

= V
2
V
1
= V
volume change = the volume at State 2 minus the volume at State 1 regardless of
the process path
Total work done during Process 1-2, is

= W
12
(not W = W
2
W
1
)
* W
2
- W
1
, is meaningless, since work is not a property.
& systems do not possess work at a State
Example 2.3

a) determine if any heat transfer during the burning process?
b) if there is any change in the internal energy of the system?
ANS:
a) well-insulated room, an adiabatic system assume: no heat transfer through
boundaries, Q = 0
b) recall the intend energy involves various form (sensible, latent, chemical,
nuclear)
Burning candle => chemical energy (convert to) sensible energy
yet total internal energy maintains the same
(no increase or decrease), thus U = 0
18

Example 2.5

If system = entire oven (including heating element)
Is this a heat or work interaction?
The energy content of oven during this process as temperature
Since this energy transfer is not due to the temperature difference between the
system (oven) and the surrounding air
It must be work interaction => energy transfer caused by electrons crossing
the system boundary
Example. 2.6


If the system = the air in the oven
19

Energy transfer as a result of temperature difference between the heating
element and the air in the oven.
Thus, this is a heat transfer processes
#

An energy transfer can be heat or work depending on how the system is selected
Electrical work
In an electrical field, electrons in a wire move under the effect of electromotive
forces, doing work if N coulombs electrical change move through a potential
difference, V
We = V N
expressed in the rate form

e
= V*I (W)

e
= electrical power
I = Current (number of electrical charges flowing per unit time)
electrical work done during time interval dt
W
e
=

(kJ)
V, I remains constant over a time interval T
W
e
= V*I*T (kJ) (2-20)

e
= VI = I
2
R = V
2
/R

20



Ch. 2-5 Mechanical Forms of Works

W = Fs
F = force
s = distance-displaced
If F Constant
W =

Two requirements for work interaction to exist
(1) a force acting on the boundary
(2) the boundary must move
In many thermo problems, mechanical work is the only form of work involved.
Common mechanical work:
A. Shaft work

21

Force applied to a shaft, through a moment arm, r


Generates a torque, T
T = Fr => F =

Force acts through a distance s
s can be related to r
s = (2r)n
n: revolution
Thus W
sh
= FS = (T/r)(2 rn ) = 2nT (kJ)
Power transmitted through the shaft = the shaft work done per unit time

sh
= 2T (kW) (Eqn. 2-26)
22

Ch. 2-5 Shaft work (continued)
Ex. 2.7 Determine the power transmitted through the shaft of a car

Torque, T= 200 Nm
shaft rotation, = 4000 revolution per minute (rpm)

sh
= 2 T = 2 (4000 1/min) (200 Nm) (1 min/60 s) (1 kJ/1000 Nm )
= 83.8 KW
#

or 83.8 KW (1.341 hp/KW) = 112 hp
#

Power transmitted by a shaft T &
Spring work


W
spring
= Fdx
For a linear elastic springs, x proportional to the force
F = kx (kN) x: displacement of spring
k: spring constant (kN/m)
W
spring
=

W
spring
= *k (X
2

2
X
1

2
) (kJ)
X
1
, initial displacement of spring
23

X
2
: final displacement of spring
F 2 X, x
dis.
2X
Work done on elastic solid bars


Solids are commonly modeled as linear spring.
Use similar equation given for a linear spring
We replace pressure P by its counterpart in solids, normal stress
n
= F/A
Work of expansion or contraction
W
elastic
=

(kJ)
A: cross-sectional area of the bar
(
n
stress has pressure unit)
Work associated with stretching of a Liquid film
e.g., a soap film

24

Applying force to overcome the microscopic forces between molecules at the
liquid-air next tax interface
These forces are perpendicular to any line in the surface
force per unit length = surface tension,
s
, N/m
Surface tension work: Work stretching a film
W
surfare
=

(kJ)
d A = 2 b dx change of surface area of the film
( two surfaces contacting the air)
Thus the force of surface tension acting on a movable wire is
F = 2 b
s

s
- surface tension force per unit length
Work Done to Raise or Accelerate a Body
a body is raised its potential energy
a body is accelerated kinetic energy
By conservation of energy:
equivalent amount of energy must be transferred.
this energy transfer is not driven by temperature
difference not a heat transfer
Thus, work transfer are involved in both processes (i.e., body is raised, &
body is accelerated)
Ex. 2.9 Power needs of a car to accelerate
25


from rest to 80 Km/h in 20 s
work needed to accelerate a body
* the change in the kinetic energy
Wa = m x [V
2

2
- V
1

2
]
= (900 kg) {[(80 km/h)(1000 m/km)(h/3600 s)]
2
0
2
}
= 222 x 10
3
kgm
2
/s
2
(N/kgm/s
2
)( kJ/10
3
Nm)
(conversion factor, I kJ/kg = 1000 m
2
/s
2
)
= 222 K J

a
= Power = energy (kJ)/ time (s) = 222 kJ/20 s (kW / kJ/s)
= 11.1 kW
or 11.1 kW (1.341 hp/kW)
= 14.9 hp
actual power needed > 11.1 kW
to overcome friction, resistance, & other imperfections
additional mechanical work moving boundary work (discussed in Ch.4)
Non-mechanical works:
approach : identifying a "generalized force, F
acting and resulting in a generalized displacement, x
e.g. electrical works, magnetic work
26


Ch. 2-6 The 1st Law of Thermodynamics
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a process
it can only change forms
Observations:

For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of a closed system, the
net work done is the same regardless of the nature of the closed system &
the details of the process
related to Joule's experiment in 1840s
then the famous " 1st Themo- Law"
Based on this observation, we defined
the term, total energy, E.
The net work the end states of the system -only
it must correspond to a change in a property of the system
The property" = total energy
Based on 1st law
- no reference to the absolute value of total energy (of a closed system)
- the change in the total energy during an adiabatic process must be equal
to the net work done!
27

- one can conveniently assign the "value" of total energy at a specified state.
only "change is matter!


The temperature of air , when compress it
boundary works W
b
transferred, Q = 0
The air store the boundary work
total energy of air , T
If both heat transfer (Q) & work (W) involved in a process E the net energy
transfer to (or from) the system
Energy balance
(


) - (


) = (


)
E
in
E
out
= E system
just like a bank account!
28

To solve engineering problem
understanding various forms of energy
recognizing forms of energy transfer
Energy change of a systems, E system
evaluate the system energy at the beginning (of a process)
determine the system energy at the end
take their difference
E
system
= E
final
- E
initial
= E
2
- E
1
(Eqn. 2-32)

Note: total energy is a property -
The value of a property does not change unless the state of the system changes.
*energy can exist in numerous forms, e.g., internal, kinetic, potential, etc.

If we neglect electro/ magnetic field, and surface tension effects (in most our
studies of this class)
E = U + KE + PE (2-33)
where
U = m (U
2
U
1
), change of internal energy
KE = m (V
2

2
V
1

2
), change of kinetic energy
pE = mg (Z
2
Z
1
), change of potential energy

When initial and final states are specified
U
1
& U
2
can be obtained from a property table (see Table 4 & 4E)
or derived from thermodynamic property relations.
recalling: for a stationary system, constant velocity on elevation
during a process
Thus KE = PE =o
Total energy change E = U
also total energy change occurs ( E 0), even if only one form of its energy
change while other forms of energy unchanged

29

Mechanisms of energy transfer
recall 3 forms of energy transferred (in & out of the system)
heat, work, & mass flow.
- They are recognized at system boundary when they cross it.
- for a closed system (fixed mass) only two forms of energy interaction
involved: heat transfer & work
1. Heat transfer, Q



Q
in
- heat gain
increase the energy of the molecules thus internal energy (U)
Q
out
- heat Loss, heat transfer due to the energy of the molecules decrease
internal energy, U

2. Work Transfer, W - energy interaction not caused by a temperature difference
between a systems its surroundings
e.g., rising piston, rotating shaft, electrical wire crossing system boundaries


W
in
(work done on a system) - increase the energy of the system
W
out
(work done by a system) decrease the energy of the system

Car engines, hydraulic/steam/gas/wind turbines - W
out
-- produce work
Compressors, pumps, mixers - W
in
-- consume work
3. Mass Flows, m - mass flow in and out of system serves as an additional
mechanism of energy transfer
30

mass in ( m
in
) -- the energy of the system increases because mass carries energy
with it
mass out ( m
out
) -- energy of system decreases due to energy carried by the mass

The energy content of a control volume can be changed by mass flow as well as
heat transfer and work interactions
Based on the energy transfer mechanisms (heat, work, mass flows)
Net transfer = difference between in and out
E
in
- E
out
= (Q
in
-Q
out
) + (W
in
W
out
) + (E
mass, in
- E
mass, out
)
= E
system
(2-34)
Note that "in" & "out" quantities enter or leave the system
Q
in
, Q
out
, W
in
, W
out
, E
mass, in
, & E
mass, out

all positive values (quantities)
The direction of any energy transfer is described by the subscripts." in" and "out"
for adiabatic system - Q
in
& Q
out
= 0
no work interactions W
in
& W
out
= 0
no mass flow across boundaries - E
mass, in
& E
mass, out
= 0
(i.e., a closed system)
energy balance can be expressed compactly as
31

E
in
E
out
{Net energy transfer by heat, work, and mass) = E {Change in internal,
kinetic, potential, etc., energies} (kJ) (2-35)
or in the rate form, as

in

out
{Rate of energy transfer by heat, work, & mass} =

{Rate of change in internal, kinetic, potential, etc, energies}
if we assume constant rates, during a time interval of t
Q = t, W = t, & E = (dE/dt)t (kJ)
If we express the energy balance on a per unit mass
e
in
e
out
= e
system
(kJ/kg)
(dividing m in Eq. 2-35)
Energy balance in differential form
E
in
E
out
= d E
system

or
e
in
e
out
= d e
system

for a closed system undergoing a cycle
initial state (1) = final state (2)
E system = E
2
E
1
= 0
energy balance simplifies
E
in
- E
out
= 0 E
in
= E
out

W
in
- W
out
+ Q
in
Q
out
= 0
W
out
W
in
= Q
in
Q
out

mass flow = 0,
32

Or
W
net,out
= Q
net,in
or
net,out
=
net,in
(for a cycle)
The net work output during a cycle is equal to net heat input


Ex. 2-10


Cooling a fluid in a tank.
Initial U
1
= 800 kJ
during the cooling process, heat loss, Q
out
= 500 kJ
Paddle wheel W
sh
,
in
= 100 kJ
Determine final U
2
?
Neglect the energy stored in the paddle wheel
Assume the tank is stationary KE = PE = 0
33

Therefore E
sys
= U + KE (= 0) + PE (= 0)
Internal energy is the only form of the systems energy may change during the
process
Also, energy stored in the paddle wheel is negligible
System: the contents of the tanks
This is a closed system (m = const)
no moving boundary work ( a rigid tank, V = const)
only, heat loss & shaft work exist
energy balance
E
in
- E
out
{ net energy transfer by heat, work, and mass} = E
system

{ change in internal, kinetic, potential, etc., energies}
W
sh. in
- W
sh. out
+ Q
in
- Q
out
= E = U
= U
2
U
1

W
sh., in
- Q
out
= U
2
U
1

100 kJ - 500 kJ = U
2
- 800 kJ
U
2
= 400 kJ
#
final internal energy

Ex. 2-11. Acceleration of air by a fan
34



Assume The room is relatively calm
air velocity in the room = 0
electrical power mechanical (shaft) power
negligible energy loss from mechanical power to heat transfer
Assume a control volume system
Ch. 2-7 Energy Conversion Efficiency
Efficiency - One of the most frequently used term in thermodynamics
It indicates how well an energy conversions or transfer process is accomplished!!
Without properly defined, we misuse efficiency in many ways!
*Performance (or efficiency) = Desired output/ Required input
efficiency of water heater: the ratio of energy delivered to the house by hot water
to the energy supplied to the water heater
Typical water heater (electric) efficiency ~ 90 - 94 %
Gas type water heater efficiency ~ 55 62 %
Why gas is less efficient??
In general, efficiency of device involved combustion of a
35

fuel based on the heating value of the fuel
Heating value of fuel burned = the amount of heat released when
a unit amount of fuel at room temperature is completely burned
and the combustion products are cooled to the room temperature.



Recalled: I kg Uranium-235 produces 6.73*10
10
kJ/kg heats
Performance of combustion equipment (or device) expressed by
combustion efficiency

combustion
=

=



100 %
combustion
:
fuel burned completely
stack gases leave at room temperature
the amount of heat released = H.V.
Most fuels contain hydrogen, H w/ combustion product, H
2
O
The H.V. of fuel may be different depending on the product of H
2
O ( in liquid or
vapor form).
Lower heating value, or LHV, when H
2
O leaves as a vapor
36

Higher heating value, or HHV, when H
2
O leaves as a liquid (condensed)
heat of vaporization recovered.
*Value difference between HHV & LHV = the amount of water X (multiplying)
the "enthalpy" of vaporization of H
2
O at room temperature
For gasoline LHV = 44,000 kJ/kg
HHV = 47,300 KJ/kg
Make sure defining your efficiency clearly (e.g., on a LHV basis or a HHV basis)
Commonly, cars and jet engines efficiencies - LHV basis (impractical to recuperate
the vaporization heat).
furnace efficiency - on a HHV basis
for a space heating systems (residential & commercial grade ), we use "annual
fuel utilization efficiency," or AFUE
- accounts for the combustion efficiency as well
as additional losses - transfer to unheated area, start-up, cool-down losses
New unit ~ 85 % efficiency
Old unit < 60 %
AFUE > 95%, for extreme cold weather locations
Goal: reclaiming the flue gas heat
condensing H
2
O < 38 C instead of regular 200 C
Generator: device converts mechanical energy to electrical energy
Efficiency of generator: ratio of electrical power output to mechanical power
input
37

Thermal efficiency (of a power plant) - the ratio of the net shaft work output of
the turbine to the heat input to the working fluid
Overall efficiency for the power plants:
net electrical power output to the rate of fuel energy input


overall
=
combustion

thermal

generator
=
net electric
/ HHV X
net
(Eqn. 2-43)
In general gasoline engine overall efficiency (O.E.) 26 - 30 %
diesel engine O.E. 34 - 40 %
large power plant - up to 60%
efficiency for conversion of electricity to light : the ratio of the energy converted
to light to the electrical energy consumed
or more commonly, to express the effectiveness of this (energy) conversion
process, we use,
lighting efficacy: the amount of light output in lumens per w of electricity
consumed
see Table 2-1 lighting efficacy (Lumens's)
Compact fluorescent 50-80 (4 X efficacy than ordinary incand.)
Ordinary incandescent 6-20
Also fluorescent lasts 10,000 hr 10 X longer than incandescent bulb
Use of compact fluorescent reduce the lighting cost!
efficiency of cooking appliance : The ratio of the useful energy transferred to the
food to the energy consumed by the appliance
efficiency =



38


efficiency = 3 kW/ 5 kW = 0.60
Efficiencies of Mechanical & Electrical Devices
Pump/ fan

Mechanical energy of fluid
turbine

Mechanical energy of fluid

neglect irreversibility, e.g., friction
Mechanical energy can be converted entirely from one mechanical form to
another
mechanical efficiency of a device or process

mech
=


=


= 1 -




39

mech. < 100%, some loss (to thermal energy) occur in fluid systems, we supply
mechanical energy to the fluid by pumps fan, or compressor (referred as pumps)
Extracting mechanical energy from the fluid by turbine
Pump efficiency =


=
mech, fluid
/
shaf, in

=
pump, u
/
pump
(Eqn. 2-45)
where
mech, fluid
=
mech, out

mech, in
rate of increase in the mechanical energy of fluid
equivalent to () useful pumping power
pump, u

Turbine efficiency =

turbine
=


=
shaf, out
/ I
mech, fluid
I
=
turbine
/
turbine, e
I
mech, fluid
I =
mech, in
-
mech, out

rate of decrease in the mechanical energy of the fluid
equivalent to () mechanical power extracted from the fluid by the turbine,

turbine, e

I E I always > 0, for
when efficiency approach 100%, frictional effect are minimized
for a motor (converting electoral energy to rotating mechanical energy)
motor efficiency,
motor
: ratio of mechanical energy output of the motor to the
electrical energy input

motor
=


=
shaft. out
/
elect, in

for a generator
40

=
generator
=


=
elect, out
/
shaft, in

Pump - motor (pair)
Turbine - generator (pair)
Combined or overall efficiency,

pump-motor
=
pump

motor
= (
pump, u
/
shaf, in
)(
shaf, out
/
elect, in
) =
pump, u
/
elect, in

= E
mech, fluid
/
elect, in
(Eqn. 2-49)
where (
shaf, in
=
shaf, out
)

turbine-gen
=
turbine

gen
= (
shaf, out
/
turbine, e
)(
ele, out
/
shaf, in
) =
ele, out
/
turbine, e

=
elect, in
/ I E
mech, fluid
I (Eqn. 2-50)

1

Ch. 3 Properties of Pure Substances
Ch. 3-1 Pure Substance
Pure substance - a substance has a fixed chemical composition throughout
Also a mixture of compound could be a pure substance if the mixture is
homogeneous
e.g., air {N2, O2, CO2} homogeneous mixture w/ uniform composition


Oil and water mixture not a pure substance
a multiple-phase pure substance compositions in all phases are the same
Ch. 3-2 Phases
Principal phases - solid, liquid, gas
Several phases may exists in a principal phase
Carbon - graphite or diamond both solid phase
A phase - distinct molecular arrangement homogenous throughout
A solid,
molecules arranged in a three-dimensional pattern at fixed position
highest attractive forces between molecules
a liquid,
the molecules no longer at fixed positions
moderate attractive forces
2

a gas,
molecular order non-exist
low attractive forcer (i.e., intermolecular forces)
highest energy level release large amount energy before condensed/
freezed
Ch. 3-3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure Substances
Focus: Liquid-vapor phases
Compressed Liquid/ Saturated Liquid
A compressed liquid (or subcooled Liquid) - liquid not about to vaporize, e.g., H
2
0
at 20 C & 1 atm
Saturated liquid - liquid about to vaporize

Volume (or specific volume) when T P = const
Saturated vapor/ Superheated vapor
During the phase-change process (e.g., boiling), the temperature will
remain constant if the pressure is held constant while volume continuously
increases
Saturated vapor - a vapor is about to condense (if any heat loss occurs)

3

Saturated liquid-vapor mixture - liquid and vapor phases coexist in equilibrium -
during the boiling process
Superheated vapor - a vapor not about to condense, e.g., H
2
0 vapor (or steam) at
300 C & 1 atm

Saturation temp & Pressure
temperature at which the starts boiling depends on the pressure, when pressure
is fixed, the boiling temperature also fixed
* Saturation temperature T
sat
: for a given pressure, temperature at which a pure
substance changes phase
* Saturation pressure P
sat
for a given temperature, pressure at which a pure
substance changes phase
Saturation table - table 3-1
Recall Latent heat: energy absorbed or released during a phase change process
(a lot!)
Specifically
Latent heat of fusion: energy absorbed during melting (amount equal to energy
released during freezing)
Latent heat of vaporization: energy absorbed during
vaporization (= energy released during condensations,
The magnitude of latent heats temperature or pressure
4

at which phase-change occurs
Note: During phase-change process, pressure & temperature are dependent
properties
(v.s. independent properties - one change, one held constant, p. 15. C & B)
T
sat
=f (P
sat
)

Increase elevation P
atm
, Boiling (saturation) temperature - see Table 3-2
Elevation (m), atmospheric pressure (KPa), T
boilng
(C)
0 101.33 100
2000 79.55 93.3
Practical use - Liquid N
2
vaporizes at -196 C (or 77.15 K) at 1 atm

* vacuum cooling - reserving leafy vegetable
5


*Reducing the pressure of the sealed chamber to saturation pressure at the
desired low temperature
when pressure < 0.61 kPa - vacuum freezing
Ch. 3-4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change Processes
To better describe phase-change process, we use property
diagrams
e.g., T-v, P-v, and P-T diagrams
To plot T-v diagram, varying P and assessing see relation of T Vs. v

6

When piston pressure P , T
sat
(boiling)
v
sat, vapor
v
sat. liquid

horizontal lines (saturation line) become shorter
When P continue to increase, the saturation line shrinks, eventually becomes a
point
e.g., P = 22.06 MPa for H
2
O
* Critical point : the point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapor states
are identical
@ critical point
Temperature called critical temperature T
cr

pressure called critical pressure P
cr

specific volume called critical specific volume v
cr

Thus for H
2
O
P
cr
= 22.06 MPa
T
cr
= 373.95 C
v
cr
= 0.003106 m
3
/kg = 0.056 m3/kmol (1/MW of H
2
O)
The critical properties of various substance - see Table A-1
3.4.1 T - v Diagram

7

At P > P
cr
, No distinct phase-change (boiling) process - Only one-phase present
commonly when P > P
cr

at T > T
cr
, superheated vapor
T < T
cr
, compressed (subcooled) liquid

** Connect saturated liquid / vapor states
(1) : saturated liquid line (S.L.L.)
(2) : saturated vapor line (S.V.L.)
they ((1) & (2)) meet at Critical point ( a dome-shape curve)
8



3.4.2 The P-v Diagram

once P = P
sat.
System (water) start boiling, while maintaining P = Const, T = Const,
v (as liquid vapor)
further reduce P once cross the S.V.L., v continue
repeat the same process at different T
thus result in the curves of P - v diagram
9


When all three phases of a pure substance
Coexist in equilibrium
on a P-v or T-v diagrams
these triple-phase states form a line - triple line

Same pressure and temperature but different specific volumes
Thus
The triple line appears as a point on the P-T diagrams - called triple point
see Table 3-3 - triple point temperature & pressure (Cengel a Boles)
commonly, below triple-point pressure & temperature, substance can not exist as
liquid
liquid may exist below triple-point temperature
when pressure >> triple-point pressure
10

* Sublimation - passing from the solid phase directly into the vapor phase.
Based on P-v diagrams, sublimation occurs at pressure below the triple-point
value,
e.g., solid CO2 (Dry lce), P
tp
, = 517 kPa
at I atm = 101 kPa
Dry icel (CO
2
) convert directly to vapor
3.4.3 P-T Diagram


(a) : Substance contract on freezing
(b) : Substance expand on freezing [Fig 3-25]
P-T curves - also called phase diagram - three phases separated from each other
a P-v-T surface
To fix a compressible substance (at particular state), well need 2 independent,
intensive properties
Z= Z (x, y) equation with two independent variable
a surface in a space
see Figs. 3-26 & 3-27 P-v-T curves
11

v, T are independent (or P, v independent) p as dependent (height)
All the points on the surface represent equilibrium states
All states along the path of a quasi-equilibrium process lie on the P-v-T
surface since such a process must pass through equilibrium states
The single-phase regions appear as curved surfaces on the P-v-T surfaces
The two-phase regions as surfaces perpendicular to the P-T plane
projections of two phase regions on the P-T plane are lines.
All two-dimensional (2-D) diagrams are projections of this three-
dimensional [3-D) surface onto appropriate planes,
e.g., P-v diagram - projection of P-v-T on the P-v plane.
* A great deal of info in 3-D diagram, complicate to read
Thus, 2-D diagrams more convenient to use.
Ch. 3-5 Property Tables
Relationships between thermo. properties are quite complicate and unable to
express w/ simple equationsl!
* A table is a good alternative tool
* Data in these tables are measured and/or calculated based on measurable
properties.
* Use of a steam table - an example
- Property tables of other substances are used in the same manner
For each substance
use of several tables for different phases/ regions
e.g.,
superheated vapor
compressed liquid
Saturated (mixture) regions
12

in Cegel & Boles both SI & English units are listed.
in property tables, {



Definition of Enthalpy - a combination property
New terms {



Entropy (discussed in Ch.7)
for certain type of processes (power generation & refrigeration), we handle a
great deal of combination of properties

e.g., U + PV
we simply define a new term of property
enthalpy, h
h = u + Pv (kJ/kg) (3-1)
or H = U + PV (kJ) (3-2)
h, specific enthalpy (kJ/kg), H, total enthalpy (kJ)
Note : units in these equations are dimensionally homogeneous
The product of pressure & volume has energy units
kPam
3
= kJ
kPam
3
/kg = kJ/kg
13

bar m
3
= 100 kJ
MPam
3
= 1000 kJ
psi ft
3
= 0.18505 Btu
Note: Some tables do not provide internal energy, u
Thus we can use
u = h Pv to determine u.
(originally u + Pv, called heat content & total heat by Richard Mollier -- steam
turbine
Mollier chart - graphical form & table.
1930s enthalpy - unified name (enthalpien - Greek, to heat )
Ch. 3.5.la Saturated Liquid & Sat. Vapor
Table A 4 based on temperature, T
Table A 5 based on pressure, P
in these tables, f = liquid (sat.)
g = vapor (sat.)
fg = difference between sat. vapor & liquid
v
fg
- difference between v
g
& v
f
( v
fg
= v
g
- v
f
)
h
fg
: enthalpy of vaporization (or latent heat of vaporization)
**the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass of saturated Liquid at a
given temperature or pressure
Ex. 3-1 A rigid tank contains 50 kg of sat. liquid water at 90 C, Determine P? V?

14

Ex. 3-3 20 g Sat. liquid water vaporize at P = 100 kPa, Determine volume change?
the amount of energy transferred?

Ch. 3-5-1b. Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture
During a vaporization process, substance exists as part liquid and part vapor
Commonly, we define a new property to describe the ratio of liquid to vapor in
the mixture
Quality, x: ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture
x =

(Eqn. 3-3)
where m
total
= m
liq
+ m
vapor

x value: 0 1, only for saturated mixture
for compressed liquid or superheated vapor, not applicable!
x = 0, a system consists of saturated Iiquid
x = 1, a system consists of saturated vapor
Thus, in sat. mixture, quality can serve as one of the two independent intensive
properties needed to describe a state
Note : the properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether
it exists alone or in a mixture with saturated vapor.
Consider a tank contains a saturated liquid-vapor mixture

Total volume, V
15

V = V
f
+ V
g
{



V= mv m
t
v
avg
= m
f
v
f
+ m
g
v
g

m
f
= m
t
- m
g
m
t
v
avg
= (m
t
m
g
)v
f
+ m
g
v
g

Dividing m
t
yields
v
avg
= (m
t
m
g
)v
f
/m
t
+ m
g
v
g
/m
t

= (1-x)v
f
+ xv
g

As x = m
g
/m
t

v
avg
= v
f
xv
f
+ xv
g
= v
f
+ x(v
g
- v
f
)
= v
f
+ xv
fg

x = (v
avg
v
f
)/ v
fg
(Eqn. 3-5)

x =


*
where, length of horizontal line = difference (sat. vapor state sat. liquid state)
We can repeat similar analyses for internal energy, u, & enthalpy, h
u
avg
= u
f
+ x u
fg
(kJ/kg) (Eqn. 3-6)
h
avg
= h
f
+ x h
fg
( kJ/kg) (Eqn. 3-7)
16

A generalized format
y
avg
= y
f
+ x y
fg



*inverse-lever-arm rule
x = AB/ AC (AB, AC, length of the line)
tip: if we walk on this horizontal line AC and toward point C
when x = 1 (100% sat. vapor)
v
avg
= v
f
+ x v
fg
(= v
g
- v
f
)
v
avg
= v
f
+ v
g
- v
f
= v
g

we walk back to point A, x = 0
( 0% sat. vapor or 100% sat. water)
v
avg
= v
f
+ x v
fg
= v
f


17


Determine P in the tanks? Volume of the tank?


Determine
a) T?
b) quality, x
c) enthalpy, h
d) V
g


18

Ch. 3-5.1b. Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture (cont.)
for saturated solid-vapor - see Table A-8
Ch. 3-5.2 Superheated Vapor - right of the sat. vapor line or T > T
Cr

a single phase region, P & T are two independent properties


Compared to sat. vapor,
Superheated vapor is characterized by
Lower pressures (P < P
sat.
at a given temp. T) from P - v diagram
Higher temperatures (T > T
Sat.
at a given P) from T v diagram
Higher specific volumes (at given P or T)
Higher internal energies (u > u
g
at given P or T)
Higher enthalpies (h > h
g
at given P or T)
Ex.3-6. Determine internal energy of H
2
O at 20 Psia & 400 F
19

From Table A-5E,
@ 20 Psia, T
sat.
= 227.92 F
T
sys.
(400 F) > T
Sat.
therefore, H
2
O at Superheated vapor region
Thus from Table A - 6E (superheated vapor table)
u = 1145.1 Btu/lbm
Ch. 3-5.3. Compressed Liquid
Fewer tables available
see Table A-7
mostly, properties of compressed liquid less depend on the pressure
We can commonly treat compressed liquid as saturated liquid at the given
temperature
y y
f
@T y: v, u, or h
A compressed liquid is characterized by higher pressures ( P > P
sat
at a given T)
lower temperatures (T < T
sat
at a given P)
lower specific volumes ( v < v
sat
at a given P or T)
lower internal energies ( u < u
f
at a given P or T)
lower enthalpies ( h < h
f
at a given P or T)
Reference state & values
*The values of u, h, s are calculated from measurable properties and relations
between thermodynamic properties
-we commonly determine the changes of these properties
-thus we usually choose a convenient reference state & assign value of 0 for these
properties at the reference state.
20

For H
2
O, 0.01 C reference state for saturated liquid
u
f
, h
f
, s
f
= 0
Example 3-9 - exercise
Ch. 3-6 Ideal-Gas Equation of State
Property tables - accurate info but bulky & may have typographical errors
More practical approach: use of simple relations among properties provide
sufficiently general & accurate
Equation of state equation relates P, T, and v of a substance.
Most well-known - ideal-gas equation of state
we use interchangeably gas & vapor phase
at low pressure ( Charles/ Gay-Lussacc, 1802)
for a gas, P = R

or
when v , T at constant P
or commonly
Pv = RT R: gas constant (Eqn. 3-10), {



P: absolute pressure
T: absolute temperature
v: specific volume
Since gas constant R ( kJ/kgK or kPam
3
/kgk) is different for each gas
R kJ/kgK
Air 0.2870
21

Nitrogen 0.2968
This creates confusions !
Thus, we commonly use R
u
: universal gas constant
R
u
= RM
where M: molar mass of the gas (or molecular weight)
The value of R
u
is the same for all substance
R
u
=
{

Molar mass, M g/mole (or g-mole)
or Kg/Kmole
or Ibm/lbmole
The total mass of a system
m = MN (Kg)
N: mole number
see Table A-1 for M
PV = NR
u
T PV = mRT (V = mv)
Or p = R
u
t
= molar specific volume m
3
/kmol, ft
3
/Ibmol
for a fixed mass at different state

22

Common gas, O
2
. N
2
, Air - use of ideal-gas relation- OK -negligible error
for water vapor steam - preferred property table instead of ideal gas
water vapor at P < 10 kPa close to ideal-gas
in steam power plant, P very high water vapor = non ideal-gas
Ch. 3-7 Compressibility Factor
Compressibility factor - to measure the deviation from ideal-gas behavior
Z = Pv/RT
or Pv = Z R T
Z =


(Eqn. 3-19)
Z = 1 for ideal gas
Z could be > 1, = 1, or < 1 for real gases
The farther away Z from 1, the more the gas deviates from ideal-gas behavior
When we normalize T & P with their critical temperature and pressure
P
R
= P/P
cr
, TR = T/T
cr

P
R
: The reduced pressure
T
R
: The reduced temperature
The value of Z for all gases is about the same at the same reduced pressure and
temperature. see Fig. 3-51 measured data
Principle of corresponding states
with curve fitting plotting the generalized compressibility chart Fig. A-15
(Cengel & Boles)
*Some observations:
23

1. at very low pressure ( P
R
<< 1), gases behave as an ideal gas regardless of
temperature
2. at high temperature ( T
R
> 2), close to ideal gas (except when P
R
>> 1)
3. at critical point ( P
R
= 1, T
R
= 1) or vicinity, deviation from ideal gas is greatest


Example 3-11 exercise!
when only P & v, or T & v are given instead of P & T
more trial and error involved.
or we introduce a new term
pseudo-reduced specific volume, v
R

v
R
=



(different from P
R
, T
R
definition - not related to v
cr
)
v
R
lines in Fig. A-15 - dashed lines #
Example 3-12 - exercise!!
Ch. 3-8 Other Equations of State
Ideal-gas equation - simple but range of applicability limited
24

Additional state equations were proposed more complicated but more accurate
over wider range
(a) Van der Waals Eqn of State
( P +

) (v b) = RT
two constants: a, b
a/v
2
: constant count for intermolecular attraction forces
b : constant count for volume occupied by molecules themselves

a =



b =



from (Table A 1)



(b) Beattie - Bridgeman Equation of State
5 constants
accurate for densities up to 0.8
cr
(
cr
= density @ critical point)
(c) Benedict Webb - Rubin Eqn of State
25

8 constants
accurate for 2.5
cr

constants table for various gases - Table 3-4 (Cengel & Boles, p. 146, 6 Ed.)
Strobridge: 16 constants, suitable for computer calculations
(d) Virial Eqn of State
P =

+


+


+


+


+ ......
Example 3-13 - exercise yourself!
1

Ch. 4 Energy Analysis of Closed Systems
A closed system - system does not involve any mass flow across their boundaries
Ch. 4-1 Moving Boundary Work

piston-cylinder device
expansion/ compression work -- moving boundary work
or called PdV work
assumptions:
quasi-equilibrium process
(quasi-static)

W
b
= Fds = PA ds = P dV
P: absolute pressure ( > o)
during expansion dV > 0
for compression dV < 0
W
b, out
< 0 (compression)
W
b,out
> 0 (expansion)
2


process from 1 to 2, total boundary work
W
b
=

(KJ) (Eqn. 4-2)

on a P - V diagram
The work done during expansion or compression
= the area under the process curve
The boundary work during a process depends on the path followed as well as the
end states

W
A
W
B
(W
A
> W
B
)

3

W net (net work done) = W (expansion) W (compression)
e.g., for a rigid tank, V = const.
W
b
=

= 0 (dV = 0)
Example. 4-2 - Exercise
Polytrophic process pressure and volume are related by
PV
n
= C where n and C are constants
Thus we can rearrange to
P = C/V
n
or CV
-n
(Eqn. 4-8, C&B)
substitute this to W
b

W
b
=

= C (V
2

n+1
- V
1

n+1
)/(-n+1)
= (P
2
V
2
P
1
V
1
)/(1-n)
where C = P
1
V
1

n
= P
2
V
2

n
for an ideal gas
PV = mRT
W
b
= mR (T
2
T
1
)/ 1-n, n 1 (KJ)
When n = 1
W
b
= W
b
=

= PVln(V
2
/V
1
)
Since T = const, this is an isothermal process
Polytropic Process, PV
n
= const (= C)
example: a gas in a piston cylinder device (assembly)
4

(in some cases, liquids and solids)
undergoes an expansion/ compression process
reversible
could be isothermal, adiabatic /non-adiabatic

PV
n
= constant
n = polytropic index
a. n = 0, PV
0
= P = Const, an isobaric process (const P)
b. n = 1, for ideal gas, PV = RT = const, an isothermal process
c. n = = Cp/Cv, for an ideal gas, it is an adiabatic process (no heat
transferred)
d. n = k, constant entropy for an ideal gas
e. n , an isochoric process (const volume)

5

Ch. 4-2 Energy Balance for Closed Systems
Energy balance
E
in
- E
out
= E system ( KJ)

(net energy transfer) (change in U+KE+PE)

in
-
out
=
system
(kw)
for const. rates Q = t, W = t, E = (dE/dt)t
For a closed system undergoing a cycle,
E
sys
= 0 = E
2
E
1

Thus E
in
- E
out
= 0 or E
in
= E
out

Since mass flow across boundary = 0 for closed sys.
W
net, out
= Q
net, in
, or
net, out
=
net, in


Q
net, in
- W
net, out
= E
or Q W = E
Q = Q
net, in
= Q
in
Q
out
W = W
net, out
= W
out
- W
in

The first-law of Thermo relation for closed systems
Q - W = E
6

Stationary systems, Q W = U
per unit mass , q w = e
differential form, q w = de
Example 4-6. Exercise!
Ch. 4-3 Specific Heats


T for these two required different power
Specific heat = the energy required (= energy storage capacities) to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree T.
Two different terms
C
v
= specific heat at constant volume
energy required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance by one
degree as the volume maintained at constant
C
p
= specific heat at constant pressure
energy required to 1 C T of unit mass as pressure maintained at constant.

7

Because @ constant P, the system is allowed to expand, additional energy for the
expansion work required
thus
C
p
> C
v

For He, C
p
= 5.19 KJ/Kg C (Process B)
C
v
= 3.12 KJ/Kg C (Process A)
expressed C
v
, C
p
in other thermo- properties
Considering a closed system (fixed mass) & stationary ( KE = PE = 0)
energy balance:
e
in
- e
out
= e
system

for constant volume process
e
in
e
out
= d u
the net energy transferred
C
v
dT dt: differentia change in T
C
v
dt = du at const v
C
v
= (u/t)
v
(Eqn. 4-19)
= the change in internal energy with temperature at constant volume
similarly for a constant-pressure expansion
C
p
= (h/t)
p
(Eqn. 4-20)
= the change in enthalpy with temperature at constant pressure
observation:
C
v
, C
p
, properties of substances
8

- their values depend on the state of substance !
- independent of the type of processes
point function
- C
v
: measurement of change of internal energy vs. temperature
- C
p
: measurement of charge of enthalpy energy us. temperature
confusions : u, h, can be changed by energy transfer
specific heat may be more appropriate to be called specific energy
other terms
C
v
, C
p
kJ/kmol C or kJ/kmol K
Ch. 4-4 internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heat of idea gas
Pv = RT
u: u (T) - internal energy a function of T only
h = u + Pv h = u + RT
Pv = RT
h = h(T), R = const. u u(t)
for ideal gas
u = u (T)
h = h (T) vary with temperature only
C
v
= C
v
(T)
C
p
= C
p
(T)
from eqn 4-19, and 4-20 replace to ordinary derivatives
du = C
v
(T) d T
9

dh = C
p
(T) d T
Change Between State 1 and 2
u = u
2
- u
1
=

(kJ/kg) (4-25)
h = h
2
- h
1
=

(kJ/kg) (4-26)
determine fcn of T C
v
, C
p

Tables A-2a, 2b, & 2c


C
p0
, C
v0
ideal-gas specific heats ( zero-pressure specific heats)
see Tables A-17- 25, use of these tables to calculate u or h (or u or h - molar
basis)
assuming C
p
, C
v
are const reasonable over a few hundred degrees on less T
u
2
- u
1
= C
v avg
(T
2
- T
1
) (kJ/kg)
h
2
- h
1
= C
p avg
(T
2
- T
1
) (kJ/kg)
10


3 methods to calculate u
(a) u = u
2
- u
1
(table)
(b) u =

(c) u = C
v,avg
T
similarly, for h
specific heat relations for ideal gas
h = u + Pv = u + RT
differentiating this equation
dh = du + RdT
dh = C
p
dT
du = C
v
dT
Replacing dh & du, and dividing with dT
C
p
= C
v
+ R (kJ/kg.K) (4-29)
11

determine C
v
from C
p
& R
C
p
= C
v
+ R
U
(kJ/kmol.K) (4-30)
introducing another ideal gas property
Specific heat ratio
= C
p
/ C
v
(function of T)
Exercise example 4-7!
Ch. 4-5 u, h, Cv/Cp - Liquids & Solids
v
l
= const
v
s
= const
during a process incompressible substance
C
p
= C
v
= C (see Table A-3 for properties of liquids & solids)
internal energy change
u = C
avg
(T
2
-T
1
)
Enthalpy change
h = u + Pv
dh = du + vdP + Pdv (=0)
= du + vdP
integrating
h = u + v P
= Cavg T + v P
for solid, vP = 0
h = Cavg T = u
12

for liquids
(a) at constant pressure process (P = 0), e.g., water heater, heat exchanger
h = u = C
avg
T
(b) at constant temperature process (T = 0), e.g., pump
h = vP
Between State 1 & 2
h
2
- h
1
= v(P
2
P
1
)
2: compressed liquid
1: Sat. liq.
h
P,T
= h
f, T
+ v
f,T
(P P
sat, T
)
Exercise Example 4-12
1

Ch. 5 Mass and Energy Analysis of control Volumes
Ch. 5-1 Conservation of Mass
example. Bank account

Mass: cannot be created or destroyed during a process
Mass and Volume Flow Rates
- mass flow rate mass flowing through a x-section per unit time
fluid flows in and out through a pipe or duct
differential mass flow rate

= VndAc
for path function - inexact differentials
d for point function - exact differentials
=

2


In general, we assume average velocity over a x-section
for a compressible flow, and Vn vary
typically, we can assume = Const in most cases

average velocity, V
avg

Vavg = 1/Ac

(Eq 5-4)
Ac: X-sect area normal to the flow direction
Thus for incompressible flow (and some compressible flow)
= V
avg
Ac (kg/s)
( = bulk average density over x-section for compressible flow)
volume flow rate, V
V =

= V
avg
Ac = VAc (m3/s) (we simply drop avg)
3


Note: Q: volume flow rate in in most fluid mechanics text book
may be confused with heat, Q, in thermo-, thus we use V instead
= V = V/v (5-7)
v: specific volume
(m = V = V/v) not based on unit time
Conservation of Mass for a Control volume
(


) - (


) = (


)

m
in
- m
out
= m
cv
(Kg) (Eq. 5-8)
where m
cv
= m
final
- m
initial
in rate form

in
-
out
= d m
cv
/dt (kg/s) (Eq. 5-9)
4

Eq. 5-8, 5-9 : mass balance for a control volume undergoing any process.

m
cv
=

the time rate change of mass
d m
cv
/dt = d/dt

Normal component Vn = V cos = Vn
= 0 outflow, normal to dA
= 90 minimum outflow
= 180 opposite flow (inflow)
Differential mass flow rate
= V
n
dA
= (Vcos)dA = (V n)dA
The net flow rate in/ out of CV through control surface by integrating over
control surface
Net mass flow rate :

net
=

5

V n = Vcos > 0, when < 90, outflow (positive)
When > 90, Vcos < 0 (negative)
rearrange Eq. 5-9, d m
cv
/dt +
out
-
in
= 0 obtain
General conservation of mass
d/dt

= 0 (Eq. 5-15)
the time rate of change of mass within the
Control volume plus the net mass flow rate through the control surface is equal to
zero.
Rearrange Eq. 5-15 into outflow (+)/ inflow (-)
d/dt

= 0
A: area for inflow / outflow
: all inlet / outlet considered
Thus
d/dt

or
d
cv
/dt =

For a moving or deforming control volume
V = Vr - relative velocity, fluid velocity relative to the control surface

Steady - flow process
Total mass in a control volume does not change with time (m
cv
= Constant),
6

d m
cv
/dt = 0

Steady flow

(kg/s) (Eq. 5-18)

steady flow (single stream)
for a single stream {

1
=
2

1
V
1
A
1
=
2
V
2
A
2

if = const incompressible, generally true for liquids
we can cancel on both sides

(m
3
/s) (Eq. 5-20)
for single stream steady flow

1
=
2
V
1
A
1
= V
2
A
2
(Eq. 5-21)
Note: Conservation of volume may not be true, density of gas may change
through a device, mass flow rate = constant, thus volume flow rate may alter.
Ch. 5-2 Flow Work and Energy of Flowing Fluid
7


Control Volume (C.V.) there are mass flow across boundaries
flow work (or flow energy): energy required to push mass in and out of C.V.

W
flow
= FL = PAL = PV (kJ)
Flow work per unit mass
w
flow
= P (kJ/kg)

8

Ch. 5-2 Flow Work and Energy of Flowing Fluid (Cont.)
Note: flow work expressed in terms of two properties - a combination property
(e.g., enthalpy -h)
Recall Ch. 2
Total energy of a compressible system
e = u + ke + pe = u + V
2
/2 + gz (kJ/kg) (Eq. 5-25)
for a C.V. and fluid mass flow. add one additional term, total energy of a flowing
fluid (unit mass basis)
= p + e = p + u + ke + pe
= u + ke + pe (kJ/kg)
The total energy of a flowing fluid mass m m
E
mass
= m = m (h + V
2
/2 + gz) (kJ) (Eq. 5-28)

amount of energy transport
E
mass
= = (h + V2/2 + gz) (kW) (Eq. 5-29)

rate of energy transport
if ke, pe of fluid are negligible
E
mass
= mh, Emass = h
if m
i
is changing with time
E
in, mass
=

exercise Example 5-3.
9

Ch. 5-3 Energy Analysis of Steady-Flow Systems
Steady-flow devices - turbines, compressors, nozzles Steady operation for
extended period @ same conditions
Steady-flow process - a process during which a fluid flows through a control
volume steadily
fluid properties at any point remain constant
from point to point in C.V. may vary

intensive or extensive properties = Const
{

= Const, Boundary work = 0 (

cv
= const)
Mass in = Mass out
Energy in = Energy out
recall mass balance for a general steady-flow system

(kg/s)
for single-stream ( 1 in, 1 out)
m
1
= m
2

1
V
1
A
1
=
2
V
2
A
2

V: avenge flow velocity
A : x-section area normal to flow direction
E
in
- E
out
= d E
system
/dt = 0 (steady)
10

E
in
= E
out
(kW) (Eq. 5-34)

rate of net energy transfer in = net energy transfer out
(by heat, work, and mass)
Q
in
+ W
in
+

= Q
out
+ W
out
+

or
Q
in
+ W
in
+

= Q
out
+ W
out
+

: for each inlet & outlet
Commonly we assume
heat transferred into the system, Q (+)
work produced by the system, W (+)
Q W =

if obtain a negative quantity for Q or W the assumed direction is wrong &
should be reversed.
for 1 in 1 out ( single-stream devices)
Q - W = (h
2
h
1
+ (V
2

2
V
1

2
)/2 + g (z
2
z
1
))
dividing both sides by
q - w = h
2
h
1
+ (V
2

2
V
1

2
)/2 + g (z
2
z
1
)
q, w, heat transfer & work done per unit mass of working fluid
negligible ke, pe (ke = pe = 0)
Q : rate of heat transfer between C.V. and its surroundings
11

Q < 0, lose heat
Q = 0, well-insulated (adiabatic)
W : power
e.g. { shaft power, electrical power}

h = h
2
h
1
(kJ/kg)
determine h
2
, h
1
from Table at States 1 & 2.
For ideal gas,
h = C
p,avg
(T
2
T
1
)
ke = (V
2

2
V
1

2
)/2 m
2
/s
2
= J/kg (x10
-3
kJ/kg)
(kinetic energy should be expressed in kJ/kg dividing 1000 (if V
1
, V
2
in m/s)
at low velocity (< 100 m/s) ke: very small
at high velocity (> 200 m/s) ke: more significant
unit conversion: J/kg = Nm/kg = (kgm/s
2
)m/kg = m
2
/s
2

( Btu /lbm = 25,037 ft
2
/s
2
)
pe = g (z
2
-z
1
)
1 kJ/kg change PE = 102 m elevation difference
more significant pumping a fluid to higher elevation - determine power
required
12

Ch. 5-4 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices
Common nonstop operation devices :
turbines, compressors, heat exchangers, pumps
Nozzles and Diffusers
commonly used in jet engines, rockets, spacecraft, even garden hoses
Nozzle: a device that increase the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure
Diffuser: a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down
Nozzle & diffuser perform opposite tasks
nozzle: x-section area decreases in the flow direction for subsonic flows
area increases - for supersonic flows
usually the rate of heat transfer between fluid flowing through a nozzle or diffuser
& surroundings
is very small, thus Q = 0, as a result of high velocity of fluid short contact time.
involved no work, W = 0
no change in potential energy, pe = 0
Since velocity of fluid involved is high
ke 0
exercise Ex 5-4.& 5-5 (yourself)!
Turbines and Compressors
Turbines - fluid passes through the devices produce work
{

- devices used to increase the pressure of a fluid

13

fan - increase gas pressure slightly, mobilize a gas
compressor - increase in gas pressure more significantly by compressing it
pump - increase in liquid pressure, instead of gas
recalling turbines - produce power output
Compressor/ fan/ pump - require power input
In general
{


for these devices
ke = 0, except turbines and fans
but we may assume ke is negligible as compared to h, change of enthalpy
Exercise Example 5-7
Throttling Valves (T.V.)
T.V. - flow-restricting devices that cause a significant pressure drop in the fluid
e.g., adjustable value, capillary tubes, porous plug
not involve any work
often accompanied by a large drop in temperature
temperature drop during a throttling process is governed by Joule-
Thomson coefficient (Ch. 12)
Characteristics
can assume q = 0, adiabatic
w = 0, no work done
pe = 0
ke = 0, though exit velocity >> inlet velocity
for single-stream steady-flow device. energy eqn.
h
2
= h
1
(kJ/kg) (Eq. 5-41)
14

Since h = const, also called an isenthalpic device
Exception q > 0 for a capillary tube - large exposed surface area, heat
transfer may be significant
expand eq. 5-41
u
1
+ P
1

1
= u
2
+ P
2

2
internal energy + flow energy = Const
thus when P
2

2
> P
1

1

u
2
< u
1

thus T
2
< T
1

for an ideal gas, h= h(T)
h= Const, T remains const for a throttling process
Mixing Chambers
where the Mixing process takes place

in
=
out

usually well insulated, q = 0
does not involve work, w = 0
ke, pe = 0
E
in
= E
out

Do example 5-9 (yourself)!
Heat Exchangers
* Devices where two moving fluid stream exchange heat without mixing
15


A double-tube (tube and shell) heat exchanger

in
=
out

involve no work (w = 0)
negligible change of ke, pe (= 0)
heat transfer rate associated with heat exchangers depends on how the
control volume is selected.
no heat loss to the surrounding medium

16


Exercise EX. 5-10.
Pipe and Duct Flow

a Steady-flow process
Q 0 designed for heat transfer
Q = 0 well-insulated
W
shaft
, W
ele
may be involved, should be considered
V
liquid
, low ke = 0, V
gas
, may be significant, ke 0
pe may vary, when considerable elevation change occurs
EX 5-11 (exercise yourself!)
Ch. 5-5 Energy Analysis of Unsteady Flow Processes
Unstedy-flow (or transient-flow) process : changes within the control volume with
time
e.g., charging of rigid vessels from supply lines
17



inflating tires or ballons
cooking with an ordinary pressure cooker
Differences between steady-flow & unsteady flow
Unsteady-flow start and end over some finite time period,
Steady-flow - continuing indefinitely
* we determine change occurs over some t, instead of the rate of change
(change per unit time)
* Unsteady-flow may involve moving boundary and boundary work. Steady-show
systems are fixed in space, size. and shape.


Mass balance for any system
m
in
- m
out
= m
sys
(kg)
where m
sys
= m
final
- m
initial
, the change in the mass of the system
For control volume, we can express as
18

m
i
- m
e
= (m
2
m
1
)cv
where i = inlet, e = exit, 1 = initial state, and 2 = final state of the control
volume

m
i
= 0 no mass enters the C.V. during process
m
e
= 0 no mass leaves
m 1 = 0 the control volume is initially evacuated

Note: when analyzing an unsteady-flow process, we must keep track of
mass & energy content of the control volume as well as the energies of the
incoming and outgoing flow streams, as well as interactions across the
boundaries
General energy balance

E
in
- E
out
= E
sys

The general unsteady-state process - difficult to analyze the properties
of the mass at inlet and exit many vary
P. 33
Thus, we may assume they ave under uniform - flow process :
The fluid flow at any inlet or exit is uniform and steady.
The fluid properties do not change w/ time or position over the x-
section of an inlet or exit
Or, we can avenge and treat them as constant for the entire process

energy balance for a uniform-flow system
(Q
in
+ W
in
+

) (Q
out
+ W
out
+

) = (m
2
e
2
- m
1
e
1
)
sys

where = h + ke + pe, the energy of a fluid stream at any inlet or exit per
unit mass

e = u + ke + pe, the energy of the nonflowing fluid within control volume
per unit mass
when ke, pe associated with the control volume and fluid streams are
negligible
19

Q W =

+ (m
2
u
2
m
1
u
1
)
system

Q = O
net, in
= Q
in
- Q
out
net heat input
W = W
net, out
= W
out
- W
in
net work output
if no mass enters or leaves the control volume



m
i
= m
e
= 0 and m
1
= m
2
= m
energy balance for closed system
Q W = U

Exercise EX 5-12 a 5-136 yourself
1

Ch. 6 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Ch. 6-1 Introduction to the Second Law

A process must satisfy the first law to occur
Yet, satisfying 1st law alone does not ensure that the process will take
place coffee get hotter in a cooler room

2nd Law - energy has quality as well as quantity
2nd law - determine the theoretical limits for the performance of system (the
best case!) or predict the degree of completion.
Ch. 6-2 Thermal Energy Reservoirs
Thermal energy reservoir (reservoir) a hypothetical body with a relatively large
thermal energy capacity ( mass x specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite
amounts of heat with negligible temperature change

e.g., oceans, lakes, rivers, atmospheric air
a source: a reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat
2

a sink : a reservoir that absorbs energy in the form of heat
Thus, thermal energy reservoirs commonly called heat reservoirs
Ch. 6-3 Heat Engines
Work {



Other energy (heat) {



heat engines special devices to convert heat to work !
Characteristics of heat engines:
1. they receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil
furnace, nuclear reactor)
2. they convert part of this heat to work (e.g., to a rotating shafts)
3. they reject the remaining waste heat to a low temperature sink (e.g.,
atmosphere. river, etc)
4. they operate on a cycle.

Working fluid - used in heat engines and other cyclic devices to transfer heat
while undergoing a cycle.
3

Steam power plant

Energy transferred terms
Q
in
: heat supplied to steam in boiler from a high-temp source (furnace)
Q
out
: heat rejected from steam in condenser to a low - temp sink (atmosphere,
river)
W
out
= amount of work delivered by steam as it expands in turbine
W
in
= amount of work required to compress water to boiler pressure
Q
in
, Q
out
, W
in
, W
out
, indicated their direction in subscript ( in & out), these
quantities are positive
The net work output the difference between total work output & work input
4

W
net,out
= W
out
- W
in
(kJ)
*individual 4 components ( boiler, condenser, turbine, pump), involve mass flow
in and out, they are open systems
*These components together with pipes connection contain same fluid, no mass
enters or leaves the combined system, indicating by dashed line, can be analyzed
as a closed system
Recalling for a closed system undergoing a cycle ( final state 2 = initial state 1)
U = U
2
U
1
= 0
thus the net work output of the system
W
net, out
= Q
in
Q
out
(kJ) (Eq. 6-2)
Ch. 6-3a Thermal Efficiency
Eq. 6-2, Q
out
, energy wasted in order to complete the cycle, Q
out
> 0
thus only part of the heat transferred to the engine is converted to works,
Q
in
> W
net,out

thermal efficiency
th
: The fraction of the heat input that is converted to net work
output a measure of the performance of a heat engine
Definition the desired output = net work output
the required input = heat supplied to the working fluid
Thermal efficiency =


(Eq. 6-3)
or
th
=

( =

) (Eq. 6-4) (C & B)

th
= 1 -

(Eq. 6-5)
Cyclic devices :
5

heat engines
refrigerators
heat pumps
They operate between a high-temp medium (i.e., reservoir), @ T
H

& a low-temp medium (reservoir), @ T
L


Q
H
: amount of heat transfer between the cyclic device and the high temperature
medium @ T
H

Q
L
: amount of heat transfer between device and the low-temp medium, @ T
L
Q
H
, Q
L
( > 0)
W
net, out
= Q
H
- Q
L


th
=

or
th
= 1 -

(Eq. 6-6)

th
< 1 (Q
H
, Q
L
> 0, and Q
H
> Q
L
)
commonly
th
between 25% - 60%
6

50% (heat) energy supplied waste in thermal reservoirs ( rivers, atmosphere )

th
- 25% - gasoline engine
- 40% - diesel engine
- 60% - gas-steam power plants
Can we save ( skip) Q
out
? ( i.e., save all that waste energy) unfortunately, no!
incompleted cycle process without Q
out

Every heat engine must waste some energy by transferring it to a low-
temperature in order to complete the cycle
exercise Example 6-2
Kelvin-Planck Statement - 2nd law of thermodynamics
It is impossible for any devices that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce a net amount of work
a heat engine must exchange heat with a low-temperature sink as well as a
high-temperature source to keep operating.
K-P statement (also expressed as) - no heat engine can have a thermal efficiency
of 100 percent

7

for a power plant to operate, the working fluid must exchange heat with
the environment as well as the furnace
Note : the impossibility of 100 % efficient heat engine is not due to friction or
other dissipative effects it applies to both idealized & the actual heat engines
Ch. 6-4 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

in order to transfer heat, Q from low-temp medium (T
L
) to
to high-temp medium (T
H
), we require a device called refrigerator
Refrigerators, like heat engines, are cyclic devices
Refrigerant - the working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle
a common refrigeration cycle:
vapor - compression refrigeration cycle - involves 4 main components
{


{



8


a refrigeration system & operating conditions
Major steps:
(a) refrigerant enters compressor as vapor, W
net, in
adds
(b) P, T increase, leaves compressor
(c) cools down at condenser, releases heat, Q
H

(d) enters a capillary tube (throttling value), P and T decrease
(e) enters the evaporator, absorbing heat, Q
L
it evaporates (to gas), complete the
cycle.
9


Coefficient of Performance (of a refrigerator).
to express the efficiency of a refrigerator (COP, COP
R
)
Aim of refrigerator : to remove heat ( Q
L
) from the
refrigerated space (i.e., desired output)
requirement : it takes work input W
net, in

thus COP
R
= Desired output/Required input = Q
L
/W
net, in
(Eq. 6-7)
or in rate form = Q
L
/ W
net, in

Based on energy conservation
W
net, in
= Q
H
Q
L

Therefore COP
R
= Q
L
/ Q
H
Q
L
= 1/ (Q
H
/Q
L
1) (Eq. 6-9)
Note. the value of COP
R
can be > 1 ( this is different from the thermal efficiency)
10

It (
th
) always < 1
Heat pump - a device transfers heat from a low-temp medium to a high-temp
medium
Difference of purpose
a refrigerator : to maintain the refrigerated space at a low temperature by
removing heat from it
a heat pump: to maintain a heated space at a high temperature

Performance of heat pumps
Coefficient of Performance, COP
HP

COP
HP
= Desired output/ Required input = Q
H
/ W
net, in
(Eq. 6-10)
Also it can be expressed as
COP
HP
= Q
H
/ (Q
H
Q
L
) = 1 / (1- Q
L
/Q
H
)
from Eq. 6-7 and 6-10, one can get
COP
HP
= COP
R
+ 1 (Eq. 6-12)
COP
HP
> 1 (most of time)
11

Note: COP
HP
may drop to < 1, when outside air temperature is too low.
Two types of heat pumps:
(1) air-source heat pumps use of (cold) outdoor air
COP
HP
= 3.0
when climate drop to < 32 F, efficiency drop significantly,
(2) Geothermal heat pumps ( ground - source ) ground as heat source,
required burial of pipes ( 1 - 2 m). more expensive, COP
HP
= 4
Air conditioner - a refrigerator whose refrigerated space is a room or building,
instead of food compartment
Exercise Examples 6-3 and 6-4
Clausius Statement - 2nd law of thermodynamics
(related to refrigerators/ heat pumps)
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no
effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher
temperature body
a negative statement!

12

Note: Kelvin-Plank & Clausius Statements are equivalent in their consequences.
useful to express 2nd Law!
Ch. 6-5 Perpetual-Motion Machines
Perpetual-motion machines - Any device violates either 1
st
or 2
nd
thermodynamics
law
Violate 1 st Law (by creating energy) - Perpetual-motion machine of the first kind
(PMM1)
Violate 2nd Law - Perpetual-motion machine of the second kind (PMM2).
13

Ch. 6.6 Reversible and Irreversible processes (Cont.)
A reversible process: a process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on
the surroundings

irreversible processes:
processes are not reversible
nature occurrence
reversible process: can restore to its initial state without leaving any net change
on surroundings
reversible process
idealization of actual processes
theoretical limits
deliver the most work and consume the least work
irreversibilities: the factors that cause a process to be irreversible
friction
unrestrained expansion of a gas
heat transfer through a finite temperature difference

Internally and Externally Reversible Process
14

Internally reversible: a process if no irreversibility occurs within the boundaries of
the system during the process

Externally reversible: a process if no irreversibilities occur outside the system
boundaries during the process


Totally reversible (or simply reversible): no irreversibilities involved within the
system or its surroundings
No
heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
nonquasi-equilibrium changes
no friction effects




(a) Thermal reservoir @ 20.001 C (b) Thermal reservoir @ 30 C
(a) Total reversible (b) Internally reversible

15

Ch. 6-7 The Carnot Cycle
The efficiency of a heat-engine cycle greatly depends on how the
individual processes that make up the cycle are executed
Reversible cycles (cycles consist entirely of reversible processes) are
most efficient cycles - produce the maximum net work, W
net,out

Reversible cycles cannot be achieved in practice because of the exist
of irreversibility
Reversible cycles provide upper limits on the performance of real
cycles

Carnot cycle - proposed by Sadi Carrot (1824, French)
Carnot heat engine - a theoretical heat engine operates on the Carnot Cycle
Carnot Cycle is composed of 4 reversible processes
{




Consider a closed adiabatic piston-cylinder device (with a gas inside)

Carnot Cycle in a steady-flow system: utilizing two turbines (isothermal,
isentropic) & two compressors (isothermal, isentropic) - Ch. 9
Isentropic process discussed in Ch.7
16

Carnot Cycle a totally reversible cycle
we just discussed the Carnot heat-engine cycle.
if reversed the whole process - it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle


Ch. 6-8 The Carnot Principles
* related to the thermal efficiency of reversible & irreversible heat
engines
1. the efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the
efficiency of a reversible one operating between the same two reservoirs
2. the efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the
same two reservoirs are the same.
(see Following Diagrams)
17



Ch. 6-9. Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

*A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of the
substances used to measure temperature.


18

(Q
H
/ Q
L
)
rev
= T
H
/T
L
(Eq. 6-16)

based on Carnot Principle #2 & Kelvins study

Kelvin scale or absolute temperatures
T = 273.16* (Q
H
/Q
L
) 1 K = 1 C
T (C) = T (K) - 273.15

Ch. 6-10 Carnot Heat Engine
A hypothetical heat engine that operates on the reversible Carnot Cycle
recall thermal efficiency of heat engine ( both reversible or irreversible)

th
= 1 Q
L
/Q
H




From (Q
H
/Q
L
)
rev
= T
H
/T
L


The efficiency of a Carnot engine or any reversible heat engine

th
= 1 T
L
/T
H
(Eq. 6-18)
19

(so called Carnot efficiency)
This is the highest efficiency a heat engine operating between the two
thermal energy reservoirs at T
H
and T
L
can have!!
So all irreversible (actual) heat engines will have lower efficiencies between
T
H
and T
L
( <
th, rev
)
Note: 1 - T
L
/T
H
based on Kelvin (K)-scale
cannot use C or F to calculate
th

th
<
th,rev
for irreversible Heat Engine (H.E.)

th
=
th,rev
for reversible H.E.

th
>
th,rev
impossible H.E.

When Between T
H
= 1000 K, T
L
= 300 K (for a steam power plant)
Rev. H.E.
th
= 1 300 K/ 1000 K = 70%
irrev. H.E.
th
= 45 %
impossible H.E. = 80%

Thus to increase
th
, one can increase T
H
(), or decrease T
L
()

thus
th
= 1 T
L
/T
H
It approaching 1

*Maximizing the thermal efficiency of actual heat engine
1. Supplying heat to the engine at highest possible temperature (limited by
material strength)
2. Rejecting heat from the engine at lowest possible temperature

*Exercise 6-5 ( youself!!)

Quality of Energy

20



T
H,
K
TH
, %

925 67.2
800 62.1
700 56.7
500 39.4
350 13.4

When T
H
,
th

less works can be converted

The higher the temperature, the higher the quality of the energy.
work is more valuable form of energy than heat
Work, W 100% convert heat, Q
Heat, Q < 100% convert Work, W

Ch. 6-11 Carnot Refrigerator & Heat Pump
Refrigerator/ Heat pump operate on the reversed Carnot Cycle
21


COP
R
= 1/(Q
H
/Q
L
- 1) (Eq. 6-9)
COR
HP
= 1/(1 - Q
L
/Q
H
) (Eq. 6-11)

*For reversible Refrigerator and H.P.
COP
R, rev
= 1/(T
H
/T
L
1) (Eq. 6-20)
COP
HP, rev
= 1/(1 T
L
/T
H
) (Eq. 6-21) optimal coefficient can achieve!!

COP
R
< COP
R,rev
,

irreversible refrigerator
= COP
R,rev
, reversible refrigerator
> COP
R, rev
, impossible refrigerator

TL , COP
R,
COP
HP


Exercise Examples 6-6 & 6-7.
1

Ch.7 Entropy
Ch.7-1 Entropy
Inequalities e.g., irreversible (actual) heat engine is less efficient ( < ) than a
reversible one operating between T
L
& T
H

Or COP
R, irrev.
< COP
R, rev.

Clausius Inequality ( R. J. E. Clausius 1822-1888, German)

The cyclic integral of

is always less than or equal to zero

valid for all cycles, reversible or irreversible
: integration over the entire cycle.
Any heat transfer to or from a system can be considered to consist of
differential amounts of heat transfer
cyclic integral of

= > sum of all these differential amount of heat transfer

divided by the temperature at the boundary

2

Energy balance for combined system
W
C
= Q
R
dE
C

(W
C
= W
rev
+ W
sys
)
total work of the combined system
dE
C
: change of total energy
Considering the cyclic device is a reversible one
Q
R
/T
R
= Q/T Q
R
= T
R
Q/T
{



Substitute Q
R
in energy balance eqn.
W
C
= T
R
Q/T - dE
C

let the system (piston) go through a cycle, the
cyclic device undergoes an integral number of of cycles
thus
W
C
= T
R

- (= 0 for a cycle)

W
C
= T
R

(net work for the combined cycle)

there is only a single thermal energy reservoir & heat exchange & W
C
, work
involved during a cycle
Based on Kelvin-Planck Statement:
No system can produce a net amount of work while operating in a cycle and
exchanging heat with a single thermal energy reservoir
3

Therefore, We cannot be a work output it should not be a positive
{

(Eq. 7-1)
*Clausius inequality
* valid for all thermodynamic cycle, reversible or irreversible
for a combined internally reversible system
W
C, int. rev
= 0 (Since W
C
cannot be a work input for the reversed case, not a
negative value or a positive value)

the equality in the Clauses inequality holds for totally or just internally
reversible cycles and the inequality for the irreversible ones
Entropy: a property of thermo. (Clausius., 1865)

dS =(

int. rev
(kJ/K) (Eq. 7-4)
an extensive property
also called total entropy, S
Entropy per unit mass, s (an intensive property) ( kJ/kgK)
The entropy change of a system during a process
S = S2 S1 =

(kJ/K) (Eq. 7-5)

We are concerned with the changes in entropy (similarly, changes of internal
energy, U or enthalpy, H)
we can assign a zero value of S at some arbitrarily selected reference state.
4

to calculate S, we depend on tabulated data in most cases (e.g., see Table
A-4) also one can solve it if we know the relation between Q and T during a
process
S has fixed values at fixed states


S = S
2
S
1
= 0.4 kJ/K
Note that: the integral of Q/T give us the value of entropy change only if
the integration is carried out along an internally reversible path between
the two states
Thus, for irreversible processes, the entropy change can he determined by
assuming an imaginary internally reversible path between the specified
states

Special case: Internally reversible isothermal heat transfer

Change of entropy, when T = const = T
0


S = (

= (

5

= 1/T
0
(

S = Q/T0 (kJ/K) (Eq. 7-6)
where T
0
= Const temperature of system
Q = heat transfer for the internally reversible process
Eq. (7-6) used to determine entropy change of thermal energy reservoirs
that can absorb or supply heat (indefinitely) at a const. temperature

Q > 0, S > 0 ( heat transfer to a system)
Q < 0, S < 0 ( heat transfer from a system)

Exercise 7-1 ( yourself!!)

Ch. 7-2 Increase of Entropy Principle
Consider a cycle



From Clausius inequality

+ (

0
Based on S (S
1
S
2
)

+ S
1
- S
2
0

6

rearrange
S
2
S
1

or in differential form

dS Q/T (Eq. 7-8)

when for internally reversible process dS = Q/T
inequality, dS > Q/T for irreversible process

T: thermodynamic temperature at the boundary
Q: heat transferred between the system & the surroundings

S = S
2
- S
1
, entropy change of the system

, entropy transfer with heat

thus entropy change in a closed system during an irreversible process is
always greater than the entropy transfer due to entropy generated
or created during an irreversible process

Why? It is due to presence of irreversibilities
entropy generations, S
gen
, entropy generated during a
process

S
sys
= S
2
- S
1
=

+ S
gen
(Eq. 7-9)

The difference between the entropy change of a closed system
and the entropy transfer is equal to entropy generation.

Entropy principles -
S
gen
( entropy generation) is a positive quantity or zero
S
gen
depends on process, not a property of the system
7

When

= 0 entropy change
S = S
gen


Eq 7-7 S
2
S
1

for an isolated systems (adiabatic closed system)

heat transfer Q = 0 (involved no entropy transfer)
S
isolated
0 (Eq. 7-10)
The entropy of an isolated system during a process always increases, or for
a reversible process, remains constant (thus, it never decreases)
=> so called increase of entropy principle

Entropy is an extensive property
Sum of the entropies of the parts of system total entropy

S
gen
= S
total
= S
sys
+ S
surr
0 (Eq. 7-11)
equality: reversible processes
inequality: irreversible processes
S
surr
- entropy change of surroundings as a result of process occurrence

Because no actual process is reversible, some (certain) entropy is generated
during a process
*It implies test our universe entropy ( an isolated
system) is increasing continuously
8

A system entropy can increase or decrease (negative)
Entropy generation > 0 (positive)
Increase of entropy principle
S
gen
> 0 irreversible Process
= 0 Reversible process
< 0 Impossible process
About Entropy
1. Processes can occur in a certain direction only, not in any direction
follow increase of entropy
S
gen
0
e.g., chemical reaction stop before reaching completion
2. Entropy is a nonconserved property, no conservation of entropy principle
Entropy conserved during idealized reversible process
Entropy increase all actual processes
3 The performance of engineering systems is degraded
by the presence of irreversibility,
entropy generation a measure of irreversibility magnitudes

Irreversibilities, entropy generation
exercise Ex 7-2

Ch. 7-3 Entropy Change of Pure Substances
Commonly, S (or s) change can be calculated based on measurable property
data and related tables, just like other properties, v, u, h
e.g., steam table, Saturated liquid s
f
= 0 at . 0.01 C reference value
refrigerant- 134a, s
f
= 0 at -40 C
s < 0 at temperatures < reference value
In saturated mixture
s = s
f
+ xs
fg
(kJ/KgK)

for compressed liquid, s
at T.P.
s
f
@T (kJ/KgK)
For a closed system, m = const
S = ms = m (s
2
- s
1
) (kJ/K)
9

When studying the second-law aspects of processes,
s can be used as a coordinate T-s diagram

Ex. 7.3 & 7.4 ( do it yourselves)

Ch. 7-4 Isentropic Processes
entropy of a fixed mass can be changed by
(1) heat transfer
(2) irreversibilities
If the entropy = const internally reversible and adiabatic

Isentropic process a process which the entropy = const
s = 0 or s
2
= s
1
, (kJ/kgK) ( Eq. 7-13)

Many engineering devices (pumps, turbines, nozzles, diffusers)
are adiabatic, and perform best when irreversibilities are minimized
thus
isentropic process serve as an appropriate model for actual processes
isentropic processes help us to define efficiencies for process to
compare actual performance to an idealized process
*A reversible adiabatic process = an isentropic process
*An isentropic process (not necessarily) a reversible adiabatic process

10

Example 7-5 ( Do it yourself)

Ch. 7-5 Property Diagrams with Entropy
for 2nd-Law analysis
we use temperature - entropy ( T-s),
enthalpy - entropy (h-s)
Eq. 7-4 Cengel & Boles
dS = Q
int, rev
/T



Q
int, rev
= T dS (kJ)
Total heat transfer
Q int, rev =

(kJ) (Eq. 7-15)

(similar to reversible boundary work area under the
process curve of a P-V diag.)

A unit-mass basis
q int, rev = T ds q int. rev =

(kJ/kg) (Eq. 7-17)

11

*One need to know relationship between T & s to perform these
integrations

Special case: internally reversible isothermal process,
T= const
Q
int. rev
= T
0
S (kJ)
or q
int. rev
= T
0
s (kJ/kg)
T
0
= const Temp.
S: entropy change during the process


Isentropic process a vertical line on a T-s diagram
thus area = 0 no heat transfer

see Fig. A-9 (C & B) - a T-s diagram for water
h-s diagram useful in analysis of steady-flow devices ( turbines,
compressors, and nozzles)
h, enthalpy, a property in 1st-Law analysis of steady flow devices
s, entropy, a property accounts for irreversibilities during adiabatic
processes.

12


an adiabatic steady-flow device.

h (vertical distance) W
net, out

s (horizontal distance) irreversibilities associated with the process

A h-s diagram also called Mollier diagram (after R. Mollier, German)
see Fig. A-10, water Mollies diagram
Example 7-6 ( Familiar this - T-s diagram of Carnot Cycle)

What is Entropy? (Self-Reading Ch. 7-6)
microscopic nature of matter - helpful
Entropy a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular randomness (e.g.,
uncertainty of molecule locations)

s (solid phase) < s (gas phase)
The molecular disorder ( entropy) of an isolated system increases
anytime it undergoes a process
Definition: 3rd-Law of Thermodynamics

= The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature
is zero
(absolute entropy entropy determined relative to absolute zero temp..
The quantity of energy is always preserved during an actual process ( the
first law), but the quality is bound to decrease ( the second law)
13

=> this decrease in quality is always accompanied by an increase in entropy.


During a heat transfer process, the net entropy (cold body+hot body)
increases

** The increase in the entropy of the cold body more
than offsets the decrease in the entropy of the hot body

Ch. 7-7 The T ds Relations

For a closed stationary system containing a simple compressible substance
(assuming internally reversible process)

Q
int. rev
- W
int. rev. out
= dU

Q
int. rev
= T dS
W
int. rev, out
= P dV

T dS = dU + P dV (kJ) (eq. 7-22)
Or T ds = du + P dv (kJ/kg) (eq. 7-23)
This equation is called the 1st T ds, or Gibbs, equation
For 2nd T ds eq., we remove du term by
h = u + PV
dh = du + p dv + v dP
and from T ds = du + p dv (Eq. 7-23)
T ds = dh - v dp (Eq. 7-24) 2
nd
T ds equation.
Thus
14


d s = du/T + p dv/T (Eq. 7-25)
d s = dh/T v dp/T (Eq. 7-26)
thus

du = C
v
dT
dh = C
p
dT
& for ideal gas Pv = RT
we can obtain s by intergrating these eqs. Between the initial and final
states

**Note: Eqs. 23 - 26 (T ds relations) are valid for both (1) reversible and
irreversible processes and (2) for both closed and open systems
15

Ch. 7-8 Entropy Change of Liquids & Solids (Cont.)
Liquids, or
Solids => approximately incompressible substances
specific volume vf, and vs const during a process
From Eq. 7- 25
ds = du/T + P dv/T (Eq. 7-25)
While dv 0 for liquids and solids
Eq. 7-25 reduces to
ds = du/T = C dT/T (recall C
p
= C
v
= C & du = C dT) (Eq. 7-27)

Thus the entropy change s
s = s
2
s
1
=
()

C
avg
ln T
2
/T
1
(kJ/kgK) (Eq. 7-28)
C
avg
= average specific heat of substance over given temperature interval
s T but independent of pressure
for lig. and solid if dv 0
for large temperature change, dv 0, we need to include p dv term to
estimate ds
For isentropic processes ( Liq. & Solids)
s = s
2
s
1
= 0 = C
avg
ln T
2
/T
1

T
2
= T
1
(isothermal process as well!)
**Thus the isentropic process of an incompressible substance is also isothermal
Exercise Examples 7-7 & 7-8
16

Ch. 7-9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases
From Eqs 7-25 or 7-26
ds = du/T + P dv/T (7-25)
ds = dh/T v dP/T (7-26)
du = C
v
dT
dh = C
p
dT
Pv = RT
v = RT/P
ds = Cv dT/T + R dv/v (Eq. 7-30)
take integration
s = s
2
s
1
=

+ R In v
2
/v
1
(Eq. 7-31)
From Eq. 7-26, Similarly
s = s2 - s1 = =

- R In P
2
/P
1
(Eq. 7-32)
To solve these eqs
(1) we assume constant specific heats ( C
v
, C
p
) [Approximate]
or (2) Based on variable specific heats

*(1) Const. specific heat
C
v
(T) C
v, avg

C
p
(T) C
p, avg


17


From (Eq. 7-31)
s = s
2
s
1
= C
v, avg
ln T
2
/ T
1
+ R ln v
2
/v
1
(Eq. 7-33) (kJ/kgK)

From (Eq. 7-32)
s = s
2
s
1
= C
p, avg
ln T
2
/T
1
- R ln P
2
/P
1
(Eq. 7-34) (kJ/kgK)
or based on unit-mole basis => we multiply these relations by molar mass

2

1
=
v, avg
In T
2
/ T
1
+ Ru ln v
2
/ v
1
(kJ/kmolK)

2

1
=
p, avg
In T
2
/ T
1
- Ru ln P
2
/ P
1
(kJ/kmolK)

(2) variable specific heats ( Exact Analysis)
First, we determine C
v
(T), C
p
(T) (function of temp.)
(large temp change during process)
Substituting and performing integrations
we tabulate these integrations (Table A-17)
s = ()

s = 0 at T = 0 K
()

= s
2
- s
1
s
2
s @ T = T
2

18

s
1
s @ T = T
1

s
2
- s
1
= s
2
- s
1
- R ln P
2
/ P
1
(Eq. 7-39)
on molar basis

2

1
=
2

1
- R
u
ln P
2
/ P
1
(Eq. 7-40)
Exercise Example 7-9
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
(1) Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)
From Eq. 7-33
0 = s = s
2
s
1
= C
v, avg
ln T
2
/ T
1
+ R ln v
2
/v
1

ln T
2
/ T
1
= - R/C
v
ln v
2
/ v
1

we can rearrange this eq.
ln T
2
/ T
1
= ln (v
1
/ v
2
)
R/ Cv
(Eq. 7-41)
(

)
s=const
= (

)
1
(Eq. 7-42) (for ideal gas)
(1
st
isentropic relation)
where R = C
p
- C
v
, = C
p
/ C
v
, R/ C
v
= - 1
or From Eq 7-34
0 = s = s
2
s
1
= C
p, avg
ln T
2
/ T
1
- R ln P
2
/P
1

(

)
s=const
= (

)
1/
(Eq. 7-43) (for ideal gas)
(2nd isentropic relation)
From Eq. 43, we substitute (T
2
/ T
1
)
s=const
with (

)
1/

in Eq. 42, we can simply and get
19

(

)
s=const
= (

)

(ideal gas) ( Eq. 7-44)
(3rd isentropic relation)
or we can simply use following expressions
{

( )

()
( )

( )

(for ideal gas, isentropic, constant-specific-heat only)
(2) Variable specific heats (Exact Analysis)
From Eq. 7-39
0 = s
2
- s
1
= s
2
- s
1
- R ln P
2
/ P
1

s
2
= s
1
+ R ln P
2
/ P
1
(Eq. 7-48)
From (Eq. 7-48)

= exp

=
(

)
(

)

Where (

) is a dimensionless quantity
(

) = relative pressure Pr, only function of T ( depends on T only)

(

)
s= const
=

(Eq. 7-49)
(Note that P
r
P
R
, reduced pressure)
Relative Specific Volume (instead of Pr was provided)
Based on ideal gas,
P
1
v
1
/ T
1
= P
2
v
2
/ T
2

20

=


=


=

v
r
=

=> relative specific volume

(

)
s=const
=


(Eq. 7-50)
Eqs. 7-49, 7-50 are valid for isentropic processes of ideal gases
Exercise 7-10 & 7-11 Examples
21

Ch. 7-10 Reversible Steady-Flow Work
w
b
=

q
rev
w
rev
= dh + dke + dpe
{



w
rev
= -

ke - pe (Eq. 7-51)
w
rev
=

(if assume ke = pe = 0)
if v = Const, incompressible
from Eq. 7-51,
w
rev
= - v (P
2
P
1
) ke - pe ( Eq. 7-54)
For a nozzle or a pipe section, no work interaction
w
rev
= 0
v (P
2
P
1
) + (v
2

2
V
1

2
)/2 + g (z
2
z
1
) = 0
known as the Bernoulli Equation
Ch. 7-12 Isentropic Efficiency for Steady-Flow Devices
Isentropic efficiency of a turbine

T
=


=



22



T
=


(Eq. 7-61)
Isentropic efficiency of a compressor / pump

C
=


=



Exercise Example 7-14,


C
=



When ke = pe for a liquid, the isentropic efficiency of a pump

P
=






Exercise Ex. 7-15
Ch. 7-13 Entropy Balance
23

(

) (

) + (

) = (


)
s
in
s
out
+ s
gen
= s
system

s
sys
= s
final
- s
initial
= s
2
s
1

mechanisms of entropy transfer, s
in
and s
out

2 mechanisms cause entropy transfer
1. Heat transfer
2. Mass flow
1. Entropy transfer by heat transfer
s
heat
= Q/T (T = const.)

S
heat
= Q/Tb = 1.25 kJ/K
if T const
S
heat
=

Q
k
, T
k
at location k
Note: Entropy transfer by works ??
S
work
= 0
** work is entropy-free
24

An energy interaction that is accompanied by entropy transfer is heat
transfer
An energy interaction that is not accompanied by entropy transfer is work


2. Entropy Transfer by Mass Flow
Entropy transfer by mass flow, S
mass
= ms
s: specific entropy, m: the amount of mass


mass
=

A
c
: cross section area of the flow
V
n
: local velocity normal to dAc
S
mass
= =

dt
Entropy Generation, S
gen

S
in
- S
out
+ S
gen
= S
system
(kJ/K) (Eq. 7-76)

net entropy transfer

entropy generation

change in entropy

by heat & mass (flow)

or in rate form

in
-
out
+
gen
= d S
system
/dt (Eq. 7-77)
25

based on a unit-mass
(s
in
s
out
) + s
gen
= s
sys
( kJ/ kgK)
Closed system,
+ S
gen
= S
sys
= S
2
S
1
(kJ/K) (Eq. 7-79)
For adiabatic process Q = 0 & a closed system
S
gen
= S
adiabatic system
(Eq. 7-80)
Also, System + Surroundings: (treat it as an adiabatic system)
S
gen
= = S
system
+ S
surroundings
(Eq. 7-81)
Where S
sys
= m (s
2
s
1
)
S
surr.
= Q
surr.
/ T
surr.

if T
surr.
= Const
Control Volumes
+ - + S
gen
= (S
2
S
1
)
C.V.
(kJ/K) ( Eq. 7-82)
Rate form
+ - +
gen
= d S
C.V.
/dt (kW/K) (Eq. 7-83)
For Steady-Flow process ( d Sc.v./dt = 0)
-
if single stream

gen
= (s
e
s
i
) -
1-stream, plus adiabatic

gen
= (s
e
s
i
)
Exercise Ex. 7-17, 7-18, 7-20, 7-21
26

Ch.9 & Ch.10
Definitions
- Power Cycles,
- Carnot Cycle
- Otto Cycle
- Diesel Cycle
- Stirling and Ericsson Cycle
- Brayton Cycle
- Rankin Cycle


1

1

Whats the difference between thermo 1
st
& 2
nd
law?
1
st
lawconservation of energy, energy cant be created or destroyed, it can only change form
2
nd
lawenergy has quality & quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality
of energy
Whats the difference between the classical and the statistical approach to thermodynamics?
Classicalmacroscopic approach; sticks and chain approach; advantages: direct, easy
Statisticalmicroscopic approach; based on average behavior of large groups of individual particles;
advantages: more elaborate, dealing molecular level problems
Exercise Ex. 1.3
Attachment E
What is quasi-equilibrium & its benefits?
Quasi-equilibriuma process proceeds infinitesimally close to equilibrium state, an idealized process,
closely approximate actual process w/ negligible error
Benefits: Easy to analyze
Work-producing devices would deliver the most work under quasi-equilibrium
processes, serve as standards to compare the actual processes
Work on problems 1-50, 1-129, 1-130, 1-131
Attachment E & answer sheet
Whats the difference between the macroscopic and microscopic forms of energy?
Macroscopicenergy possessed by a system as a whole with respect to an outside reference frame,
kinetic & potential energies
Microscopicenergy of a system related to the molecular structure of a system, & the degree of
molecular activity, independent of the outside reference frame, internal energy sum of all microscopic
forms of energy
Whats the difference between sensible energy and latent energy?
Sensible energy: part of internal energy associated with kinetic energies of molecules
Latent energy: internal energy associated with the phase of a system, measured by phase change of
process, binding forces between molecules
Whats mechanical energy? Hows it different from thermal energy?
Mechanical energyform of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and directly by
an ideal mechanical device, such as turbine, e.g. kinetic and potential energies
Thermal energy is a combination of sensible & latent energy. Thermal energy is not mechanical energy
due to it cant be converted to work completely & directly
Work on Ex. 2-7, 2-8 and problems 2-135, 2-137, 2-138
Attachment E
Define
a. Critical point
The point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapor states are identical, T = T
cr
P = P
cr

b. Saturation temperature & pressure
Temperature at which a pure substance changes phase, T
sat
at a given pressure
Pressure at which a pure substance changes phase, P
sat
at a given temperature
c. Quality for saturated liquid vapor mixture

d. Reduced temperature & pressure
2

2

&

e. Compressibility factor

. . .
To measure deviation from ideal gas behavior
Plot P-V diagram.
[]Diagram
Work on Ex. 3-5, 3-9, and problem 3-88
Attachment B
Define a polytropic process. Describe processes when n = 0, n = 1 for ideal gas using a P-V diagram.
Polytropic process: pressure & volume of a process are related by PV
n
= C where n & C are constants
[]Diagram
Define c
v
& c
p
, & describe the relation between c
p
& c
v
for ideal gases.

.
specific heat at constant volume

.
specific heat at constant pressure

.
Describe energy balance for a closed system undergoing a cycle; describe energy change in a control
volume for steady-flow process.

.



.

.
Work on Ex. 4-6, 4-7
Attachment B
Whats the general conservation of mass for a control volume? Define mass change in a control volume
for steady-flow process & single-stream S.F.
Control volume:

.
Steady mass flow:

Single Stream S.F.:

Describe the difference between steady-flow device nozzle & diffuser, turbine & compressor.
Nozzle: a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense of pressure
Diffuser: a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by slowing it down
Turbine: fluid passes through the device, produce work
Compressor: device used to increase the pressure of a fluid
Define heat source & sink reservoir.
Source: a reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat
Sink: a reservoir that absorbs energy in the form of heat
Whats a heat engine? List 4 characteristics of heat engine.
Heat engine: special device to convert heat to work
1. They receive heat from a high-temperature source
2. They convert part of this heat to work
3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink
4. They operate on a cycle
Define thermal efficiency in general & for a cyclic heat engine.
3

3

. Heat engine:

Describe the Kelvin-Planck statement.
Its impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce
a net amount of work. No heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100%.
Whats Clausius statement?
Its impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produce no effect other than the transfer
of heat from a lower-temp body to a higher-temp body.
Define coefficient of performance for refrigerator & heat pump & their relationship.

Whats the difference between Carnot cycle & Carnot principle?
Carnot cycle is a reversible thats composed of 4 reversible processes, 2 isothermal (expansion,
compression), 2 adiabatic (expansion, compression)
Carnot principle:
1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible one
operating between the same 2 reservoirs
2. The efficiency of all reversible heat engines operating between the same 2 reservoirs are the same
Define the efficiency of a Carnot heat engine; COPs for reversible refrigerator & heat pump.

Define Clausius inequality & entropy.

.
Equality in Clausius inequality holds for int,rev cycles
(

.
Int,rev isothermal

Explain the increase of entropy principle.

. Entropy generated during the process

1. Entropy change is caused by heat transfer, mass flow, & irreversibilities
2. Heat transfer to a system increases entropy, heat transfer from a system decreases it
3. The effect of irreversibilities is always to increase the entropy
Define isentropic process.
. Or

Isentropic process can serve as an appropriate model for actual process
Isentropic process enables us to define efficiencies for processes to compare the actual performance of
these devices
Work on Ex. 6-4, 6-6, 6-7, 7-2
[]Work
Define a T-S diagram of a Carnot cycle.
[]Diagram
Whats Entropy?
Entropya measure of molecular disorder or molecular randomness
Define 3
rd
law of thermodynamics.
The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature is zero
Explain the isentropic process of a liquid is also isothermal.
4

4

Describe entropy change & isentropic relations for ideal gases at constant specific heat.

.
()

Define relative pressure & relative specific volume.

).

()

Describe isentropic relations for ideal gas at variable specific heats.

. From

. & (

Whats the difference between isentropic efficiency of turbine & compressor?
Turbine:

. Compressor:

[]Diagram
Describe entropy balance for a process.

.
Describe S
gen
for a closed system at adiabatic process; S
gen
for a steady-flow process.

Exercise Problems 6-23, 6-54, 6-84E, 6-166 & 7-29, 7-88, 7-99, 7-144, 7-132
[]Work
Definitions
Power cyclea cycle during which a net amount of work is produced
Carnot cycleis a reversible cycle that is composed of 4 rev processes: 2 isothermal, 2 adiabatic
Otto cycleis the ideal cycle for the spark-ignition reciprocating engines. Consists of 4 int rev processes:
isentropic compression, constant-volume heat addition, isentropic extension, constant-volume heat
rejection
Diesel cycleis the ideal cycle for the compression-ignition reciprocating engines
Stirling & Ericsson cycles2 totally rev cycles that involve an isothermal heat-addition process at T
H
and
isothermal heat-rejection process at T
L
.
Brayton cycleis the ideal cycle for modern gas-turbine engines. Made up of 4 int rev processes:
isentropic compression, constant-pressure heat addition, isentropic extension, constant-pressure heat
rejection
Rankin cycleis the model cycle for vapor power cycles. Consists of 4 int rev processes: isentropic
compression, constant-pressure heat addition, isentropic extension, constant-pressure heat rejection
Formulas
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Boundary: surface (real or imaginary) separates the system from surroundings
Zero thickness Fixed or movable; Contains no mass, or occupy any volume; Closed system
Fixed amount of mass
No mass cross its boundary; Energy (heat or work) can cross boundary; Volume may change
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamicsif two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they
are also in thermal equilibrium with each other
Heat &work similarities.
1. Boundary phenomena
2. System possesses energy, not heat or work
3. Both associated with a process
4. Theyre path functions
Perpetual motion machineany device violates either 1
st
or 2
nd
law of thermodynamics law

U related to molecular structure and degree of activity
Motion of molecules and electrons
1. translational energy
2. rotational energy
3. vibrational energy
Sensible energy part of internal energy associated with the kinetic energies of molecules
Latent energy -internal energy associated with the phase of a system
Work - energy interactions not due to temperature difference
Mechanisms of energy transfer
heat, work, & mass flow.
Pure substance - a substance has a fixed chemical composition throughout
compressed liquid (or subcooled Liquid)liquid not about to vaporize
Saturated liquid - liquid about to vaporize
Saturation temperatureTsatfor a given pressure, temperature at which a pure substance changes phase
Thermal energy reservoir (reservoir) a hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy
capacity ( mass x specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat with negligible
temperature change
Carnot Cycle
7

7

1. The efficiency of a heat-engine cycle greatly depends on how the individual processes that make
up the cycle are executed
2. Reversible cycles (cycles consist entirely of reversible processes) are most efficient cycles
produce the maximum net work, Wnet,out
3. Reversible cycles cannot be achieved in practice because of the exist of irreversibility
entropy of a fixed mass can be changed by
1. heat transfer
2. irreversibilities
If the entropy = const internally reversible and adiabatic