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4/ 050647
Vapor and Combined Cycles
Thermodynamics II
MCE341
Dr. Andreas Poullikkas
Visiting Associate Professor
College of Engineering
apoullikkas@aus.edu
!
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!
The Carnot vapor cycle
T-s diagram of two Carnot vapor cycles.
1-2: water in state 1 is evaporated in a
boiler to form saturated steam in state 2
- isothermal heat addition in a boiler :
Q
12
=h
2
-h
1
2-3: steam is expanded isentropically to
state 3 while doing work - isentropic
expansion in a turbine : W
23
=h
2
-h
3

3-4: after expansion steam is condensed
at constant pressure - isothermal heat
rejection in a condenser : Q
34
=h
4
-h
3
4-1: condensation is stopped at 4 and
the wet steam is compressed
isentropically to state 1 - isentropic
compression in a compressor: W
41
=h
4
-h
1
#
Carnot vapor cycle
not a suitable model for
power cycles
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Advantages over Carnot cycle
As feed pump term is small, work
ratio is high and cycle is insensitive
to process inefficiencies
The feed pump is small, as it
handles liquid
The feed pump is easy to control,
e.g., it would not be easy to stop
condensation
The specific steam consumption is
less
$
Rankine cycle (saturated)
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4
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
The simple ideal Rankine cycle.
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4
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
The simple ideal Rankine cycle.
%
Rankine superheat cycle
Advantages over Rankine cycle
(saturated)
Maximum temperature can be taken to
metallurgical limit (about 580
o
C) so raising
the average temperature at which heat is
supplied and increasing efficiency
Net work is much grater, so dropping
specific steam consumption
Steam is dryer at 4, thus making less likely
that low pressure turbine blading would be
eroded
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4
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
The simple ideal Rankine cycle.
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4
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
The simple ideal Rankine cycle.
&
Rankine superheat cycle
1-2: Isentropic compression in
a pump
2-3: Constant pressure heat
addition in a boiler
3-4: Isentropic expansion in a
turbine
4-1: Constant pressure heat
rejection in a condenser
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4
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
The simple ideal Rankine cycle.
'
Rankine superheat cycle analysis
Thermal efficiency
r
bw
=
w
pump
w
turbine
r
w
=
w
net
w
turbine
Work ratio
Back work ratio
Specific steam consumption
(kg/kWh)
SSC =
3600
w
net
Heat rate (kJ/kWh)
HR =
3600
!
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How to increase the efficiency
of the Rankine cycle
Basic idea:
Increase the average
temperature at which heat
is transferred to the
working fluid in the boiler
or
Decrease the average
temperature at which heat
is rejected from the
working fluid in the
condenser
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4
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
The simple ideal Rankine cycle.
(
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)
Lowering condenser pressure
Decrease average
temperature at which heat
is rejected
Increase in power output
Side effect: moisture
content of the steam at the
final stages of the turbine
increases
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*
Superheating to higher temperatures
Increase average
temperature at which heat
is supplied
Increase in power output
but also increase in heat
supplied
Moisture content of the
steam at the final stages of
the turbine decreases
Metallurgical limitation:
currently at 620
o
C
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+
Increasing boiler pressure
Increase average
temperature at which heat
is supplied
Increase in power output
Side effect: moisture
content of the steam at the
final stages of the turbine
increases
moisture content of the steam at the final stages
of the turbine can be corrected by reheating
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!"
THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
#!
Advantages over superheated
Rankine cycle
Higher dryness fraction at 6
Specific steam consumption is less
Reheat temperatures very close or
equal to turbine inlet temperature.
Optimum reheat pressure about
one-fourth of the maximum cycle
pressure
Reheating economically viable for
units > 90MW
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!"
THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
Rankine reheat cycle
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!"
THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE
##
Rankine reheat cycle analysis
Heat input
Work output
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Example A
Calculate the heat and work transfers, cycle
efficiency, work ratio and steam consumption of
a Carnot cycle using steam between pressures of
15 bar and 0.5 bar abs.
#$
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Example B
Calculate the cycle efficiency, work ratio and
steam consumption of a Rankine (saturated)
cycle using steam between pressures of 15 bar
and 0.5 bar abs.
#%
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Example C
Calculate the cycle efficiency, work ratio and
steam consumption of a Rankine superheat
cycle using steam between pressures of 15 bar
and 0.5 bar abs and a superheat temperature of
300
o
C.
#&
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Example D
Calculate the cycle efficiency, work ratio and
steam consumption of a Rankine reheat cycle
using steam between pressures of 15 bar and 0.5
bar abs, a superheat temperature of 300
o
C and a
reheat temperature of 300
o
C with an
intermediate pressure of 3.5bar.
#'
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#(
Process inefficiencies
Actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine
cycle due to irreversibilities in various components such
as:
- fluid friction
- heat loss to the surroundings
Isentropic efficiencies:
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Example 10.2
A steam power plant operates on the cycle shown in the figure. If
the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 87% and the isentropic
efficiency of the pump is 85% determine:
(a) The thermal efficiency of the cycle
(b) The net power output of the plant for a mass flow rate of 15kg/s
#)
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Regenerative Rankine cycle
Advantages
The first part of the heat-addition process in
the boiler takes place at relatively low
temperatures
cycle efficiency is reduced
Use of regeneration:
steam is extracted from the turbine at various
points
heating of feedwater (although could have
produced more work by expanding further in
the turbine)
The device where the feedwater is heated by
regeneration is called a regenerator, or a
feedwater heater (FWH)
sure (state 6). Some steam is extracted at this state and routed to the feed-
water heater, while the remaining steam continues to expand isentropically
to the condenser pressure (state 7). This steam leaves the condenser as a sat-
urated liquid at the condenser pressure (state 1). The condensed water,
which is also called the feedwater, then enters an isentropic pump, where it
is compressed to the feedwater heater pressure (state 2) and is routed to the
feedwater heater, where it mixes with the steam extracted from the turbine.
The fraction of the steam extracted is such that the mixture leaves the heater
as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure (state 3). A second pump raises
the pressure of the water to the boiler pressure (state 4). The cycle is com-
pleted by heating the water in the boiler to the turbine inlet state (state 5).
In the analysis of steam power plants, it is more convenient to work with
quantities expressed per unit mass of the steam flowing through the boiler.
For each 1 kg of steam leaving the boiler, y kg expands partially in the turbine
and is extracted at state 6. The remaining (1 y) kg expands completely to
the condenser pressure. Therefore, the mass flow rates are different in dif-
ferent components. If the mass flow rate through the boiler is m
.
, for exam-
ple, it is (1 y)m
.
through the condenser. This aspect of the regenerative
Rankine cycle should be considered in the analysis of the cycle as well as in
the interpretation of the areas on the T-s diagram. In light of Fig. 1015, the
heat and work interactions of a regenerative Rankine cycle with one feed-
water heater can be expressed per unit mass of steam flowing through the
boiler as follows:
(1014)
(1015)
(1016)
(1017) w
pump,in
11 y2 w
pump I,in
w
pump II,in

w
turb,out
1h
5
h
6
2 11 y2 1h
6
h
7
2
q
out
11 y2 1h
7
h
1
2
q
in
h
5
h
4

Chapter 10 | 569
Pump I
Turbine
Boiler
Condenser
Pump II
5
2
7 6
Open
FWH
4
1
3
y 1 y
7
5
6
1
3
4
2
s
T
FIGURE 1015
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater heater.
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Types of FWHs
FWH: heat exchanger
where heat is
transferred from the
steam to the feedwater
Two types of FWHs
Open FWHs: mixing the
two fluid streams
Closed FHWs: without
mixing of the two fluid
streams
sure (state 6). Some steam is extracted at this state and routed to the feed-
water heater, while the remaining steam continues to expand isentropically
to the condenser pressure (state 7). This steam leaves the condenser as a sat-
urated liquid at the condenser pressure (state 1). The condensed water,
which is also called the feedwater, then enters an isentropic pump, where it
is compressed to the feedwater heater pressure (state 2) and is routed to the
feedwater heater, where it mixes with the steam extracted from the turbine.
The fraction of the steam extracted is such that the mixture leaves the heater
as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure (state 3). A second pump raises
the pressure of the water to the boiler pressure (state 4). The cycle is com-
pleted by heating the water in the boiler to the turbine inlet state (state 5).
In the analysis of steam power plants, it is more convenient to work with
quantities expressed per unit mass of the steam flowing through the boiler.
For each 1 kg of steam leaving the boiler, y kg expands partially in the turbine
and is extracted at state 6. The remaining (1 y) kg expands completely to
the condenser pressure. Therefore, the mass flow rates are different in dif-
ferent components. If the mass flow rate through the boiler is m
.
, for exam-
ple, it is (1 y)m
.
through the condenser. This aspect of the regenerative
Rankine cycle should be considered in the analysis of the cycle as well as in
the interpretation of the areas on the T-s diagram. In light of Fig. 1015, the
heat and work interactions of a regenerative Rankine cycle with one feed-
water heater can be expressed per unit mass of steam flowing through the
boiler as follows:
(1014)
(1015)
(1016)
(1017) w
pump,in
11 y2 w
pump I,in
w
pump II,in

w
turb,out
1h
5
h
6
2 11 y2 1h
6
h
7
2
q
out
11 y2 1h
7
h
1
2
q
in
h
5
h
4

Chapter 10 | 569
Pump I
Turbine
Boiler
Condenser
Pump II
5
2
7 6
Open
FWH
4
1
3
y 1 y
7
5
6
1
3
4
2
s
T
FIGURE 1015
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater heater.
!"#$%&'&(!)*+,-./ %1*&1+' 23*4 56 578" '9&
where
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases as a result of regen-
eration. This is because regeneration raises the average temperature at
which heat is transferred to the steam in the boiler by raising the tempera-
ture of the water before it enters the boiler. The cycle efficiency increases
further as the number of feedwater heaters is increased. Many large plants
in operation today use as many as eight feedwater heaters. The optimum
number of feedwater heaters is determined from economical considerations.
The use of an additional feedwater heater cannot be justified unless it saves
more from the fuel costs than its own cost.
Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is
the closed feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the extracted
steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two streams
now can be at different pressures, since they do not mix. The schematic of a
steam power plant with one closed feedwater heater and the T-s diagram of
the cycle are shown in Fig. 1016. In an ideal closed feedwater heater, the
feedwater is heated to the exit temperature of the extracted steam, which
ideally leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the extraction pressure. In
actual power plants, the feedwater leaves the heater below the exit tempera-
w
pump II,in
v
3
1P
4
P
3
2
w
pump I,in
v
1
1P
2
P
1
2
y m
#
6
>m
#
5
1fraction of steam extracted2
570 | Thermodynamics
Boiler
Condenser
s
T
5
6
8 1
2
Pump II
Turbine
1
9
2
8
Mixing
chamber Closed
FWH
6
3
4
7
7
3
4
5
9
Pump I
FIGURE 1016
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater.
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$!
Analysis of open FWHs
Open FWH (or direct-
contact FWH)
a mixing chamber
steam extracted from the
turbine mixes with the
feedwater exiting the
pump
ideally, the mixture leaves
the heater as a saturated
liquid at the heater
pressure
sure (state 6). Some steam is extracted at this state and routed to the feed-
water heater, while the remaining steam continues to expand isentropically
to the condenser pressure (state 7). This steam leaves the condenser as a sat-
urated liquid at the condenser pressure (state 1). The condensed water,
which is also called the feedwater, then enters an isentropic pump, where it
is compressed to the feedwater heater pressure (state 2) and is routed to the
feedwater heater, where it mixes with the steam extracted from the turbine.
The fraction of the steam extracted is such that the mixture leaves the heater
as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure (state 3). A second pump raises
the pressure of the water to the boiler pressure (state 4). The cycle is com-
pleted by heating the water in the boiler to the turbine inlet state (state 5).
In the analysis of steam power plants, it is more convenient to work with
quantities expressed per unit mass of the steam flowing through the boiler.
For each 1 kg of steam leaving the boiler, y kg expands partially in the turbine
and is extracted at state 6. The remaining (1 y) kg expands completely to
the condenser pressure. Therefore, the mass flow rates are different in dif-
ferent components. If the mass flow rate through the boiler is m
.
, for exam-
ple, it is (1 y)m
.
through the condenser. This aspect of the regenerative
Rankine cycle should be considered in the analysis of the cycle as well as in
the interpretation of the areas on the T-s diagram. In light of Fig. 1015, the
heat and work interactions of a regenerative Rankine cycle with one feed-
water heater can be expressed per unit mass of steam flowing through the
boiler as follows:
(1014)
(1015)
(1016)
(1017) w
pump,in
11 y2 w
pump I,in
w
pump II,in

w
turb,out
1h
5
h
6
2 11 y2 1h
6
h
7
2
q
out
11 y2 1h
7
h
1
2
q
in
h
5
h
4

Chapter 10 | 569
Pump I
Turbine
Boiler
Condenser
Pump II
5
2
7 6
Open
FWH
4
1
3
y 1 y
7
5
6
1
3
4
2
s
T
FIGURE 1015
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater heater.
!"#$%&'&(!)*+,-./ %1*&1+' 23*4 56 578" '9&
sure (state 6). Some steam is extracted at this state and routed to the feed-
water heater, while the remaining steam continues to expand isentropically
to the condenser pressure (state 7). This steam leaves the condenser as a sat-
urated liquid at the condenser pressure (state 1). The condensed water,
which is also called the feedwater, then enters an isentropic pump, where it
is compressed to the feedwater heater pressure (state 2) and is routed to the
feedwater heater, where it mixes with the steam extracted from the turbine.
The fraction of the steam extracted is such that the mixture leaves the heater
as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure (state 3). A second pump raises
the pressure of the water to the boiler pressure (state 4). The cycle is com-
pleted by heating the water in the boiler to the turbine inlet state (state 5).
In the analysis of steam power plants, it is more convenient to work with
quantities expressed per unit mass of the steam flowing through the boiler.
For each 1 kg of steam leaving the boiler, y kg expands partially in the turbine
and is extracted at state 6. The remaining (1 y) kg expands completely to
the condenser pressure. Therefore, the mass flow rates are different in dif-
ferent components. If the mass flow rate through the boiler is m
.
, for exam-
ple, it is (1 y)m
.
through the condenser. This aspect of the regenerative
Rankine cycle should be considered in the analysis of the cycle as well as in
the interpretation of the areas on the T-s diagram. In light of Fig. 1015, the
heat and work interactions of a regenerative Rankine cycle with one feed-
water heater can be expressed per unit mass of steam flowing through the
boiler as follows:
(1014)
(1015)
(1016)
(1017) w
pump,in
11 y2 w
pump I,in
w
pump II,in

w
turb,out
1h
5
h
6
2 11 y2 1h
6
h
7
2
q
out
11 y2 1h
7
h
1
2
q
in
h
5
h
4

Chapter 10 | 569
Pump I
Turbine
Boiler
Condenser
Pump II
5
2
7
6
Open
FWH
4
1
3
y
1 y
7
5
6
1
3
4
2
s
T
FIGURE 1015
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater heater.
!"#$%&'&(!)*+,-./ %1*&1+' 23*4 56 578" '9&
!"#$%&' )*+,- *./ 0,123.4/ 050647
$#
Closed feedwater heaters
Closed FWH
Heat transfer from extracted
steam to feedwater without any
mixing of the two streams
the two streams can be at
different pressures
closed FWHs do not require a
separate pump for each heater
Most steam power plants use a
combination of open and closed
feedwater heaters
where
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases as a result of regen-
eration. This is because regeneration raises the average temperature at
which heat is transferred to the steam in the boiler by raising the tempera-
ture of the water before it enters the boiler. The cycle efficiency increases
further as the number of feedwater heaters is increased. Many large plants
in operation today use as many as eight feedwater heaters. The optimum
number of feedwater heaters is determined from economical considerations.
The use of an additional feedwater heater cannot be justified unless it saves
more from the fuel costs than its own cost.
Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is
the closed feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the extracted
steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two streams
now can be at different pressures, since they do not mix. The schematic of a
steam power plant with one closed feedwater heater and the T-s diagram of
the cycle are shown in Fig. 1016. In an ideal closed feedwater heater, the
feedwater is heated to the exit temperature of the extracted steam, which
ideally leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the extraction pressure. In
actual power plants, the feedwater leaves the heater below the exit tempera-
w
pump II,in
v
3
1P
4
P
3
2
w
pump I,in
v
1
1P
2
P
1
2
y m
#
6
>m
#
5
1fraction of steam extracted2
570 | Thermodynamics
Boiler
Condenser
s
T
5
6
8 1
2
Pump II
Turbine
1
9
2
8
Mixing
chamber Closed
FWH
6
3
4
7
7
3
4
5
9
Pump I
FIGURE 1016
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater.
!"#$%&'&(!)*+,-./ %1*&1+' 23*4 56 578" '4+
where
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases as a result of regen-
eration. This is because regeneration raises the average temperature at
which heat is transferred to the steam in the boiler by raising the tempera-
ture of the water before it enters the boiler. The cycle efficiency increases
further as the number of feedwater heaters is increased. Many large plants
in operation today use as many as eight feedwater heaters. The optimum
number of feedwater heaters is determined from economical considerations.
The use of an additional feedwater heater cannot be justified unless it saves
more from the fuel costs than its own cost.
Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is
the closed feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the extracted
steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two streams
now can be at different pressures, since they do not mix. The schematic of a
steam power plant with one closed feedwater heater and the T-s diagram of
the cycle are shown in Fig. 1016. In an ideal closed feedwater heater, the
feedwater is heated to the exit temperature of the extracted steam, which
ideally leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the extraction pressure. In
actual power plants, the feedwater leaves the heater below the exit tempera-
w
pump II,in
v
3
1P
4
P
3
2
w
pump I,in
v
1
1P
2
P
1
2
y m
#
6
>m
#
5
1fraction of steam extracted2
570 | Thermodynamics
Boiler
Condenser
s
T
5
6
8 1
2
Pump II
Turbine
1
9
2
8
Mixing
chamber Closed
FWH
6
3
4
7
7
3
4
5
9
Pump I
FIGURE 1016
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater.
!"#$%&'&(!)*+,-./ %1*&1+' 23*4 56 578" '4+
!"#$%&' )*+,- *./ 0,123.4/ 050647
$$
A steam power plant with one open and three closed feedwater heaters
Regenerative Rankine cycle
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Modern regenerative cycle
$%
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Problem 10.44
Turbine bleed steam enters an open feedwater
heater of a regenerative Rankine cycle at
200kPa and 150
o
C while the cold feedwater
enters at 40
o
C. Determine the ratio of the bleed
steam mass flow rate to the inlet feedwater mass
flow rate required to heat the feedwater at
100
o
C.
$&
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Problem 10.46
A steam power plant operates on an ideal regenerative
Rankine cycle with two open feedwater heaters. Steam
enters the turbine at 10MPa and 600C and exhausts to
the condenser at 5kPa. Steam is extracted from the
turbine at 0.6MPa and 0.2MPa. Water leaves both
feedwater heaters as a saturated liquid. The mass flow
rate of steam through the boiler is 22kg/s. Show the
cycle on a T-s diagram, and determine
(a) the net power output of the power plant
(b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle
$'
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$(
Second-law analysis of vapor cycles
Exergy destruction for a steady-flow system, one-inlet, one-exit
Exergy destruction of a cycle
For a cycle with heat transfer only with a source and a sink
Stream exergy
Second-law analysis reveals where the largest irreversibilities
occur and where to start improvements
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Example 10.7
Consider a steam power plant operating on a simple
ideal Rankine cycle. Steam enters the turbine at 3MPa
and 350
o
C and is condensed in the condenser at a
pressure of 75kPa. Heat is supplied to the steam in a
furnace maintained at 800K and waste heat is rejected
to the surroundings at 300K. Determine:
(a) the exergy destruction associated wit each of the
four processes and the whole cycle
(b) the second-law efficiency of this cycle
$)
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air
inlet
combustion
chamber
turbine
compressor
exhaust
generator
fuel
~
generator
~
heat
recovery
steam
generator
steam
turbine
condenser
pump
steam
feed water
Combined cycle (Brayton - Rankine cycle)
Max efficiency ~ 58%-60%
(above 300MWe)

Widely used
$*
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$+
Combined cycle (Brayton - Rankine cycle)
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combinedCycle[1].swf
Combine cycle simulation
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Combine cycle advantages
High thermal efficiency
Low emissions
Low capital costs
Short construction times
Less space requirements
Flexibility in plant size
Fast start-up
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Example 10.8
Consider the combined cycle shown in
the Figure. The topping cycle is a gas-
turbine cycle that has a pressure ratio of
8. Air enters the compressor at 300K
and the turbine at 1300K. The isentropic
efficiency of the compressor is 80% and
that of the gas turbine 85%. The
bottoming cycle is a simple ideal
Rankine cycle operating between the
pressure limits of 7MPa and 5kPa.
Steam is heated in a heat exchanger by
the exhaust gases to a temperature of
500
o
C. The exhaust gases leave the heat
exchanger at 450K. Determine the ratio
of the mass flow rates of the steam and
the combustion gases.
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Problem 10.82
Consider a combined cycle plant that has a net power output
of 280MW. The pressure ratio of the gas turbine cycle is 11.
Air enters the compressor at 300K and the turbine at 1100K.
The combustion gases leaving the gas turbine are used to heat
the steam at 5MPa to 350
o
C in a heat exchanger. The
combustion gases leave the heat exchanger at 420K. An open
feedwater heater incorporated with the stean cycle operates
at a pressure of 0.8MPa. The condenser pressure is 10kPa.
Assuming isentropic efficiencies of 100% for the pump, 82%
for the compressor, and 86% for the gas and steam turbines
determine:
(a) the mass flow rate ratio of air to steam
(b) the required rate heat input in the combustion chamber
(c) the thermal efficiency of the combined cycle
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