1

1. Some Introductory Concepts

1.1 Definition of Compressibility
= constant all substances are compressible (especially gases)
if ~ constant incompressible flow (Bernoullis eq. holds)

2

if pressure is increased volume will change (decrease)
= t compressibility

dp
d

1

(1.1)
( = v specific volume)
usually temperature (T) increases, too
assume isothermal process: (T = constant)

T
T
p
1
|
.
|

\
|
c
v c
v
= t (1.2)
3

assume isentropic process (adiabatic + reversible):

s
s
p
1
|
.
|

\
|
c
v c
v
= t (1.3)
liquids have low compressibility:

N
m
10 5
2
10
T

= t at 1 atm for water
gases have higher compressibility

N
m
10
2
5
T

= t at 1 atm for air
4

use

dp
d 1 1

= t
v
= (1.4)
dp d t = (1.5)
for low velocities < d ) 3 . 0 M ( small 0 ~
constant flow ible incompress ~
for higher velocities > d ) 3 . 0 M ( is larger
compressible ) ct ( =
5

1.2 Flow Regimes





(Incompressible if M < 0.3)

a
u
M

=
=
=
sound of speed
magnitude velocity
Number Mach
6

Flow Regimes


7

Flow Regimes

8

Flow Regimes

9

Why are reentry vehicles blunt?

10

Knudsen number:

=
n
k (1.6)
= mean free path of a gas molecule
= characteristic body dimension
if 01 . 0 k
n
< continuous flow
1 k
n
> rarefied gas (e.g. at 300,000 ft:
1ft 1ft, ~ ~
)
10 k
n
> free molecular flow

11

1.3 Brief Review of Thermodynamics
p RT =
(1.7)
R= specific gas constant
k . kg
J
287 = =1716 ft lb/(slug R)

Or
= p
(1.8)
v specific volume =
this is accurate ( % 1 < error) for low pressures ) atm 1 (s
moderate temperatures ) k 273 (>
12

For high pressures and cold temperatures molecules are more
closely packed together: Van der Wads equation
RT ) b v (
v
a
p
2
= |
.
|

\
|
+ (1.9)
a, b are constants depending on the type of gas

internal energy: ) v , T ( e e (1.10)
enthalpy: pv e ) p , T ( h h + = (1.11)

13

thermally perfect gas:

dT c dh dT, c de
p v
= =
(1.12)
for
v p
c , c constant calorically perfect gas
T c e
v
= where:
v
v
T
e
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
= (1.13)
T c h
p
= where:
p
p
T
h
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
= (1.14)
14


v
p
v p
c
c
R c c = (1.15)

n+2
=
n
= 1.4 for diatomic gases
= 1.67 for triatomic gases
=

=
p p
c
c
c
R 1
1
c
R
1
p
v


=
p
c
(1.16)

=
v
c
(1.17)
15

First Law of Thermodynamics:
system (fixed mass)
energy in change e w q = o = o + o (1.18)
= oq heat added, = ow work done, = oe change in energy
16

- process: no heat added or taken away
- process: no dissipative phenomena occur
- process: adiabatic + reversible
for a reversible process
pdv w = o (1.19)
incremental change of volume due to boundary displacement

= pdv q
(1.20)
(alternative form of 1
st
law)
17

Examples of Reversible processes

18

Examples of irreversible processes
19

Entropy and second law
Entropy is

= ds
(1.21)
s = entropy, = o
rev
q amount of heat added reversibly
oq = amount of heat
T = system temperature

irrev
ds
T
q
ds + =
(1.22)
0 ds
irrev
> (1.23)
(if = 0 ds
irrev
reversible process)
20

2
nd
law:

T
q
ds
o
> (1.24)
for an adiabatic process:
0 ds > (1.25)
First law: you cannot
Second law: you always
21

Calculation of entropy:
de pd Tds Tds q
rev
= v = o
(using 1.20)
v + = pd de Tds (1.26)
use enthalpy v + = p e h
dp pd de dh v + v + =
dp dh Tds v = (1.27)
1.26 and 1.27 are alternative forms of 1
st
law
22

for a thermally perfect gas: dT c dh
p
= (1.12)

T
dp
T
dT
c ds
p
v
=
RT p = v

1
2
T
T
p 1 2 p
p
p
ln R
T
dT
c s s
p
dp
R
T
dT
c ds
2
1
= =
}

for a calorically perfect gas ( =
p
c constant)

=
1 2
s s
(1.28)

23

similarly:


=
1 2
s s
(1.29)
Isentropic relations
put
2 1
s s = in (1.28)

1
2
p
1
2
1
2
1
2
p
T
T
ln
R
c
p
p
ln
p
p
ln R
T
T
ln c 0 = =

=
1
2
p
p

24

from (1.18)

1 R
c
p

=

=
1
2
p
p
(1.30)
similarly:

1
2 v
1
2
1
2
1
2
v
T
T
ln
R
c
v
v
ln ln R
T
T
ln c 0 =
v
v
+ =
25


) 1 (
1
1
2
1
2
R
c
1
2
1
2
T
T
T
T
v

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
v

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
v
(1.31)

=
1
2

(1.32)
in summary:
) 1 (
1
2
1
2
p
p
T
T
1
2

|
.
|

\
|
= |
.
|

\
|

= (1.33)
(energy relation for an isentropic process) many processes can be
assumed isentropic, irreversible effects are usually constrained in
the boundary layer.
26

Governing equations [review from 301]
incompressible flow: ( = constant, = T also constant)
Continuity: (1.34)
Momentum:
2
DV
p
Dt
= V + V + V f
(1.35)


Unknowns:
Equations:
27


Energy:
p v
DT
C (k T)
Dt
= V V +u (1.36)

Bernoullis equation: p + = (1.37)
Assumptions: 1. Inviscid
2. Steady
3. Incomressible
4.
5.
28


Compressible flow: is variable
unknowns:
need energy equation

continuity: 0 d dv
t
s
= +
c
c
}} }}}
s V (1.38)
0
t
p
= V +
c
c
V (1.39)

29



momentum:
dv d p ) d ( dv
t
v s v
f
}}} }} }} }}}
+ = +
c
c
s V s V V (1.40)
x
f
x
p
Dt
Du
+
c
c
= (1.41)
v y y
w z z
30

energy:
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
c
c
}} }}}
s V
V V
d
2
e dv
2
e
t
2
s
2
v

dv ) ( p dv q
v s v
V ds V + =
}}} }} }}}
f (1.42)
) ( . p q
Dt
2
e D
2
V V
V
+ V =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
f (1.43)


31

Definition of total (stagnation) conditions
Consider a fluid element: p, T, , M, V (static quantities); then
move adiabatically to 0 = V
(for incompressible flow: p
o
= )
T
o
(total temperature)

o p o
T c h = (total enthalpy calorically perfect gas)
for adiabatic flow ) 0 q ( = , negligible body forces:
the energy equation becomes
32

V p
Dt
2
v
e D
2
V =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
(1.44)
using:
p p p V + V V V V V (1.45)

Dt
D p
Dt
Dp Dt / pD Dt / Dp
Dt
) / p ( D
2

|
definition of
Dt
D

33

using continuity: 0
Dt
D
= V +

V
V V V V + V +
c
c
= V + = p p
t
p
p
Dt
Dp
(1.46)
using (1.41), and adding (1.42) to (1.40):
V V V V
V
V + V +
c
c
+ V V =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

+ p p
t
p
p p
2
p
e
Dt
D
2


t
p
Dt
2
h D
2
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

V
(1.47)
34

|
.
|

\
|
+

+ h pv e
p
e
for steady flow:
0
Dt
2
h D
2
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

V

= +
2
h
2
V
constant along a streamline
constant h
2
h
o
2
= = +
V
; (stagnation enthalpy)
35

( ) e temperatur stagnation constant T T c h
o o p o
= =
(for non-adiabatic process
o o
T , h change)
for isentropic (= adiabatic + reversible) process to 0 = V
o o
, p , p (pressure and density)
for non-isentropic flow (e.g. across a shock wave)
o o
, p change,
but T
o
does not change, if adiabatic.


36

Problem 7.8: In the reservoir of a supersonic wind tunnel, the
velocity is negligible, and the temperature is 1000K. The
temperature at the nozzle exit is 600K. Assuming adiabatic flow
through the nozzle, calculate the velocity at the exit.

Reservoir:
Exit:
Adiabatic flow:



37

Problem 7.13: Bernoullis equation was derived in chapter 3 from
Newtons second law; it is fundamentally a statement that
force=mass x acceleration. However, the terms in Bernoulis
equation have dimensions of energy per unit volume, which
prompt some argument that Bernoullis equation is an energy
equation for incompressible flow. If this is so, then it should de
derivable from the energy equation for compressible flow
discussed in the present chapter. Starting with Equation (7.53) for
inviscid, adiabatic, compressible flow, make the appropriate
assumptions for an incompressible flow and see what you need to
do to obtain Bernoullis equation
Eq. 7.53:
2
V
h+ =constant
2

Rewrite enthalpy as:
38





Hence eq. 7.53 can be written as
2
V
+ =constant
2

For incompressible flow: