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149
ENGINE-ROOM TOOLS, PART 3
152. In order to maintain and repair all kinds of engine-room equipment,
especially machinery that operates at high pressures and speeds, the careful
and skillful use of measuring tools is essential. The measurement of cylinders,
piston rings and piston-ring grooves, the checking of bearing clearances, the
alignment of shafts and couplings, and the determination of sizes in the
machine shop, are only a few of the instances where careful measurement is
needed in engine-room practice. If engine-room personnel were unable to
measure the various parts of an engine accurately and therefore could not
determine whether changes were needed or how to make such changes to
other accurate measurements, it is to be expected that the engine would run
very ineciently, if at all.
The various units of measurement are taken up in the mathematics lessons, and
the student should be thoroughly familiar and able to work with such units. He
should also be procient in the operations of arithmetic, the changing of
fractions to decimals, or vice versa, etc. Even though accurate measurements
are taken, they will not be of much help unless the workman can use them
correctly.
153. Steel Rule.-One of the most frequently used measuring tools is the steel
rule, or machinist's rule. This measuring instrument enables work to be laid out
accurately, holes located correctly, and distances and sizes measured with
precision, and is therefore one of the most important tools in the engine room.
It is made from spring steel with a high degree of accuracy in both over-all
length and graduations, a 6-inch rule being the most common size, although the
12-inch rule is also used, and there are other standard lengths, up to 48 inches.
One side of a steel rule is ordinarily graduated in 8ths and 16ths and the other
side graduated in 32nds and 64ths, as shown in Fig. 133.
When measuring with the steel rule, the methods shown in Fig. 134 are
recommended. It is often helpful to measure from the 1-inch graduation, as
demonstrated in the illustration, instead of
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FIG. 133. Two SIDES OF STEEL RULE.
from the end. Wear and tear are hard on the ends of the rule and it is dicult to
measure accurately when starting at that point. Always remember to subtract
the correct amount, however. The width of the rectangular piece in Fig. 134, for
example, is 434 inches minus 1 inch, or 334 inches.
FIG. 134. MEASURING WITH STEEL RULE.
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It should also be noted that measurement from inside to inside of the
graduations of a rule will give a "scant" measurement, while measurements
from outside to outside of graduations will give a "full" measurement. Neither
one of these measurements is exact. To secure an exact measurement it is
necessary to measure precisely from center to center of the graduation marks.
A steel rule must always be handled carefully. Guard against rough usage that
may cause nicks or scratches, as these reduce accuracy. The rule should be
stored in a leather sheath when not in use and the leather oiled slightly to
prevent rusting and discoloration which would make the graduations dicult to
read.
FIG. 135. OTHER STEEL RULES.
154. Some other rules that may be found aboard ship are shown in Fig. 135.
These are used for making measurements beyond the capacity of the
machinist's rule, or for measuring curved objects, as can be done conveniently
with the steel tape or the exible steel rule.
A depth rule, Fig. 136, has a narrow blade which slides through a slotted locking
arrangement. It is used to measure the depth of holes, slots, keyways, and other
recesses. Some of these rules can
FIG. 136. DEPTH RULE.
152
FIG. 137. HOOK RULE AND SHORT STEEL RULES.
be used for measuring angles as well as the depth of holes drilled at an angle to
the surface.
The hook rule, Fig. 137, is convenient to use when measuring from an edge,
especially an edge that is out of sight. Short steel rules, sometimes called
"tempered steel rules," are used where other rules cannot reach. A number of
small rule sections are provided as a set, with a long-handled holder.
Adjustment is made by a knurled nut at the end of the holder so that the rule
can be held at dierent angles to suit the work.
Outside caliper rules are used to measure the outside diameters of rods, shafts,
bolts, etc., in sizes that are within the capacity of their jaws. Inside caliper rules
are used to take measurements of slots, grooves and openings.
FIG. 138. COMBINATION CALIPER RULE.
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The combination caliper rule, shown in Fig. 138, has jaws designed to make either
inside or outside measurements. If the diameter of a hole is being measured,
the graduation that lines up with the mark labeled IN is read. When measuring
the diameter of a shaft, the graduation that lines up with the OUT mark is read.
A special type of rule used by some mechanics is known as the circumference
rule. The purpose of the rule is to enable the circumference of a piece of work to
be obtained without calculation, when the diameter is known. The rule has two
sets of graduations on the same face, as shown in Fig. 139. One set is graduated
in
FIG. 139. CIRCUMFERENCE RULE.
inches with subdivisions of 1/16 inch, in the standard method, and is used in
measuring the diameter. The other is graduated in smaller divisions, the
numbers representing inches and the subdivisions representing 1/8 inch, but
the spaces are not true length.
To use the circumference rule, read straight across from the diameter
measurement to the number on the opposite edge. For example, if it is
necessary to cut a piece of sheet metal so that a cylindrical tube 3 1/2 inches in
diameter can be made, read directly opposite from 3 1/2 inches and obtain 11.
This is the circumference of the tube, in inches, and is very close to the result
that would be obtained by calculation, as 3.5 X 3.1416 = 10.9956. It the tube is to
be constructed with a lap joint, the material will naturally have to be cut wide
enough to allow for the lap.
155. It is important to remember that graduated measuring instruments must
be handled carefully so that they will retain their accuracy. In addition they must
be kept clean and dry, as dirt and moisture tend to wear and rust away the
graduations. Even the touch of the ngers will tend to corrode steel rules. It is
therefore essential that they be wiped o with a clean cloth and machine oil
after each use, and then stored carefully so as to be protected against damage
and deterioration.
154
FIG. 140. SCALES.
156. Scales.-The scales shown in Fig. 140 are graduated to indicate proportional
rather than actual measurements, permitting them to be used, for example, in
laying out work to a scale of 1/4 inch to the foot.
157. Straightedge.-A straightedge is a long, at, square-edged strip of steel,
ground to close tolerances, but not graduated. It is used to enable a perfectly
straight line of considerable length to be marked across a at surface. Where
comparatively short distances are involved, a steel scale in good condition can
be used as a straightedge. When using a scriber and straightedge, care must be
taken to make sure that the point of the scriber is drawn along the guiding edge
of the face in contact with the work, as otherwise inaccuracies will result. A
straightedge must be handled and stored very carefully. If dents, bends, or rusty
spots are permitted to occur, the value of the tool will be seriously aected.
158. Scriber.-A well-sharpened scriber is used to make clean and narrow lines
on metal. It is usually a slender piece of tool steel, tapered to a point at each
end, with one end being bent to a 90 angle, as shown in Fig. 141. The
instrument is long enough so that
FIG. 141. SCRIBER.
it can be gripped in the middle, where it is knurled for that purpose.
Before using a scriber it is advisable to examine the point, as it must be sharp
and evenly ground. An oilstone is used to keep the point in good condition.
When using the scriber, hold it rmly,
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and in much the same manner as a pencil. In Fig. 142 a pocket-type scriber, with
a detachable point that may be removed and stored in the head, is shown being
drawn along a straightedge. Note that it is tilted slightly in the direction of the
line being drawn. Also note how the scriber touches the guiding edge of the
lower face of the straightedge.
FIG. 142. USE OF SCRIBER.
It is often advisable to coat the surface of a piece of metal with chalk before
drawing lines on it, as this causes the lines to stand out more clearly. The use of
chalk is also helpful when using dividers.
159. Dividers.-In order to transfer distances from a rule to the material, dividers
are often used. They can also be used to check and compare dimensions, or to
scribe arcs and circles.
The correct way to set dividers to the desired dimensions is shown in view (a) of
Fig. 143. Note that one leg is on the 1-inch
FIG. 143. USE OF DIVIDERS.
156
mark instead of at the end of the rule. Since a 3-inch measurement is desired in
this instance, the best method is to compress the legs of the dividers slightly
with the hand, and then loosen the adjusting screw until the legs will open
slightly wider than 3 inches. Then compress the legs nearly to the correct
measurement and tighten up on the adjusting screw, checking and adjusting
until one leg stands exactly in the center of the 1-inch graduation and the other
leg in the exact center of the 4-inch graduation. If the spring tension is not
relieved by compressing the legs as just described, the adjusting screw does all
of the work and the threads are subjected to unnecessary wear.
Handle the dividers carefully while in use, as otherwise they may work loose and
creep open, thus altering the measurement. Points should be kept sharp by
means of an oilstone.
One way to check the setting of dividers is to draw a circle on a piece of scrap
paper or metal. Then measure the diameter of the circle with a rule. If the
diameter measures exactly twice the desired setting, the dividers are set
properly.
When using dividers to scribe a circle or an arc, be sure to tilt the dividers in the
direction of the arc, as shown in view (b) of Fig. 143. Keep the dividers at the
same inclination throughout the complete circle or arc.
FIG. 144. USE OF TRAMMEL.
160. Trammel.-When it is necessary to mark o an arc or circle too large for
dividers, a trammel can be used, as shown in Fig. 144. In this instance the
trammel points are attached to an extension bar by means of lock screws. When
using the trammel, make sure that there is no sag or bend in the extension bar
and that the
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screws are tight. Incline the trammel in the direction of the arc, and keep the
same angle of inclination constant through the entire length of the curve.
A non-adjustable trammel may be used aboard ship when placing the crank of
an engine on dead center, as explained in another lesson.
161. Surface Plate.-A surface plate is a at-topped steel or cast iron plate that is
heavily ribbed and reinforced on the under side, as shown in Fig. 145. Its top
surface is precision ground to form a true at surface, and this surface is used
as a base for making layouts with precision tools, such as the surface gage.
FIG. 145. SURFACE PLATE.
The surface plate can also be used for testing machine and engine parts that are
required to have at surfaces. To do this, a thin lm of Prussian blue or some
other color pigment is spread evenly over the surface plate. The surface of the
part to be tested is then rubbed on the surface plate. The color pigment will
adhere to the high spots of the part and indicate the areas to be scraped o.
After scraping the high spots, the part is tested again on the surface plate, and
the procedure continued until the color distributes evenly over the tested
surface, indicating that the job is completed. On large work it may be necessary
to lift the surface plate and rub it against the part being tested, but otherwise
the procedure is the same.
It is not recommended that a surface plate be used as a means of grinding in at
valves, as this practice would aect the true surface of the plate.
162. Protractor.-The instrument shown in Fig. 146 is known as a protractor and
is used in measuring or laying out angles. It is usually made of a transparent
substance, such as celluloid, so that lines can be seen through it, but it can be
made of metal or other materials. A protractor is made semicircular in shape so
as to
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FIG. 146. PROTRACTOR.
include 180, and is therefore usually divided into 180 equal parts. each division
representing 1.
By placing the base of the protractor on a line, with the midpoint of the
protractor where a second line intersects the rst line, the angle between the
two lines can be read directly from the instrument. With the aid of a
straightedge, or when used in a combination bevel protractor, lines can be
drawn on sheet metal, for example, at any desired angle.
The protractor can also be used in the construction of triangles used in
mathematical problems, or can be used in the graphical solution of such
problems, if the work is done with great care.
163. Squares and Combination Set.-In order to scribe, measure and check
angles, to construct lines at right angles to the edge of a piece of material, to
establish points for lines parallel to the edge, and to serve as a guide or
reference edge for other instruments, a square is essential. A steel square, 16 X
24 inches, is shown in Fig. 147, also a smaller solid square.
159
FIG. 147. STEEL SQUARE AND COMBINATION SET.
160
FIG.148. USES OF COMBINATION SET.
161
A combination set is also shown in Fig. 147. This set can be used for various purposes,
some of which are shown in Fig. 148. Note that a scriber, a spirit level and a protractor
are included.
164. Calipers.-Calipers are used for measuring diameters and distances or for
comparing distances and sizes. Several types of calipers are shown in Fig. 149.
FIG. 149. CALIPERS.
Outside calipers are used for measuring outside dimensions, for example, the diameter
of a piece of round stock. The calipers should rst be set approximately to the diameter
of the material to be measured. Then, while held at right angles to the center line of the
stock, as shown in Fig. 150, the calipers are adjusted until their points bear lightly on the
surface of the work. The points
162
FIG. 150. MEASURING WITH OUTSIDE CALIPERS.
163
should be moved back and forth slowly while adjusting them, in order to get the "feel."
When the adjustment has been made, the diameter can be read from a rule as shown
in the upper part of Fig. 150.
Inside calipers have curved legs for measuring inside diameters, such as the diameters
of holes, the distance between two surfaces, the width of slots, etc. To measure the
diameter of a hole with inside calipers, rst set them approximately to the size of the
hole; then, holding one leg against the wall of the hole, adjust the other leg until it just
touches the point exactly opposite, as shown in Fig. 151. The dimension can then be
determined with a rule, or
FIG. 151. MEASURING A DIAMETER WITH INSIDE CALIPERS.
164
FIG. 152. HERMAPHRODITE CALIPERS.
micrometer, as illustrated in the gure. With practice, such a measurement can be
taken with a high degree of accuracy.
Hermaphrodite calipers are generally used to scribe arcs, or as a marking gage in layout
work, as shown in Fig. 152. To adjust them to a rule, set the scriber leg slightly shorter
than the curved leg; then, with the curved leg against the end of the rule, adjust the
scriber leg to the desired graduation on the rule. Hermaphrodite calipers should not be
used for precision measurements.
165. Fixed Gages.-Gages are tools for measuring or transferring distances or
dimensions, usually within 0.001 inch or less. They are made both adjustable and
nonadjustable, or xed.
A xed gage is made with extreme accuracy to some xed standard of measurement or
shape, so that when it is applied to a piece of work, the standard is transferred to the
work. For example, if a mechanic wants to x two surfaces so that they are 0.006 inch
apart, he will adjust them until a piece of metal known to be 0.006 inch thick will just t
between them. Such a piece of metal would be a xed gage.
165
Fixed gages, in common with all precise measuring instruments, must be handled with
care to prevent their being damaged. They must be stored in a case or box so as not to
come in contact with other tools or metal objects, and should be protected with oil or
petrolatum to prevent corrosion.
FIG. 153. PLUG GAGE AND RING GAGE.
166. Plug gages and ring gages, examples of which are shown in Fig. 153, are used in
production work to check inside and outside dimensions for size and to see that
nished parts are within the manufacturing tolerance. (Tolerance in this case means
the allowable variation in a dimension that is permissible without rejection of the
nished part when inspected.) Such gages are usually made in pairs, either in one piece
or two units. For instance, a plug gage generally has a "go" end and a "no go" end. If the
"go" end of such a gage will enter a nished hole and the "no go" end will not, the size
of the hole is within the tolerance for which the gage was designed.
167. Feeler Gage.-A feeler, or thickness, gage, shown in Fig. 154, resembles a pocket
knife with a number of blades. All of the blades have the same shape, but each blade is
accurately ground to a denite thickness, which is stamped on the blade.
Feeler gages are used to measure the distance between two surfaces, for example,
when determining bearing clearances, valve tappet clearances, etc. The feeler gage
blades usually range in thickness from 0.0015 inch to 0.025 inch. By selecting
combinations of two or more blades it is possible to measure clearance up to the total
thickness of all of the blades.
166
FIG. 154. FEELER GAGE.
The secret of checking clearances accurately is the ability to "feel" the tension on the
blade when it is moved back and forth in the space that is being measured. The best
way to develop this sense of feel is to practice measuring clearances of known
dimensions. Always take care not to force the feeler blades into an opening.
The thinner blades must be handled with particular care to prevent kinks and creases.
When using the thinner blades in combination with other blades, always protect the
thin blades by placing them between heavy blades. Wipe the blades with a clean cloth
before using them, otherwise they will not measure accurately. After using the feelers,
wipe each blade clean and then apply a protective coating of oil or petrolatum.
Remember that feeler gages are easily corroded by perspiration applied during
handling, and if carried around in the pocket or otherwise neglected after use, the
blades may rust together.
A typical use of a feeler gage, in addition to those previously stated, would be in lining
up or checking the alignment of a shaft coupling. When this is to be done, all coupling
bolts and nuts are removed and a straightedge is placed across the outer surface of the
two coupling halves, in line with the shaft. The straightedge should rest evenly across
the rims of both coupling halves. If it does not rest evenly across the coupling and
clearance is noted, the coupling is out of line. Tests should be made with the
straightedge at 90-degree intervals around the circumference of the coupling.
A feeler gage should next be used to measure the clearance between the faces of the
coupling halves, the clearance also being measured at 90-degree intervals around the
circumference. All four measurements should be equal.
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When the straightedge rests evenly on both coupling halves in all four tests and the
clearance between the coupling halves is equal in all measurements, the coupling is
properly aligned. However, if there is any discrepancy in either test, the coupling is
misaligned.
When a coupling is out of line, noisy operation is likely to occur, bearings will run hot,
packing glands will wear and leak, etc. One or both of the connected units therefore
must be moved until the coupling halves are aligned. In the case of motor-driven
pumps, for example, it is usually more convenient to move the motor.
The alignment of a coupling may also be determined by the use of a machinists', or dial,
indicator. This instrument is described later.
FIG. 155. ANGLE GAGE.
168. Angle and Radius Gages.-The blades of angle and radius gages are all of the same
thickness, hut with them it is the blade outline that is important. Each blade of an angle
gage, for example, has a dierent end angle, as shown in Fig. 155, and these gages are
used when it is necessary to measure the same angles frequently.
The rounded corner of each blade of a radius gage is the arc of a circle, and the radius
of the arc is stamped on the blade, as shown in Fig. 156. The gage can be used to check
outside radii as well as inside radii.
169. Wire and Sheet Gage.-The gage shown in Fig. 157 is a U. S. Standard wire and
sheet gage. It can be used to measure
168
FIG. 156. RADIUS GAGE.
FIG. 157. WIRE AND SHEET GAGE.
cross sections of wire and to determine the gage (thickness) of metal sheets. Before
using one of these gages be sure that all burrs are removed from the material being
measured.
170. Snap Gage.-A snap gage is used to check the outside diameters of shafts on which
it is impossible (because of construction) to use a ring gage. The gage shown in Fig. 158
(A) is a combination snap and ring gage.
Adjustable snap gages have anvils that can be set to the desired dimensions by means
of a micrometer or gage blocks. The gage
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FIG. 158. SNAP GAGES.
shown in Fig. 158 (B) has two adjustable anvils; one can be set for the allowable
minimum diameter and the other for the allowable maximum diameter.
171. Center Gage.-The gage shown in Fig. 159 is a 60 center gage. The notches in the
edge of this gage also have an angle of 60 and are used to check the grinding of
thread-cutting tools, as American National thread has a thread angle of 60. The center
gage can also be used for setting thread-cutting tools square with the work.
FIG. 159. CENTER GAGE.
Center gages are usually marked on both faces and along both edges with scales that
are convenient for measuring the number of threads per inch of bolts, studs, etc. One
face has 20 divisions to the inch on one edge and 14 divisions to the inch on the other
edge. On the opposite face of the center gage there are 24 divisions per inch on one
edge and 32 divisions per inch on the other edge. The dierent sized divisions are used
to check the pitch, or number of threads per inch, of screw threads. The dierent
numbers of threads per inch for which each scale is suitable are those which divide into
the scale number without a remainder. For example, the edge with 20 divisions is
suitable for measuring 1, 2, 4, 5, 10 and 20 threads per inch, and also for any multiple
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of 20, such as 40, 60, 80, etc. The edge with 14 divisions may be used for measuring 1,
2, 7, or 14 threads per inch and for any multiple of 14. The scales with 24 divisions and
32 divisions are used similarly.
172. Thread Tool Gage.-A thread tool gage is useful in checking the size and shape to
which a lathe tool is ground when preparing it to cut a thread. A thread tool gage for
American National Coarse (NC) thread is shown in Fig. 160. Each notch of the gage
FIG. 160. THREAD TOOL GAGE.
is shaped for a particular thread, the gure opposite each notch denoting the number
of threads per inch. The threading tool is ground to t the notch corresponding to the
thread that is to be cut.
A worm-thread tool gage is shown in Fig. 161. This type of gage is used to check the
shape and size of a tool used to cut worm
FIG. 161. WORM-THREAD TOOL GAGE.
threads, the numbers indicating the number of threads per inch.
173. Surface Gage.-A surface gage is used to measure height and for scribing layout
lines on vertical surfaces. The commonly used universal type, Fig. 162, has a base plate,
an adjustable extension
FIG. 162. SETTING A SURFACE GAGE.
arm, and an adjustable scriber. When a surface gage is set to a combination-square
rule, as shown in the illustration, both the square and the gage base must rest on a at
smooth surface, preferably a surface plate.
174. Machinists' Indicator.-A machinists' indicator is a measuring instrument used to
test or measure variations in dimensions, the changes in measurements being
indicated visually by means of a pointer and a scale or dial. When arranged with a dial,
this type of instrument is known as a dial indicator. The indicator shown in Fig. 163 gives
readings in thousandths of an inch. It is often helpful to mount a dial indicator on the
extension arm of a surface gage, or make some other suitable arrangement, and use
the set-up to check the trueness of work in a lathe, the deection of a shaft, the
alignment of couplings, etc. By setting the indicator in position with its contact stem
bearing against a shaft, for example, the shaft can be turned slowly, and if it does not
run true, the dial hand will indicate the deviation. In operation, the instrument can be
adjusted so that it reads zero at the beginning of the
172
FIG. 163. DIAL INDICATOR.
reading. When the shaft or other piece of work is rotated, if the total of the maximum
plus and minus readings should be 0.004 inch, for example, the actual deection would
be 0.004 / 2 = 0.002 inch.
175. Small-Hole Gages.-One common method of nding the diameter of a small hole is
to try various twist drills in it until one is found that just ts in the hole. This method is
satisfactory if the right drill is available and absolute accuracy is not all-important.
The split-ball type of small-hole gage, Fig. 164, is designed,
FIG. 164. SMALL-HOLE GAGE.
however, for accurate determination of the diameters of small holes. There are usually
four of these gages in a set, designed to measure any hole diameter up to 1/2 inch. To
use the gage, the ball end is placed in the hole and the two halves expanded by turning
the handle. When the "setting" is just right, the gage is locked by means of the knob at
the end of the handle. The gage is
173
then withdrawn from the hole and the diameter of the ball end measured with a
micrometer.
176. Micrometers.-The micrometer, or micrometer calipers, is the most commonly used
adjustable gage and it is important that its mechanical principles, construction, use and
care, be thoroughly understood. A 1-inch outside micrometer, with its various parts
indicated, is shown in Fig. 165.
FIG. 165. SECTIONAL VIEW OF 1-INCH OUTSIDE MICROMETER.
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Micrometers are commonly used to measure distances to 1/10,000 inch (0.0001 inch)
and the measurements are usually expressed or written as a decimal. Any person using
a micrometer, therefore, should be entirely familiar with the method of writing and
reading decimals. As a brief review, remember that all gures to the left of the decimal
point are whole numbers; all gures to the right of the decimal point indicate parts of
whole numbers. Starting from the decimal point and moving to the right, the rst digit
indicates tenths; the second, hundreths; the third, thousandths; the fourth,
ten-thousandths; and so on. Thus 2.000 inches indicates exactly 2 inches; 2.3 is read
two and three-tenths; 1.85 is read one and eighty-ve hundredths; 4.071 is read four
and seventy-one thousandths; and 0.2318 is read two thousand three hundred
eighteen ten-thousandths. When there is no number to the left of the decimal point,
the quantity indicated is less than 1.
177. Types of Micrometers.-Micrometers are made in several dierent types, as
shown in Figs. 166, 167, and 168.
FIG. 166. SPECIAL OUTSIDE MICROMETERS.
The outside micrometer is used for measuring outside dimensions, such as the
diameter of a piece of round stock. The inside micrometer is used for measuring inside
dimensions, such as the bore of a cylinder. The screw-thread micrometer shown at the
upper right in Fig. 166, can be used to measure the minor diameter (diameter at root of
thread) of a screw thread. The screw-thread micrometer shown at the lower right is
used to determine the pitch diameter of a screw thread. The depth micrometer is used
to
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a. micrometer head d. lockscrew
b. extension rods d. lock screw
c. standard ring e. collar
FIG. 167. INSIDE MICROMETER.
measure the depth of holes or recesses. The ball-anvil micrometer can be used to
measure the thickness of tubing or bearing inserts, the ball shape tting the contour of
a cylindrical shape and reducing the possibility of damage to soft bearing metal. The
tube-wall micrometer is also suitable for measuring the thickness of tubing.
178. Range of Micrometer.-Micrometers are usually made so
FIG. 168. 1-INCH INSIDE MICROMETER AND DEPTH MICROMETER.
176
that 1 inch is the longest movement possible between spindle and anvil. The frames of
micrometers, however, are available in a wide variety of sizes, from 1 inch up to as large
as 24 inches for special work. The range of a 1-inch micrometer is from 0 to 1 inch; in
other words, it can be used on work where the dimension of the part to be measured is
1 inch or less. A 2-inch micrometer has a range from 1 inch to 2 inches, and will
measure only work that is between 1 and 2 inches thick. A 6-inch micrometer has a
range from 5 to 6 inches, and will measure only work that is between 5 and 6 inches
thick. It is necessary, therefore, in selecting a micrometer, to nd the approximate size
of the work to the nearest inch and then use a micrometer that will t it.
When it is necessary to use an inside micrometer of the type shown in Fig. 167, an
extension rod of the correct size must rst be inserted in the micrometer head. The
extension rod used must be the one that will enable the micrometer to measure the
desired dimension. As the micrometer shown in the illustration has a movement of
only 1/2 inch, a standard ring, which can be slipped over the extension rod, thus
moving the collar 1/2 inch from the micrometer head, is provided. This permits an
additional adjustment of 1/2 inch to be obtained. The combination of various parts
therefore enables various measurements to be taken, within the range of the
instrument.
To measure a cylinder with a diameter of approximately 6% inches, for example, the
extension rod labeled "6 - 7" would be used, and the range of the instrument would be
from 6 to 6 1/2 inches. If the diameter of the cylinder were approximately 6 3/4 inches,
however, the standard ring would be slipped on the rod before insertion in the
micrometer head. This would permit measurements from 6 1/2 to 7 inches to be taken.
179. Mechanics of Micrometer.-A micrometer actually records the endwise travel of a
screw during a whole turn or any part of a turn. The micrometer screw has 40 threads
to the inch, that is, when the screw is turned 40 times, it moves the spindle exactly 1
inch either toward or away from the anvil. A clockwise turn moves the spindle of an
outside micrometer toward its anvil; a counterclockwise turn moves the spindle away
from the anvil. It is clear, therefore, that a single turn of the micrometer screw moves
the spindle 1/40, or 25/1,000 (0.025) inch. (1.000 inch / 40 = 0.025 inch.)
177
180. Reading the Micrometer.-As just explained, if the thimble of a micrometer is
turned through one complete revolution, the micrometer opens or closes 0.025 inch.
Hence, to change the opening distance of 0.001 inch, the thimble should be turned
through only 1/25 of a revolution. To measure in thousandths of an inch by using the
micrometer, therefore, the problem involved is to count the number of complete
revolutions, plus any part of a revolution, in twenty-fths, that the thimble makes to set
the spindle and anvil exactly against the work being measured. For this purpose, the
barrel and thimble of micrometers are marked as shown in Fig. 169.
FIG. 169. READING THE MICROMETER.
The revolution line on the barrel should be understood rst. It is graduated in 40
divisions, each 0.025 inch in width, and a complete revolution of the thimble moves the
thimble exactly 0.025 inch along the barrel, or from one graduation to the next. The
spindle moves the same distance and in the same direction. Two complete revolutions
move the thimble 0.050 inch, 3 revolutions 0.075 inch, and 4 revolutions 0.100 inch
(1/10 inch). The numbers
178
at every fourth graduation on the revolution line therefore indicate tenths of an inch,
and there are 10 such numbers.
Assume, for example, that the micrometer is in the closed position, and the thimble is
then turned counterclockwise through 4 whole revolutions. When this has been done,
the edge of the thimble would exactly coincide with the fourth graduation (marked 1)
on the revolution line, and the opening between the spindle and the anvil would be
1/10 inch. If the thimble were turned further until the edge coincided with the next
(fth) graduation on the barrel, 5 revolutions would have been made and the
micrometer would be opened 0.125 inch.
As the graduations on the barrel divide the inch into parts of 25/1,000 (0.025) inch, as
just explained, and since there are 25 graduations on the circumference of the thimble,
each graduation on the thimble represents 1/25 of 0.025 inch, or 0.001 inch. With the
zero line of the thimble on the revolution line, for example, and then turning the
thimble just enough to move the next thimble graduation to the revolution line, the
spindle is moved exactly 0.001 inch. As the thimble is turned, each time a graduation on
the thimble passes the revolution line on the barrel, the micrometer opens or closes
0.001 inch.
181. For the purpose of this explanation, assume that the micrometers of Fig. 169 are
being used to measure the thickness of three dierent pieces of metal, and that the
thimble has been turned in each case until the spindle and anvil are bearing (but not
forced) against the material being measured.
In the upper illustration it is clear that the thimble is slightly outside the 3 mark on the
revolution line. The material is therefore larger than 0.300 inch. No other graduations
are visible to the right of the 3 mark, hut is noted that the 4th graduation (the one just
before 5) of the thimble is on the revolution line. The measurement is therefore 0.304
inch, as demonstrated in the following:
0.300 (largest number on revolution line between zero and edge of thimble)
0.000 (no graduations between 3 and edge of thimble) 0.004 (number of
graduations on thimble between zero and revolution line)
-----
0.304 inch
179
In the middle illustration of Fig. 169, the largest number on the revolution line between
zero and the edge of the thimble is 2, which represents 0.200 inch. Then it is necessary
to add the distance represented by the number of unmarked graduations between the
2 and the edge of the thimble. Although not clearly shown in the illustration, the
thimble has just uncovered a graduation line, which represents an additional 0.025
inch. The zero on the thimble has also passed the revolution line in the opening
direction, and the rst graduation on the thimble is on the revolution line. The total
opening of the micrometer, and therefore the thickness of the material being
-measured, is shown in the following:
0.200
0.025
0.001
----
0.226 inch
In the lower illustration of Fig. 169, the largest number on the revolution line between
zero and the edge of the thimble is 2; there are no unmarked graduations visible
between the 2 and the edge of the thimble; and the 24th graduation of the thimble is
on the revolution line. The measurement represented by the reading is therefore
shown in the following:
0.200
0.000
0.024
----
0.224 inch
It should be noted, in this last example, that the edge of the thimble appears to
coincide with the 0.025 graduation on the barrel; but if this were true, the zero line on
the thimble would coincide with the revolution line, which it does not do. The fact that
the 24th graduation of the thimble is on the zero line shows that the 0.025-inch
graduation on the barrel has not been reached. In the middle illustration of Fig. 169,
however, the fact that the 1st graduation of the thimble is on the zero line presents
evidence that the 0.025-inch graduation on the barrel has been reached.
182. In each of the illustrations of Fig. 169, one of the thimble graduations is exactly
aligned with the revolution line. This
180
alignment will not always occur in actual practice; in many cases when the
measurement is taken the thimble graduation will be at one side of the revolution line.
An example of this type of reading is shown in Fig. 170, where the revolution line is
between the 14th and 15th graduations of the thimble.
FIG. 170. READING BETWEEN LINES.
For reasonable accuracy the reading of Fig. 170 can be taken to the nearest graduation,
the 15th. The reading in this case would be:
0.300
0.025
0.015
----
0.340 inch
For closer work, however, the position of the revolution line relative to the thimble
graduations can be estimated. In this case it is about 7/10 of one graduation past the
14th graduation, and the reading can be taken as:
0.300
0.025
0.014
0.0007
----
0.3397 inch
183. Vernier.-In the illustrations of Figs. 169 and 170, the micrometers are constructed
to take measurements to 1/1000 inch, measurements less than 1/1,000 inch being
estimated, as explained in the preceding article. Many micrometers, however, have a
vernier scale on the barrel, enabling measurements to be taken to 1/10,000 inch.
The fundamental idea of a vernier scale is to divide a line of known length into equal
parts, and to compare the size of the divisions with those on a line the same length as
the rst one, but
181
FIG. 171. VERNIER SCALE MICROMETER.
divided into one less part. This is illustrated in Fig. 171, the left-hand view representing
the barrel and thimble of a micrometer, but attened out for the purpose of this
explanation. The graduations, marked 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, on the barrel, comprise
the vernier scale.
Observe that 10 divisions of the vernier are exactly equal to 9 divisions on the thimble.
Since each division on the thimble represents 0.001 inch, each division on the vernier
represents 0.0009 inch. This is shown as follows:
9 X 0.001 / 10 = 0.0009
It is apparent, therefore, that each division on the vernier represents a distance 0.0001
inch smaller than is represented by each division on the thimble. It can also be seen in
Fig. 171, that when zero on the vernier coincides with zero on the thimble, the next
graduation on both vernier and thimble will be 0.0001 inch apart, the second pair will
be 0.0002 inch apart, and so on, until the graduations coincide again at zero on the
vernier.
When the zeros of the vernier exactly coincide with lines on the thimble, a line on the
thimble also exactly coincides with the revolution line on the barrel, and the reading is
in thousandths. This is the condition shown in the left-hand view of Fig. 171, where the
reading is 0.2470 inch.
In the right-hand illustration of Fig. 171, however, the zero lines of the vernier do not
exactly coincide, and the graduation
182
on the thimble does not coincide with the revolution line. To take this reading, the
procedure is the same as before: 0.200 inch for the 2 on the barrel; 0.075 inch for the
three divisions visible to the right of the number 2; and 0.011 inch because the 11th
graduation on the thimble has passed the revolution line on the barrel. In addition,
however, observation of the vernier scale shows that the vernier line marked 2 is the
one that exactly coincides with a graduation on the thimble. Since each graduation of
the vernier scale represents a dierence of 1/10,000 (0.00001) inch, 2/10,000 (0.0002)
are added, and the reading is 0.2862 inch.
184. Using Micrometer.-The use of an outside micrometer in measuring the
dimensions of a piece of metal is shown in Fig. 172.
FIG. 172. USE OF MICROMETER.
As explained previously, a micrometer of the correct size for the work must be selected.
In view (a) of Fig. 172 a 1-inch micrometer is used because the material is less than 1
inch in thickness. In view (b) a 2-inch micrometer is used because the dimension is
between 1 and 2 inches.
The piece of work to be measured should be wiped clean. The micrometer should be
opened wide enough to slip over the work
183
freely, and the spindle and anvil should be wiped o. The thimble should then be
turned clockwise until the spindle and anvil lightly touch the work. A very light pressure
only is required. If the micrometer is tightened with too much force, the frame will
almost surely be sprung out of shape and readings will be inaccurate. Many
micrometers are equipped with a ratchet stop on the end of the thimble, as shown in
Fig. 165, the ratchet preventing the user from closing the tool with too much force. The
ratchet stop is made so that it will slip and click when a certain amount of force is
applied to it, and so prevent the spindle from moving further. If a micrometer has a
ratchet stop, it should always be used.
Finally, take the reading of the micrometer while it is still on the work. The enlarged
view in (a), Fig. 172, shows the reading on the left-hand micrometer, and the other
enlarged view shows the reading on the right-hand micrometer.
185. The methods used in measuring the diameter of round stock are shown in Fig.
173. When the correct size micrometer has been selected, the procedure is the same as
in measuring a piece of material with at surfaces. Care should be taken, however, to
insure that the material is measured at points exactly opposite each other; this is done
by sliding the micrometer back and forth across the piece until the right "feel" is
obtained. Note that a micrometer which measures dimensions between 16 and 17
inches is used in (b), Fig. 173.
FIG. 173. MEASURING ROUND STOCK.
184
FIG. 174. MEASURING INSIDE DIAMETER.
186. The correct use and position of an inside micrometer when taking the inside
measurement of a small cylinder are shown in Fig. 174. As explained previously, the
rst step in the measurement is to nd the approximate diameter with a rule; then
select the correct extension rod and insert it in the micrometer head. Be sure that both
the rod and micrometer head are thoroughly clean, and that the rod is screwed in the
full distance. Neglect of either of these precautions may result in an inaccurate
measurement.
In order to use this type of inside micrometer it is necessary to know the length of the
micrometer head, which in this case is M inches, when in the closed position. The
instrument is also equipped with a 4-inch head for longer measurements. The
micrometer heads have a range of 1 inch.
The length of each extension rod is stamped on the rod, a common set including rods
from 1 inch to 14 inches in length, thus enabling the instrument to measure distances
from 1 1/2 inches to 19 inches.
To "mike" the cylinder illustrated in Fig. 174, since measurement with a rule has shown
the diameter to be somewhere between 4 and 4 1/4 inches, the 2-inch extension rod is
used, as it will enable the tool to measure distances from 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 inches.
185
When the extension rod has been properly inserted in the micrometer head, place the
end of the rod against one side of the cylinder and turn the thimble of the micrometer
until the head barely touches the other side at a point exactly opposite. Then read the
dimension while the micrometer is still in position. Never let the micrometer bear
heavily enough to hang in the work with the hands removed from it.
187. Another method used for measuring smaller work, where an inside micrometer
will not t conveniently, is to use a telescoping gage, as shown in Fig. 175. The
telescoping gage should
FIG. 175. TELESCOPING GAGE.
be adjusted in the work until it exactly touches points directly across from each other,
and is then locked by turning the stem. When this has been done, the gage is removed
and the dimension measured with an outside micrometer as shown in the upper view
of Fig. 175.
For very small holes, the small inside micrometer shown in Fig. 168 is convenient. The
use of this tool is demonstrated in Fig. 176, and the two dierent readings show that it
is read like other micrometers, except that the numbers on the barrel increase toward
the left instead of toward the right.
186
FIG. 176. MEASURING DIAMETER OF SMALL HOLES.
188. When it is necessary to measure the depth of a hole, a depth micrometer can be
used, as shown in Fig. 177. Before taking this measurement, remove all burrs and make
sure that the surface of the work around the top of the hole is clean and smooth. The
correct size of extension rod is then selected and attached to the micrometer, and with
the base of the micrometer set rmly against the at surface, turn the thimble
clockwise until the extension rod just touches the bottom of the hole. If the micrometer
is equipped with a ratchet stop, it should be used. The measurement is read in the
usual manner.
189. As the micrometer is a delicate precision tool, every precaution should be taken to
prevent damage to it. Handle it with care and do not allow it to become rusty or dirty.
After it has been used, wipe it o with a clean cloth to which a few drops of ne
machine oil have been added. When not actually in use, keep the micrometer in a
wooden or metal box, with a felt lining.
Micrometers are often ruined by being closed too tightly on the material measured.
Remember that only a very light pressure is
187
FIG. 177. USE OF DEPTH MICROMETER AND EXTENSION ROD.
needed to obtain an accurate measurement. Also, always hold the frame stationary and
adjust the tool by turning the thimble. Do not hold the thimble and swing the frame
around in order to open or close a micrometer.
When using large micrometers, care is needed to see that the frames are not handled
roughly or sprung out of shape. When working with the larger micrometers in cold
weather, it is good practice to use a piece of cloth or waste between the hand and the
frame, as the heat of the hand may expand the frame enough to cause a variation in
the reading.
190. Vernier Calipers.-A vernier caliper, Fig. 178 (a) , resembles a caliper rule and is
used for the same purpose. The dierence, however, is that the vernier caliper can
make precision measurements because it has its own vernier scale.
The blade of one common type of vernier caliper has a scale that is divided into inch
spaces. These spaces are sub-divided into spaces of 1/10 (0.100) inch and 1/40 (0.025)
inch. The sliding jaw carries the vernier scale, and this scale has 25 spaces, each of
which is only 0.024 inch, 0.001 inch less than a space on the blade scale. (There are
actually two vernier scales on the sliding jaw, one marked "outside" for outside
measurements, and the other marked "inside" for inside measurements.)
To take a measurement with the vernier caliper, rst set the
188
FIG. 178. VERNIER CALIPER.
caliper to the thickness or diameter of the material being measured, and lock the
sliding jaw to the blade with the knurled-head set screw. Then read the blade scale
toward the right, Fig. 178 (b), and record the reading of the last graduation on the left of
the zero of the vernier scale. In this particular instance the last graduation on the left of
vernier zero represents 1.425 inches. Then carefully examine the vernier scale, Fig. 178
(b), and it will be seen that the 11th graduation on the vernier exactly coincides with a
graduation on the blade. The reading is therefore as follows:
1.425
0.011
----
1.436 inches
Vernier depth gages are set and operated in much the same way as a vernier caliper.
The vernier principle is also applied to a number of other gages, instruments and tools.
189
191. Gage Blocks.-Gage blocks are rectangular pieces of tool steel, having two
measuring surfaces which are at, parallel with each other, and a predetermined
distance apart, the distance being accurate to within 0.000002 (two millionths) inch.
These blocks are so exactly machined, nished and lapped, that if the measuring
surfaces of any two of them, when thoroughly clean, are slid together with a slight
inward pressure, they will adhere to one another as though magnetized. Gage blocks
(sometimes called jo-blocks, from Johanson, their originator) are available in three
grades of accuracy:
1. Laboratory set, AA quality, accurate to 0.000002 inch.
2. Inspection set, A quality, accurate to 0.000004 inch.
3. Working set, B quality, accurate to 0.000008 inch.
A full working set of gage blocks is made up of 81 blocks. The set consists of four series
of sizes, as follows:
1. First series. 9 blocks, ranging in size from 0.1001 inch to 0.1009 inch, in steps
of 0.0001 inch.
2. Second series. 49 blocks, ranging in size from 0.101 inch to 0.149 inch, in
steps of 0.001 inch.
3. Third series. 19 blocks, ranging in size from 0.050 inch to 0.950 inch, in steps
of 0.050 inch.
4. Fourth series. 4 blocks, 1 inch, 2 inches, 3 inches, and 4 inches.
By sliding dierent sizes of blocks together, the machinist can obtain any
measurement, in 1/10,000 of an inch, from 0.1001 inch to 12.00 inches, and in 1/1,000
of an inch, from 0.100 inch to 12.00 inches.
Gage blocks are commonly used for checking the accuracy of other gages, such as snap
gages or micrometers, although it is practical to use them directly on a piece of work to
be measured.
If it is desired to check the accuracy of a micrometer, any block or combination of
blocks within the range of the micrometer can be used. Wipe the measuring surfaces
clean on the hand or a piece of chamois, and slide them together so that they adhere.
Then measure the thickness of the gage blocks with the micrometer being tested. If the
micrometer reading agrees with the known thickness of the gage blocks, the
micrometer is accurate.
192. Speed Indicator.-When it is desired to know the number
190
of revolutions per minute made by an electric motor, turbine rotor, or other revolving
part, the information can be secured by the use of a speed indicator, such as shown in
Fig. 179.
FIG. 179. SPEED INDICATOR.
This type of speed indicator has a spindle that is free to turn in the body of the
instrument, the spindle being geared to the graduated ring in such a way that 100 turns
of the spindle cause the ring to make exactly one complete revolution. The ring is
graduated into 100 equal parts, and is numbered both right-handed and left-handed,
so that the indicator may be used on a shaft that is turning in either direction.
The indicator has a set of interchangeable rubber tips that t on the spindle.
Cone-shaped, at end and vacuum tips are usually supplied. The cup-like vacuum tip
works best on the at end of a shaft; the cone tip is best when the shaft has a
countersunk end.
In order to use this type of speed indicator, a stop watch or a watch with a sweep
second hand is needed. Then slip the correct tip over the end of the spindle and apply
the tip to the rotating shaft. When the zero is observed to pass under the starting mark,
an assistant should start the stop watch. The number of times that the zero passes the
starting mark is then counted. When a minute (or any other desired period of time) has
elapsed, the indicator is quickly removed from the shaft and the position of the ring
noted. If, for example, the ring has made 17 revolutions during the minute and the 60
graduation stands under the starting mark, the reading is taken as 1,760 rpm.
Another type of speed indicator has a small pin on its graduated ring, and is equipped
with a notched disk. Every time the graduated ring makes a complete turn, the pin on it
passes under a spring nger, lifting the spring nger and allowing the notched
191
disk to move one notch. At the end of the test the number of notches that the notched
disk has moved is counted. Each notch represents 100 revolutions of the spindle.
Some speed indicators are equipped with a small rubber-faced wheel which can be
slipped on the spindle. The wheel is used when it is desired to nd the speed, in feet
per minute, at which the surface of a piece of work is moving. To do this, the wheel is
pressed against the face of the work whose surface speed is to be found, holding the
spindle parallel to the face of the work and noting the elapsed time carefully. The wheel
is generally of such a size that every revolution of it represents a movement of 6 inches
(1/2 foot) of the surface of the work. The total reading of the indicator, for 1 minute, is
therefore divided by 2, and the result is the speed of the surface of the work, in feet per
minute.
193. Tachometer.-A tachometer diers from the speed indicators previously
described, in that it registers directly the revolutions of the rotating shaft, no timing or
computation being necessary. A tachometer designed for use with either high, medium,
or low-speed machinery is shown in Fig. 180. To use this tachometer on
FIG. 180. TACHOMETER.
192
an alternator operating at 3,600 rpm, for example, the gear shift would be set in the
HIGH position and the reading taken from the outer graduated circle. For a machine
operating at 800 rpm, the tachometer gear shift would be set in the LOW position and
the reading taken from the next to the outer graduated circle.
A self-energized electric tachometer, as shown in Fig. 181, is sometimes used aboard
ship.
FIG. 181. ELECTRIC TACHOMETER.
194. Sounding Rods and Tapes.--One of the most common measurements taken
aboard ship is that of sounding the tanks, as a check of the available quantity of water,
fuel oil, lubricating oil, etc., must be made often. There are various devices, to be
described in another lesson, which permit the amount of liquid in each tank of a ship to
be measured hydraulically and to
193
be read from a gage located in a convenient position. Not all ships are so equipped,
however, and there are many occasions when it is necessary to sound a tank,
measuring the depth of liquid in it by means of a sounding rod or tape.
If the tank is not too deep, a metal rod, graduated in inches, and with a line fastened to
its upper end, may be lowered through the sounding pipe until it reaches the bottom of
the tank. If the liquid is fuel oil, the depth of oil in the tank is shown on the rod when it
is withdrawn from the tank. If water is contained in the tank, the rod should be coated
with chalk before being lowered, as this will enable the depth of water to be seen more
readily on the rod. Even though the tank is an oil tank, it is often advisable to chalk the
lower portion of the rod, as this may help to detect any water that is present, the water
having settled to the bottom of the tank. In such a case, when the sounding rod is
removed from the tank, small bubbles would be observed on the portion of the rod
that extended into the water.
Chalking of the sounding rod is especially important when checking the measurement
of an empty or nearly empty double-bottom tank, or any other fuel tank that could
possibly leak and admit sea water. A most essential time for this to be done is when the
tanks are sounded before taking on fuel supplies. The sounding rod should be
scrutinized carefully for water, and if its presence is detected, it may very well indicate
that a leak has developed in the tank since the last measurement was taken. If the leaky
tank were to be lled with fuel, the fuel would become contaminated and within a short
time would possibly be unusable and a total loss. A congealing condition might also
result that would make the removal of the contaminated oil very dicult and
expensive.
It is recommended that the sounding rod, or other arrangement lowered into a
sounding pipe, be made of brass or bronze rather than of iron or steel. The iron or steel
might cause a dangerous spark when dropped into an empty fuel tank.
In the ullage method of measuring the depth of liquid in a tank, a cup-shaped weight is
lowered until the weight comes into contact with the surface of the liquid. A
measurement is then taken which gives the distance from the surface of the liquid to
the upper end of the sounding pipe. The total distance from the bottom of the tank to
the upper end of the sounding pipe being known, it is only necessary to subtract the
measurement from the total distance in order to nd the depth of liquid in the tank.
This method
194
has the advantage that the sounding apparatus does not become so smeared with oil
as would be the case when lowered to the bottom of an oil tank.
The measurements taken with the equipment just described are usually in inches. In
order to determine the quantity of liquid in gallons or barrels, it is necessary to consult
a conversion chart for the tank in question.
195. Torsion Meter.-The torsion meter is an instrument used for determining the shaft
horsepower being transmitted by a revolving shaft, such as the line shaft of a turbine-
propelled vessel. The torsion meter measures the torsion, or twist, of the shaft under
operating conditions, and this measurement, in conjunction with the known stiness of
the material of which the shaft is made, and the rpm of the shaft, enables the
horsepower to be computed.
The torsion meter is usually used during the trial trip of a vessel and is then removed. It
is not ordinarily a part of the permanent installation of the ship. The instrument may be
designed to measure the torque by mechanical means, and there are also electric
torsion meters.
195
ENGINE-ROOM TOOLS, PART 3
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Instructions : -Study the lesson very carefully before considering the examination
questions. Then read each question slowly and be sure that you understand it. When
answering the questions, always take sucient time, prepare the answers in your own
words, and do your best work. In arranging your answers, please leave space between
them so that the instructor will be able to write in helpful explanation, should you make
an error or overlook an important point. After the answers are completed, check them
again very carefully; make sure that all questions are taken care of; correct each error that
you nd; and mail your work to us.
1. What is the measurement of the rectangular piece of stock, Fig. 134?
2. What type of rule can be used to measure:
(a) the outside diameter of a shaft?
(b) the depth of a piston ring groove?
3. It is desired to cut a piece of sheet metal so that a tube 20 inches long and
approximately 2 7/8 inches in diameter can be constructed. The edges of the metal are
to overlap 1/2 inch. Explain how the necessary width of material can be determined
without calculation or reference to Tables.
4. When preparing to locate the exact point for drilling a hole in a piece of metal, it is
often helpful to coat the area with chalk. Explain why.
5. Explain how to set a pair of dividers to lay out a 4-inch circle.
6. (a) Explain, in detail, how to line up a coupling.
(b) Explain the care to be given a feeler gage when not in use.
196
7. Explain why a sounding rod is coated with chalk, especially when sounding fuel oil
double-bottom tanks prior to taking on fuel.
8. What danger may arise from the use of an iron or steel sounding rod?
9. What is the range of a 3-inch micrometer?
10. What is the purpose of a ratchet stop on a micrometer? How does it function?
11. What type of micrometer would be used to measure the thickness of a bearing
insert?
12. Explain in detail how a micrometer of the type shown in Fig. 174 would be used to
measure the exact diameter of a cylinder which has a diameter slightly less than 14
inches.
13. A 2-inch outside micrometer has been opened 32 turns when the measurement of
the thickness of a piece of metal is taken. How thick is the metal? Explain.
14. When the thimble of a micrometer has been turned suciently to uncover exactly 8
graduations on the revolution line of the barrel, what distance has the spindle moved?
15. What is the measurement indicated by the micrometer reading at the left, Fig. 172?
16. What is the measurement indicated by the micrometer reading at the right, Fig.
172?
17. What is the measurement indicated by the lower micrometer reading, Fig. 176?
18. Give the measurements indicated by each of the 9 examples shown in Fig. 182. A
1-inch micrometer is used in each instance. Number your answers in accordance with
the illustration.
197
FIG. 184.
19. What measurement is indicated by the 1-inch vernier micrometer, Fig. 183?
FIG. 183.
198
20. Give the measurements indicated by views (a) and (b) of Fig. 184. This is a 1-inch
micrometer.
FIG. 184.
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