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= D
- K K
Evaporation
F. Interstage steam pressures can be increased with ejectors (20-30% efficient) or mechanical
compressors (70-75% efficient).
E. Reverse feed results in the more concentrated solution being heated with the hottest steam to
minimize surface area. However, the solution must be pumped from one stage to the next.
A. Most popular types are long tube vertical with natural or forced circulation. Tubes range from 3/4"
to 2.5"
B. Forced circulation tube velocities are generally in the 15-20 ft/s (4.5-6 m/s) range.
C. Boiling Point Elevation (BPE) as a result of having dissolved solids must be accounted for in the
differences between the solution temperature and the temperature of the saturated vapor.
D. BPE's greater than 7 F (3.9 C) usually result in 4-6 effects in series (feed-forward) as an
economical solution. With smaller BPE's, more effects in series are typically more economical,
depending on the cost of steam.
Filtration
G. Finely ground mineral ores can utilize rotary drum rates of 1500 lb/dat ft2 (7335 kg/day m2) at 20
rev/h and 18-25 in Hg (457-635 mm Hg) vacuum.
H. Course solids and crystals can be filtered at rates of 6000 lb/day ft2 (29,340 kg/day m2) at 20 rev/h
and 2-6 in Hg (51-152 mm Hg) vacuum.
F. Cartridges, precoat drums, and sand filters can be used for clarification duties with negligible
buildup.
E. Pressure filters or sedimenting centrifuges are best for slow filtering.
A. Initially, processes are classified according to their cake buildup in a laboratory vacuum leaf filter :
0.10 - 10.0 cm/s (rapid), 0.10-10.0 cm/min (medium), 0.10-10.0 cm/h (slow)
B. Continuous filtration methods should not be used if 0.35 sm of cake cannot be formed in less than
5 minutes.
C. Belts, top feed drums, and pusher-type centrifuges are best for rapid filtering.
D. Vacuum drums and disk or peeler-type centrifuges are best for medium filtering.
Heat Exchangers
A. For the heat exchanger equation, Q = UAF (LMTD), use F = 0.9 when charts for the LMTD correction
factor are not available
B. Most commonly used tubes are 3/4 in. (1.9 cm) in outer diameter on a 1 in triangular spacing at
16 ft (4.9 m) long.
C. A 1 ft (30 cm) shell will contains about 100 ft2 (9.3 m2)
A 2 ft (60 cm) shell will contain about 400 ft2 (37.2 m2)
A 3 ft (90 cm) shell will contain about 1100 ft2 (102 m2)
D. Typical velocities in the tubes should be 3-10 ft/s (1-3 m/s) for liquids and
30-100 ft/s (9-30 m/s) for gases
E. Flows that are corrosive, fouling, scaling, or under high pressure are usually placed in the tubes
F. Viscous and condensing fluids are typically placed on the shell side.
G. Pressure drops are about 1.5 psi (0.1 bar) for vaporization and 3-10 psi (0.2-0.68 bar) for other services
H. The minimum approach temperature for shell and tube exchangers is about 20 0F (10 0C) for fluids and
10 0F (5 0C) for refrigerants.
I. Cooling tower water is typically available at a maximum temperature of 90 0F (30 0C) and should be
returned to the tower no higher than 115 0F (45 0C)
J. Shell and Tube heat transfer coefficient for estimation purposes can be found in many reference books
or an online list can be found at one of the two following addresses:
http://www.cheresources.com/uexchangers.shtml
http://www.processassociates.com/process/heat/uvalues1.htm
K. Double pipe heat exchangers may be a good choice for areas from 100 to 200 ft2 (9.3-18.6 m2)
L. Spiral heat exchangers are often used to slurry interchangers and other services containing solids
M. Plate heat exchanger with gaskets can be used up to 320 0F (160 0C) and are often used for interchanging
duties due to their high efficiencies and ability to "cross" temperatures. More about compact heat exchangers
can be found at:
http://www.us.thermal.alfalaval.com/
A. For the heat exchanger equation, Q = UAF (LMTD), use F = 0.9 when charts for the LMTD correction
G. Pressure drops are about 1.5 psi (0.1 bar) for vaporization and 3-10 psi (0.2-0.68 bar) for other services
H. The minimum approach temperature for shell and tube exchangers is about 20 0F (10 0C) for fluids and
I. Cooling tower water is typically available at a maximum temperature of 90 0F (30 0C) and should be
J. Shell and Tube heat transfer coefficient for estimation purposes can be found in many reference books
M. Plate heat exchanger with gaskets can be used up to 320 0F (160 0C) and are often used for interchanging
duties due to their high efficiencies and ability to "cross" temperatures. More about compact heat exchangers
Mixing
0.2 - 0.5 0.033 - 0.082
0.5 - 1.5 0.082 - 0.247 7.5 - 10.0 2.3 - 3.1
1.5 - 5.0 0.247 - 0.824 10.0 - 15.0 3.1 - 4.6
15.0 - 20.0 4.6 - 6.1
5.0 - 10.0 0.824 - 1.647 15.0 - 20.0 4.6 - 6.1
E. Power to mix a fluid of gas and liquid can be 25-50% less than the power to mix the liquid alone.
A. Mild agitation results from superficial fluid velocities of 0.10-0.20 ft/s (0.03-0.06 m/s). Intense agitation
results from velocities of 0.70-1.0 ft/s (0.21-0.30 m/s).
B. For baffled tanks, agitation intensity is measured by power input and impeller tip speeds:
C. Various geometries of an agitated tank relative to diameter (D) of the vessel include:
Liquid Level = D
Turbine Impeller Diameter = D/3
Impeller Level Above Bottom = D/3
Impeller Blade Width = D/15
Four Vertical Baffle Width = D/10
D. For settling velocities around 0.03 ft/s, solids suspension can be accomplished with turbine or propeller
impellers. For settling velocities above 0.15 ft/s, intense propeller agitation is needed.
Blending
Homogeneous Reaction
Reaction w/ Heat Transfer
Tip Velocity
ft/s m/s
Slurries
HP/1000 gal kW/m3
Power Requirements
Liquid-Liquid Mixture
Liquid-Gas Mixture
--------------------
--------------------
--------------------
5.0
10.0 1.647
0.824
--------------------
Pressure and Storage Vessels
Pressure Vessels
A. Design Temperatures between -30 and 345 0C (-22 to 653 0F) is typically about
25 0C (77 0F) above maximum operating temperature, margins increase above this range
B. Design pressure is 10% or 0.69 to 1.7 bar (10 to 25 psi) above the maximum operating
pressure, whichever is greater. The maximum operating pressure is taken as 1.7 bar (25 psi)
above the normal operation pressure.
C. For vacuum operations, design pressures are 1 barg (15 psig) to full vacuum
D. Minimum thicknesses for maintaining tank structure are:
6.4 mm (0.25 in) for 1.07 m (42 in) diameter and under
8.1 mm (0.32 in) for 1.07-1.52 m (42-60 in) diameter
9.7 mm (0.38 in) for diameters over 1.52 m (60 in)
E. Allowable working stresses are taken as 1/4 of the ultimate strength of the material
F. Maximum allowable working stresses:
Temperature -20 to 650 0F 750 0F 850 0F 1000 0F
-30 to 345 0C 400 0C 455 0C 540 0C
CS SA203 18759 psi 15650 psi 9950 psi 2500 psi
1290 bar 1070 bar 686 bar 273 bar
302 SS 18750 psi 18750 psi 15950 psi 6250 psi
1290 bar 1290 bar 1100 bar 431 bar
G. Thickness based on pressure and radius is given by:
where pressure is in psig, radius in inches, stress in psi, corrosion allowance in inches.
**Weld Efficiency can usually be taken as 0.85 for initial design work
H. Guidelines for corrosion allowances are as follows: 0.35 in (9 mm) for known corrosive fluids, 0.15 in (4 mm)
for non-corrosive fluids, and 0.06 in (1.5 mm) for steam drums and air receivers.
Storage Vessels
H. For less than 3.8 m3 (1000 gallons) use vertical tanks on legs
I. Between 3.8 m3 and 38 m3 (1000 to 10,000 gallons) use horizontal tanks on concrete supports
J. Beyond 38 m3 (10,000 gallons) use vertical tanks on concrete pads
K. Liquids with low vapor pressures, use tanks with floating roofs.
L. Raw material feed tanks are often specified for 30 days feed supplies
M. Storage tank capacity should be at 1.5 times the capacity of mobile supply vessels.
For example, 28.4 m3 (7500 gallon) tanker truck, 130 m3 (34,500 gallon) rail cars
Allowance Corrosion
(Pressure) 0.6 - ) Efficiency (Weld x Stress) Allowable (
Radius) (Outer x (Pressure)
Thickness + =
H. Guidelines for corrosion allowances are as follows: 0.35 in (9 mm) for known corrosive fluids, 0.15 in (4 mm)
Piping
A. Liquid lines should be sized for a velocity of (5+D/3) ft/s and a pressure drop of
2.0 psi/100 ft of pipe at pump discharges
At the pump suction, size for (1.3+D/6) ft/s and a pressure drop of 0.4 psi/100 ft of pipe
**D is pipe diameter in inches
B. Steam or gas lines can be sized for 20D ft/s and pressure drops of 0.5 psi/100 ft of pipe
C. Limits on superheated, dry steam or line should be 61 m/s (200 ft/s) and a pressure drop of 0.1 bar/100 m
or 0.5 psi/100 ft of pipe. Limits on saturated steam lines should be 37 m/s (120 ft/s) to avoid erosion.
D. For turbulent flow in commercial steel pipes, use the following:
E. For two phase flow, an estimate often used is Lockhart and Martinelli:
First, the pressure drops are calculated as if each phase exist alone in the pipe, then
F. Control valves require at least 0.69 bar (10 psi) pressure drop for sufficient control
G. Flange ratings include 10, 20, 40, 103, and 175 bar (150, 300, 600, 1500, and 2500 psig)
H. Globe valves are most commonly used for gases and when tight shutoff is required. Gate valves are common for most other services.
I. Screwed fitting are generally used for line sizes 2 inches and smaller. Larger connections should utilize flanges or welding to eliminate leakage.
J. Pipe Schedule Number = 1000P/S (approximate) where P is the internal pressure rating in psig and S is the allowable working
stress of the material is psi. Schedule 40 is the most common.
23,000 with 20,000 replace tubes, steel exchanger heat smooth *For *
in. diameter, inside Pipe D
lb/ft density,
cP , viscosity
lb/hr flow, Mass M
pipe of feet equivalent psi/100 drop, pressure Frictional P
: where
D 000 , 20 / M P
3
.
.
4.8 2 . 0 8 . 1
=
=
=
=
= D
= D
r
m
r m
L
2
G
0.68 - 1.78 -
L
G G L L total
5 . 0
G
L
Y X Y
65 . 0 X 5 . 12 X 6 . 4 Y
where
P Y or P Y P
: following the of one by calculated be can drop pressure total the now,
P
P
X
=
+ + =
D D = D
D
D
=
C. Limits on superheated, dry steam or line should be 61 m/s (200 ft/s) and a pressure drop of 0.1 bar/100 m
Limits on saturated steam lines should be 37 m/s (120 ft/s) to avoid erosion.
H. Globe valves are most commonly used for gases and when tight shutoff is required. Gate valves are common for most other services.
I. Screwed fitting are generally used for line sizes 2 inches and smaller. Larger connections should utilize flanges or welding to eliminate leakage.
J. Pipe Schedule Number = 1000P/S (approximate) where P is the internal pressure rating in psig and S is the allowable working
Pumps
A. Power estimates for pumping liquids:
kW=(1.67)[Flow (m3/min)][Pressure drop (bar)]/Efficiency
hp=[Flow (gpm)][Pressure drop (psi)]/1714 (Efficiency)
**Efficiency expressed as a fraction in these relations
B. NPSH=(pressure at impeller eye-vapor pressure)/(density*gravitational constant)
Common range is 1.2 to 6.1 m (4-20 ft) of liquid
C. An equation developed for efficiency based on the GPSA Engineering Data Book is:
Efficiency = 80-0.2855F+.000378FG-.000000238FG^2+.000539F^2-.000000639(F^2)G+
.0000000004(F^2)(G^2)
where Efficiency is in fraction form, F is developed head in feet, G is flow in GPM
Ranges of applicability are F=50-300 ft and G=100-1000 GPM
Error documented at 3.5%
D. Centrifugal pumps: Single stage for 0.057-18.9 m3/min (15-5000 GPM), 152 m (500 ft)
maximum head; For flow of 0.076-41.6 m3/min (20-11,000 GPM) use multistage, 1675 m (5500 ft)
maximum head; Efficiencies of 45% at 0.378 m3/min (100 GPM), 70% at 1.89 m3/min (500 GPM),
80% at 37.8 m3/min (10,000 GPM).
E. Axial pumps can be used for flows of 0.076-378 m3/min (20-100,000 GPM)
Expect heads up to 12 m (40 ft) and efficiencies of about 65-85%
F. Rotary pumps can be used for flows of 0.00378-18.9 m3/min (1-5000 GPM)
Expect heads up to 15,200 m (50,000 ft) and efficiencies of about 50-80%
G. Reciporating pumps can be used for 0.0378-37.8 m3/min (10-100,000 GPM)
Expect heads up to 300,000 m (1,000,000 ft).
Efficiencies: 70% at 7.46 kW (10 hp), 85% at 37.3 kW (50 hp), and 90% at 373 kW (500 hp)
maximum head; For flow of 0.076-41.6 m3/min (20-11,000 GPM) use multistage, 1675 m (5500 ft)
maximum head; Efficiencies of 45% at 0.378 m3/min (100 GPM), 70% at 1.89 m3/min (500 GPM),
Tray Towers
A. For ideal mixtures, relative volatility can be taken as the ratio of pure component vapor pressures
B. Tower operating pressure is most often determined by the cooling medium in condenser or the
maximum allowable reboiler temperature to avoid degradation of the process fluid
C. For sequencing columns:
1. Perform the easiest separation first (least trays and lowest reflux)
2. If relative volatility nor feed composition vary widely, take products off one at time
as the overhead
3. If the relative volatility of components do vary significantly, remove products in order
of decreasing volatility
4. If the concentrations of the feed vary significantly but the relative volatility do not,
remove products in order of decreasing concentration.
D. The most economic reflux ratio usually is between 1.2Rmin and 1.5Rmin
E. The most economic number of trays is usually about twice the minimum number of trays.
The minimum number of trays is determined with the Fenske-Underwood Equation.
F. Typically, 10% more trays than are calculated are specified for a tower.
G. Tray spacings should be from 18 to 24 inches, with accessibility in mind
H. Peak tray efficiencies usually occur at linear vapor velocities of 2 ft/s (0.6 m/s) at moderate pressures,
or 6 ft/s (1.8 m/s) under vacuum conditions.
I. A typical pressure drop per tray is 0.1 psi (0.007 bar)
J. Tray efficiencies for aqueous solutions are usually in the range of 60-90% while gas absorption and
stripping typically have efficiencies closer to 10-20%
K. The three most common types of trays are valve, sieve, and bubble cap. Bubble cap trays are
typically used when low-turn down is expected or a lower pressure drop than the valve or sieve
trays can provide is necessary.
L. Seive tray holes are 0.25 to 0.50 in. diameter with the total hole area being about 10% of the total active tray area.
M. Valve trays typically have 1.5 in. diameter holes each with a lifting cap. 12-14 caps/square foot of tray is a good benchmark.
Valve trays usually cost less than seive trays.
N. The most common weir heights are 2 and 3 in and the weir length is typically 75% of the tray diameter
O. Reflux pumps should be at least 25% overdesigned
P. The optimum Kremser absorption factor is usually in the range of 1.25 to 2.00
Q. Reflux drums are almost always horizontally mounted and designed for a 5 min holdup at half of the
drum's capacity.
R. For towers that are at least 3 ft (0.9 m) is diameter, 4 ft (1.2 m) should be added to the top for vapor
release and 6 ft (1.8 m) should be added to the bottom to account for the liquid level and reboiler return
S. Limit tower heights to 175 ft (53 m) due to wind load and foundation considerations.
T. The Length/Diameter ratio of a tower should be no more than 30 and preferrably below 20
U. A rough estimate of reboiler duty as a function of tower diameter is given by:
Q = 0.5 D^2 for pressure distillation
Q = 0.3 D^2 for atmospheric distillation
Q = 0.15 D^2 for vacuum distillation
where Q is in Million Btu/hr and D is tower diameter in feet
Packed Towers
A. Packed towers almost always have lower pressure drop than comparable tray towers.
B. Packing is often retrofitted into existing tray towers to increase capacity or separation.
C. For gas flowrates of 500 ft3/min (14.2 m3/min) use 1 in (2.5 cm) packing, for gas flows
of 2000 ft3/min (56.6 m3/min) or more, use 2 in (5 cm) packing
D. Ratio of tower diameter to packing diameter should usually be at least 15
E. Due to the possibility of deformation, plastic packing should be limited to an unsupported
depth of 10-15 ft (3-4 m) while metallatic packing can withstand 20-25 ft (6-7.6 m)
F. Liquid distributor should be placed every 5-10 tower diameters (along the length) for pall rings
and every 20 ft (6.5 m) for other types of random packings
G. For redistribution, there should be 8-12 streams per sq. foot of tower area for tower larger than
three feet in diameter. They should be even more numerous in smaller towers.
H. Packed columns should operate near 70% flooding.
I. Height Equivalent to Theoretical Stage (HETS) for vapor-liquid contacting is 1.3-1.8 ft
(0.4-0.56 m) for 1 in pall rings and 2.5-3.0 ft (0.76-0.90 m) for 2 in pall rings
J. Design pressure drops should be as follows:
Service Pressure drop (in water/ft packing)
Absorbers and Regenerators
Non-Foaming Systems 0.25 - 0.40
Moderate Foaming Systems 0.15 - 0.25
Fume Scrubbers
Water Absorbent 0.40 - 0.60
Chemical Absorbent 0.25 - 0.40
Atmospheric or Pressure Distillation 0.40 - 0.80
Vacuum Distillation 0.15 - 0.40
Maximum for Any System 1.0
**For packing factors and more on packed column design see:
Packed Column Design
Reactors
A. The rate of reaction must be established in the laboratory and the residence time or space velocity
will eventually have to be determined in a pilot plant.
B. Catalyst particle sizes: 0.10 mm for fluidized beds, 1 mm in slurry beds, and 2-5 mm in fixed beds.
C. For homogeneous stirred tank reactions, the agitor power input should be about
0.5-1.5 hp/1000 gal (0.1-0.3 kW/m3), however, if heat is to be transferred,
the agitation should be about three times these amounts.
D. Ideal CSTR behavior is usually reached when the mean residence time is 5-10 times
the length needed to achieve homogeneity. Homogeneity is typically reached with
500-2000 revolutions of a properly designed stirrer.
E. Relatively slow reactions between liquids or slurries are usually conducted most
economically in a battery of 3-5 CSTR's in series.
F. Tubular flow reactors are typically used for high productions rates and when the
residence times are short. Tubular reactors are also a good choice when significant
heat transfer to or from the reactor is necessary.
G. For conversion under 95% of equilibrium, the reaction performance of a 5 stages
CSTR approaches that of a plug flow reactor.
H. Typically the chemical reaction rate will double for a 18 0F (10 0C) increase in
temperature.
I. The reaction rate in a heterogeneous reaction is often controlled more by the rate of
heat or mass transfer than by chemical kinetics.
J. Sometimes, catalysts usefulness is in improving selectivity rather than increasing
the rate of the reaction.
Refrigeration and Utilities
A. A ton of refrigeration equals the removal of 12,000 Btu/h (12,700 kJ/h) of heat
B. For various refrigeration temperatures, the following are common refrigerants:
Temp (0F) Temp (0C) Refrigerant
0 to 50 -18 to -10 Chilled brine or glycol NH3 Freon 22 Butane Ethane Propane
-50 to -40 -45 to -10 Ammonia, freon, butane 7.7 - 10.4 10 - 15 1.8 - 2.4
-150 to -50 -100 to -45 Ethane, propane 7 - 90.2 0.6 - 12
C. Cooling tower water is received from the tower between 80-90 0F (27-32 0C)
and should be returned between 115-125 0F (45-52 0C) depending on the size
of the tower. Seawater should be return no higher than 110 0F (43 0C)
D. Heat transfer fluids used: petroleum oils below 600 0F (315 0C), Dowtherms
or other synthetics below 750 0F (400 0C), molten salts below 1100 0F (600 0C)
E. Common compressed air pressures are: 45, 150, 300, and 450 psig
F. Instrument air is generally delivered around 45 psig with a dewpoint that is 30 F below
the coldest expected ambient temperature.
Additional Notes on this section from Art Montemayor :
A.
B.
water from the humid air and resulting in freezeups). This is never, never done in practice by experienced engineers.
C.
D.
your hand, it is approximately at 120
o
F. You can confirm this yourself. As an example, note that Personnel
Protection insulation is mandated in most plants for 130 to 140
o
F. These are hot temperatures that cause burns.
No comments to add.
Real life conditions dictate that there is a practical limit as to the highest temperature the CWR can reach. That is the
basis of my experienced comments above. If your CW were 100% pure H
2
O, we wouldn't have to worry about
limitations which have been empirically found to control fouling, corrosion, and solids precipitation.
Note that 120
o
F is a relatively high temperature. A field rule-of-thumb is that if you can barely hold on to a pipe with
the maximum outlet of any heat exchanger. The average temperature of all the comingled CWR streams should be
no higher than 120
o
F. Note that I write "no higher". 120
o
F should be the highest temperature reached at any one
time. It should not be a continuous, maintained temperature of all the water going to the CWT. You will experience
very high water treatment costs, maintenance costs, downtime, and evaporative losses when operating continuously
at 120+
o
F. The size of the CWT has not bearing on how hot the CWR can be. A properly designed CWT can
handle any CWR temperature up to 212
o
F --- it all depends on the quality of the CW and the total dissolved solids.
Propane, for example, are the refrigerants of choice in LNG plants when pre-cooling the natural gas prior to
dehydration and subsequent liquefaction. They are favored because of their availability and redundent instrumentation
is employed to assure 100+% that air is never sucked into the cycle. This would be disastrous if allowed to happen.
The Cooling Water Supply (CWS) will vary in temperature according to the Cooling Water Tower's (CWT) capacity and
the local wet bulb temperature. No problem with the first half of this statement. HOWEVER, the Cooling Water Return
temperature of 115 to 125
o
F is higher than the average temperature. The 115 to 125
o
F return temperature refers to
acceptable working condition for a dependable and safe unit. Atmospheric air will most certainly migrate into
the vacuum space and, in the case of the hydrocarbons, cause the presence of an explosive mixture. The
best thing that can happen in these cycles is the inevitable requirement for continuous purging of non-
condensables from the system, causing operational problems and emission streams (besides introducing
The refrigerants listed above are mainly for evaporator temperatures of no less than -25
o
F (in the case of
Ammonia) to -50
o
F (for Ethane). Butane, with a N.B.P. of +31
o
F, is not considered a refrigerant. Propylene and
Corresp. Compressor suction press., psia
No problem
The refrigeration temperatures seem to be non-practical and are not recommendable for design. For example, look at
the added section on the above table, giving the estimated compressor suction pressure for a refrigeration
cycle based on the referenced refrigerant. You will note that every one of the cited refrigerants would be
yielding a partial vacuum at the evaporator (or even less at the compressor suction port). This is not an