Basic Concept 1: Analogy between the gravitational field

and the static electric field

m
1
m
2
q
1
q
2

r
F =
G m
1
m
2
r
2


r = g
12
m
2

r


r
F =
q
1
q
2
4
0
r
2


r = E
12
q
2

r
Newton's Law of gravitation Coulomb's Law
(the force is always attractive) (attractive or repulsive force)
Both are inverse-square, central-force fields.
m q
Potential Potential
energy = mgh h h energy = qEh

m q
h V
Both are conservative fields: The net change in absolute potential
around any closed path = 0.
r
r
r
r

r
F
grav
= m
r
g

r
F
electric
= q
r
E
Absolute
potential = gh
Absolute
potential = Eh
Ground level (reference height = 0) Ground potential (reference voltage = 0)

r
F
grav

r
F
electric
This leads to the fundamental Kirchoff's Voltage Law:
The sum of the rises and falls of electric potential (voltage)
around any closed loop in a circuit = 0.
Basic Concept 2: Current and conservation of charge
Define current i = q/t amperes = dq/dt in the infinitesimal limit
Circuit loops
comprised of
sources,
resistors, etc.
located on the
"branches"
Surface S
q
1
q
2
q
3

r
v
1

r
v
2

r
v
3
q = q
1
+ q
2
+ q
3
coulombs move
through surface S
every t seconds
How about current flow leaving a closed surface?
S
At time t
0
: At time t
0
+ t:
Q(t
0
) = q
4
+ q
5
+ q
6
+ q
7
Q(t
0
+ t) = q
1
+ q
2
+ q
3
+ q
4
+ q
5
i
inward
=
Q(t
0
+ t) Q(t
0
)
t
=
q
1
+ q
2
+ q
3
q
6
q
7
t
For static electric fields,
i
inward
= 0
, i.e., there is no net gain of charge in
S over t seconds. Equivalently,
i
outward
= i
inward
= 0
.
At the green "node" (i.e., the
junction of circuit "branches"),
this yields the fundamental
Kirchoff's Current Law
which can be written here as
i
left
+ i
down
+ i
right
+ i
up
= 0
The sum of the electric currents leaving
any circuit node = 0.
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
q
5
q
6
q
7
q
1
q
2
q
3
q
4
q
5
q
6
q
7
i
up
i
down
i
right
i
left
S
S
Basic Concept 3: Resistance and Ohm's Law
Cylindrical bar of conducting material Let a potential of V volts be
applied between the flat parallel
faces of the bar.
Then, the internal electric field is
S
1
S
2


r
E = V / l in the direction shown,
and the force on an individual
A electron having the charge e
coulombs is

r
F
e
= e
r
E .
V +
Let = characteristic time between randomizing collisions of an electron and the
nuclei of the atoms within the bar. Note that is a statistical average.
From Newton's Law,

r
F
e
= m
e
r
a
e
, so we have

a
e
= F
e
/ m
e
= e V /m
e
l
This yields an average electron "drift velocity"

u
e
= a
e
= e V / m
e
l in the
rightward direction toward S
2
, the end of the bar having the higher voltage.
This electron drift velocity is analogous to the "terminal velocity" of raindrops falling
to the ground under the constant downward gravitational force. The raindrops reach a
limiting speed despite falling from great heights.
In the time period

t = l / u
e
, all of the electrons in the cylinder volume

l A are
swept rightward through surface S
2
. This represents a total charge movement of

q = n electrons / m
3
( )
lA m
3
( )
e coulombs / electron ( ) = en l A coulombs

r
F
e
+

l

r
E
+
+
Therefore, the rightward current through S
2
is given by

i
rightward
=
q
t
=
e nlA
l /u
e
= e nAu
e
= e n A
e V
m
e
l






=
e
2
n A
m
e
l






V
We can now define the leftward current through S
2
as

i
leftward
= i
rightward
= +
e
2
n A
m
e
l






V
Solving for V, we obtain Ohm's Law:

V = i
leftward

m
e
l
e
2
n A






= i
leftward
R
V +
V = i R +
i
leftward
R
i

V = i R where
R =
m
e
n e
2






.
l
A
A

l
"Resistor"
Ohm's Law uses the following sign convention for i assumed entering a resistor:



V +

This will also be used in EECS 221 for other passive circuit elements such as
capacitors and inductors.

Basic Concept 4: Energy and power

Earlier, we had
q






We define 1 volt of absolute potential as follows:
Moving 1 coulomb of charge through a potential rise of
1 volt yields 1 joule of potential energy.
This is the action of a voltage source, i.e., an ideal battery, symbolized by






i


!
F
electric
= q
!
E

Potential energy = q E h (joules)

Absolute potential = E h (volts)
Ground potential (reference voltage = 0)
h
V
+

+

+

+

+

N coulombs
For a total of N coulombs elevated
by a battery by V volts, there is
sourced NV joules.
For i coulombs / sec (amperes) elevated V volts, there is sourced i V joules /sec
(watts).






More generally, with this direction of current flow, a time-varying source generates:
p(t) = i(t) V(t) watts
What about the converse situation?






This dissipates i V watts of power as stored energy and heat within the voltage
source. We see that a voltage source such as a battery can either generate power or
absorb power, depending upon the direction of current flow. More generally:






V
+

+

+

+

+

i coulombs/sec
(amperes)
V
+

+

+

+

+

i coulombs/sec
(amperes)
V(t)
+

+

+

+

+

i(t)
p(t) = i(t) V(t) watts are absorbed (dissipated) in
a circuit device where current enters the high-potential
end of the device at time t. Interestingly, by our sign
convention, this holds for any resistor. Thus,
resistors can only dissipate power. For a resistor,
p(t) = i
2
(t) R since V(t) = i(t) R .
Here, i amperes enters the +
terminal of the voltage source and
drops in potential by V volts upon
leaving.
Thus, a voltage source emitting i
amperes from its + terminal
generates i V watts of power.
Circuit Analysis Example 1: Loop analysis (Kirchoffs Voltage Law)
Systematic step-by-step analysis procedure:
1. Assume directions of currents i
1
and i
2
. These directions are arbitrary.
There is no need to guess the correct directions of current flow before
beginning the analysis !! If the actual current flow is opposite to that chosen,
your answer for the current at the end of the analysis will simply be negative.
12 v
+

+
5 v 9 6
10 3
12 v
+

+
5 v 9 6
10 3
i
1
i
2
2. Obtain the current in the common branch. From Kirchoffs Current Law
implemented at the top of the 10 resistor, this is simply i
1
i
2
in the
downward direction.
3. Assign voltages and their associated polarities to the resistors according to
Ohms Law and the sign convention.
12 v
+

+
5 v 9 6
10 3
i
1
i
2
i
1
i
2
12
+

+
5 9 i
1
6 i
1
10(i
1
i
2
) 3 i
2
i
1
i
2
i
1
i
2
+ +
+ +


4. Walk around each loop and set the sum of the voltage rises and falls to
zero. The direction of your walk in each loop is arbitrary you simply
must return to your starting point after completely walking around the loop.
Left loop: Starting from the negative side of the 12 volt battery, we have
+ 12 9 6 10 0
1 1 1 2
( ) i i i i
This simplifies to
+ 25 10 12
1 2
i i
Call this Equation 1.
12
+

+
5 9 i
1
6 i
1
10(i
1
i
2
) 3 i
2
i
1
i
2
i
1
i
2
+ +
+ +


Left loop walking path
Right loop: Starting from the bottom of the 10 resistor, we have
+ + 10 5 3 0
1 2 2
( ) i i i
This simplifies to
10 13 5
1 2
i i
Call this Equation 2.
12
+

+
5 9 i
1
6 i
1
10(i
1
i
2
) 3 i
2
i
1
i
2
i
1
i
2
+ +
+ +


Right loop walking path
5. Solve the system of loop equations simultaneously to obtain the desired
currents.
For convenience, we write both equations together:
+

25 10 12
10 13 5
1 2
1 2
i i
i i


In matrix form, we can write this as

1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1
25 10
10 13
12
5
1
2

i
i
A systematic approach to solve this system is to apply Cramers Rule:
i
1
12 10
5 13
25 10
10 13
206
225
0 915
det
det
.

amps = amps
i
2
25 12
10 5
225
245
225
1 08
det
.

amps = amps
i i
1 2
0 915 1 08 0 173 . . . amps
With knowledge of these currents, the voltage across each resistor can be
inserted directly into the circuit diagram for Step 3.
6. If desired, we can obtain the power sourced or dissipated by each circuit
component and test for balance between the sourced and dissipated power.
Power associated with the batteries
From Step 5, we found that i
1
is positive. Since i
1
was assumed in
Step 1 to flow outward from the + side of the 12-volt battery, this means
that this battery is generating power.
P i
12-volt battery
(generated)
watts . . 12 12 0 915 10 986
1
From Step 5, we found that i
2
is also positive. Since i
2
was assumed in
Step 1 to flow outward from the + side of the 5-volt battery, this means
that this battery is also generating power.
P i
5-volt battery
(generated)
watts . . 5 5 1 08 5 4
2
Total power generated =
10 986 5 4 16 431 . . . + watts
Power dissipated by the resistors
Using the currents calculated in Step 5, we obtain
P i
9 resistor
watts

. . 9 9 0 915 7 54417
1
2 2
P i
6 resistor
watts

. . 6 6 0 915 5 029451846
1
2 2
P i i
10 resistor
watts

( ) ( . ) . 10 10 0 173 0 3004
1 2
2 2
P i
3 resistor
watts

. . 3 3 1 08 3 557037031
2
2 2

Total power dissipated . 7 54417 5 029451846 0 3004 3 557037031
16 431
+ . + . + .
= . watts
Power Balance!
Circuit Analysis Example 2: Loop analysis (Kirchoffs Voltage Law)
Only change from Example 1: Replace the 10 resistor in the common branch with a
9 A current source.
Systematic step-by-step analysis procedure:
1. Assume directions of currents i
1
and i
2
.
12 V
+

+
5 V 9 6
9 A 3
12 V
+

+
5 V 9 6
9 A 3
i
1
i
2
2. Note that i
2
is no longer an independent unknown. From Kirchoffs Current
Law implemented at the top of the 9 A current source, i
2
= i
1
+ 9 in the
rightward direction.
3. Assign voltages and their associated polarities to the resistors according to
Ohms Law and the sign convention.
We see that every resistor voltage in the circuit is a function only of i
1
.
Thus, we require only a single loop equation to solve the problem!
Note that the voltage across the current source is unknown at this point.
Thats OK! We dont need it to solve the problem. As an option, we can
obtain it later once we derive i
1
.
12 V
+

+
5 V 9 6
9 A 3
i
1
i
1
+ 9
12
+

+
5 9 i
1
6 i
1
3 (i
1
+ 9)
i
1
i
1
+ 9
+ +
+

4. Define a superloop that consists of the outer boundary of the combination

of the left and right loops. Walk around this superloop and set the sum of
the voltage rises and falls to zero. As in Example 1, the direction of your walk
is arbitrary you simply must return to your starting point after completely
walking around the superloop.
Starting from the negative side of the 12 volt battery, we have
+ + + 12 9 6 5 3 9 0
1 1 1
( ) i i i
This simplifies to
18 10 0 5
1 1 2 1
i i i i . , +9 = 8.4 A A
With knowledge of i
1
, the voltage across each circuit element can be found
from the circuit diagram for Step 3. For example, the voltage across the
current source (in the direction of its current flow) is given by two
equivalent expressions:
V i
i i
current
source

V



.
+
+
+
3 5
12 9 6
20 3
2
1 1
(thru 3 resistor and 5V battery)
(thru 12V battery and 9 and 6 resistors)

12
+

+
5 9 i
1
6 i
1
3 (i
1
+ 9)
i
1
i
1
+ 9
+ +
+

Superloop walking path

5. If desired, we can obtain the power sourced or dissipated by each circuit
component and test for balance between the sourced and dissipated power.
Power associated with the two batteries and the current source
From Step 4, we found that i
1
is negative. Since i
1
was assumed in
Step 1 to flow outward from the + side of the 12-volt battery, this means
that i
1
is really flowing into the + side of the battery, which is
therefore dissipating power:
P i
12-volt battery
(dissipated)
. . 12 12 0 5 6 6
1
W
From Step 4, we found that the voltage across the current source in the
direction of its current flow is positive. This means that the current source
is generating power:
P V
9-amp current source
(generated)
current
source
. 9 9 20 3 183 W
From Step 4, we found that i
2
is positive. Since i
2
was assumed in
Step 1 to flow outward from the + side of the 5-volt battery, this means
that this battery is generating power:
P i
5-volt battery
(generated)
. . 5 5 8 4 42 2
2
W
Net generated power =
183 42 2 6 6 218 5 . . . + W
Power dissipated by the resistors
Using the current calculated in Step 4, we obtain
P i
9 resistor
( . ) . 9 9 0 5 2 7
1
2 2
W
P i
6 resistor
( . ) . 6 6 0 5 1 851
1
2 2
W
P i
3 resistor
( ) . . + 3 9 3 8 4 213 925
1
2 2
W

Total power dissipated + + . . .
.
2 7 1 851 213 925
218 5 = W
Power Balance!
Circuit Analysis Example 3:Node analysis (Kirchoffs Current Law)
Systematic step-by-step analysis procedure:
1. Select one node as ground (zero potential, i.e., V=0). Any node is OK, but
EEs usually select the node that has the maximum number of branches
connected to it. The ground node is often designated by the symbol
12 V
+

4 7 5
3 A 3
+

9 V
12 V
+

4 7 5
3 A 3
+

9 V
2. Locate and label all other nodes where the potential is unknown.
3. Write Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL) at Node #1:
i i i
V V V V
left down right
1 1 1


+ +

_
,
+

_
,
+

_
,

0
12
7
0
3 5
0
1 1 1 2
Clearing fractions, we obtain Equation 1:
71 21 180
1 2
V V
12 V
+

4 7 5
3 A 3
+

9 V
V
1
V
2
12 V
+

4 7 5
3 A 3
+

9 V
V
1
V
2
i
left
1
i
right
1
i
down
1
Now, write KCL at Node #2:
i i i
V V V
left down right
2 2 2


( )

+ +

_
,
+ +

1
]
1

0
5
3
9
4
0
2 1 2
Clearing fractions, we obtain Equation 2:
+ 4 9 15
1 2
V V
4. Solve the system of node equations simultaneously to obtain the desired
voltages.
For convenience, we write both equations together:
71 21 180
4 9 15
1 2
1 2
V V
V V



+
12 V
+

4 7 5
3 A 3
+

9 V
V
1
V
2
i
left
2
i
right
2
i
down
2
In matrix form, we can write this as
71 21
4 9
180
15
1
2

1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

V
V
Applying Cramers Rule, we obtain:
V
1
180 21
15 9
71 21
4 9
1935
555
3 486
det
det
.

V V =
V
2
71 180
4 15
555
1785
555
3 216
det
.

V V =
With knowledge of these node voltages, the currents and powers
associated with each circuit element can be determined.
Circuit Analysis Example 4:Node analysis (Kirchoffs Current Law)
Only change from Example 3: Replace the 5 resistor in the top middle branch with a
6-volt battery, polarized as shown.
Systematic step-by-step analysis procedure:
1. Select one node as ground (zero potential, i.e., V=0).
12 V
+

4 7 6 V
3 A 3
+

9 V
+
12 V
+

4 7 6 V
3 A 3
+

9 V
+
2. Locate and label all other nodes where the potential is unknown.
3. Note that V
2
is no longer an independent unknown. From Kirchoffs Voltage
Law implemented at the 6-volt battery, V
2
= V
1
+ 6 .
12 V
+

4 7 6 V
3 A 3
+

9 V
+
V
1
V
2
12 V
+

4 7 6 V
3 A 3
+

9 V
+
V
1
V
1
+6
4. Define a supernode that consists of the combination of Nodes 1 and 2.
Then, write KCL at this supernode.
i i i i
V V V
left down down right
1 2


( ) ( )

+ + +

_
,
+

_
,
+ +
+

1
]
1

0
12
7
0
3
3
6 9
4
0
1 1 1
This simplifies to:
61 81 1 328
1 1 2 1
V V V V . , +6 = 7.328 V V
With knowledge of V
1
and V
2
,the currents and powers associated with
each circuit element can be determined.
12 V
+

4 7 6 V
3 A 3
+

9 V
+
V
1
V
1
+6
i
right
i
down
2
i
left
i
down
1
Network Simplification
Series resistors and voltage sources
Assuming a clockwise current direction, we can implement Kirchoffs
Voltage Law:
+ + + V V V R R R
1 2 3 1 2 3
i i i 0
Grouping terms,
( ) ( ) V V V R R R
1 2 3
equivalent
1 2 3
equivalent
V R
+ + + +
1 2 444 3 444 1 2 444 3 444
i
V
1
+

R
1
+ +
V
2
V
3
R
2
R
3
V
1
+

+ +
V
2
V
3
i

+
+ iR
1

iR
3
KVL walking path
+ iR
2

We thus obtain an equivalent circuit having the same loop current as the
original:
Series voltage sources sum algebraically !
Series resistances sum algebraically !
Parallel resistors and current sources
To analyze this circuit, we apply Kirchoffs Current Law. We select the
lower node as ground and assign the upper node the potential V.
V
1
+V
2
+V
3
+

i
R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
i
1
R
1
i
2
i
3
R
2
R
3
V
+ + + i i i
1 2 3 R R R
1 2 3
i i i 0
Using Ohms Law to express the resistor currents, we obtain
+

_
,

_
,

_
,

i i i
1 2 3

V
R
V
R
V
R
0 0 0
0
1 2 3
Grouping terms,
( ) i i i
R R R
1 2 3
equivalent
1 2 3
equivalent
i
1/ R
+ + + +

_
,

1 2 44 3 44
1 2 444 3 444
V
1 1 1
i
1
R
1
i
2
i
3
R
2
R
3
i
R
1
i
R
2
i
R
3
We thus obtain an equivalent circuit having the same node voltage as the
original:
Parallel current sources sum algebraically !
The reciprocals of parallel resistances sum algebraically
to yield the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance!
The second statement can be put more simply if we define the
conductance, G, of a resistor, R, as G = 1/R. By this definition, we have:
Conductances of parallel resistors sum algebraically !
For only two resistors in parallel, we have
R
R R
R R
R R
equivalent
1 2
1 2
1 2

+

_
,

+
1
1 1
This product over sum rule should be memorized !
i
1
+ i
2
+ i
3
V
1
1 1 1
R R R
R
1 2 3
equivalent
+ +

_
,

Voltage Divider
Series resistors and voltage source
Since series resistors sum algebraically, we have
i
j
n
n

+ + + + +

V
R R R R
V
R
N
N
1 2
1
L L
Then the voltage across the jth resistor is given by
V i
j
j
j
n
n
R
N
R V
R
R

_
,

1
This is the voltage-divider formula, which should be memorized.
V
+

R
2
R
j
R
N
R
1
i
+
V
R
j
Current Divider
Parallel resistors and current source
. . . . . .
Since parallel conductances sum algebraically, we have
V
j
n
n

+ + + + +

i
G G G G
i
G
N
N
1 2
1
L L
where . Then the current through the jth resistor is given by
i
V
V
j
j
j
j
n
n
R
N
R
G i
G
G

_
,

1
This is the current-divider formula, which should be memorized.
i R
2
R
j
R
N
R
1
i
R
j
V
G R
j j
1 /
Thevenin!s Theorem

The terminal behavior of a circuit containing an arbitrary connection
of resistors, voltage sources, and current sources can be completely
characterized by a single voltage source V
Th
in series with a single
resistor R
Th
. Consider:








From the perspective of Circuit B, this is equivalent to:








if and are properly defined.
V
Th

+

b
a
Circuit A
Arbitrary arrangement of
resistors and sources
connected between nodes
a and b
V
Th

+

R
Th

b
a
Circuit B
Connected to Circuit A
at nodes a and b
Circuit B
Connected to Circuit A
at nodes a and b
V
Th
R
Th

Thevenin Equivalent of Circuit A
looking into
looking into
Use the method of external current injection to characterize the terminal properties of
the Thevenin equivalent circuit:










Example: Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit looking into Node Pair a b of Circuit A









Strategy: Connect current source I at Node Pair a b. Solve for the induced voltage
V
ab
as a function of I (kept in symbolic form). Then, compare term-by-term
with the terminal properties equation of the Thevenin equivalent circuit to obtain
V
Th
and R
Th
in one step.
R
Th
I

+
b
V
ab

+

I

60 V
+

8 !
32 !
5 A
b
a
a
+
3 A
I
Terminal properties
equation:
V
Th

+

V
ab

c a
Circuit A

V
ab
= V
Th
+ R
Th
I
In this example, we choose to apply node equations to solve for V
ab
. We designate
Node b as the ground reference. Then V
ab
= V
a
. We see that there are two
unknown node voltages: V
a
and V
c
. Now, we write KCL at Nodes a and c :








At Node a :

V
a
! V
c
8
"
#
$
%
&
'
! 5 ! I = 0


At Node c :

!3 +
V
c
! 60
32
"
#
$
%
&
'
+
V
c
! V
a
8
"
#
$
%
&
'
= 0



This system of equations can be written in matrix form as:

1 !1
!4 5
"
#
$
%
&
'
V
a
V
c
"
#
$
%
&
'
=
40 + 8I
156
"
#
$
%
&
'

60 V
+

8 !
32 !
5 A
b
3 A
I
V
a
= V
ab
V
c

a c
V
a
! V
c
= 40 + 8I
!4V
a
+ 5V
c
= 156

+
V
ab

Applying Cramer!s Rule, we solve for V
a
:

V
a
=
det
40+8I !1
156 5
det
1 !1
! 4 5
=
200 + 40I +156
5 ! 4

V
a
= 356 + 40I
















This method of external current injection is general and can be applied to circuits
containing controlled voltage sources and controlled current sources where other
methods to obtain the Thevenin equivalent circuit do not work.

Compare these results term-by-term
with the terminal properties equation
of a Thevenin circuit, and we can
immediately identify V
Th
and R
Th
.
b
a

V
Th
= 356 V
R
Th
= 40 !
+
Thevenin
Equivalent Circuit
looking into
Node Pair a b
Of Circuit A
Thevenin Equivalent of Circuit A
V
ab
= V
Th
+ R
Th
I
Inductors and Capacitors: Energy Storage Elements
In addition to resistance to the flow of electric current, which is purely an
energy-loss phenomenon, circuit devices can also store magnetic and
electric field energy in a manner analogous to how a moving mass or a
spring stores mechanical energy.
Inductor (stores magnetic field energy)

v t
di t
dt
L
L
L volts ( )
( )

f t
du t
dt
( )
( )
M newtons
This voltage-current relation for the inductor is useful in Kirchoffs Voltage
Law analyses. Equivalently, we can time-integrate this relation to obtain an
alternative expression that is useful in Kirchoffs Current Law analyses:
i t v t dt I v t dt t t
t
t
t
L L L
L L
for ( ) ( ) ( ) +

1 1
0 0
0
Here,
I
0
is the initial current flowing through the inductor at the starting time
t
0
.
M
f(t)
x(t) u t dx t dt ( ) ( )/
v
L
(t)
+

i
L
(t)
L
Mechanical analog: A mass in motion
henrys
We see that the inductor current at any particular observation time
depends upon its initial current and the time history of the voltage across
the inductor. The inductor effectively integrates its terminal voltage
to develop its current; negative terminal voltage reduces the current flow.
The instantaneous power associated with the inductor is given by
P t v t i t
di t
dt
i t
d
dt
i t
L L L
L
L L
L L watts ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

1
]
1

1
]
1
1
2
2
Integrating with respect to time to obtain the energy stored in the inductor
yields
W t i t
L L
L joules ( ) ( )
1
2
2
Capacitor (stores electric field energy)

v t q t i t dt
V i t dt t t
t
t
t
C C C
C
1
C
1
C
volts
=
1
C
for
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

+

0 0
0
Here,
V
0
is the initial terminal voltage of the capacitor at the starting time
t
0
.
We see that the capacitor voltage at any particular observation time
depends upon its initial voltage and the time history of the current flowing
through the capacitor. The capacitor effectively integrates inflowing current
to store charge q; outflowing current reduces the stored charge.
Equivalently, we can time-differentiate the voltage-current relation for
the capacitor to obtain:
This alternative relation is useful in Kirchoffs Current Law analyses
involving the capacitor.
k
f(t)
x(t)
u t dx t dt ( ) ( )/
v
C
(t)
+

i
C
(t)
C
i t
dv t
dt
C
C
C amperes ( )
( )

f t x t u t dt
t
( ) ( ) ( )

k k newtons
farads
Mechanical analog: A stretched spring
The instantaneous power associated with the capacitor is given by
P t v t i t v t
dv t
dt
d
dt
v t
C C C C
C
C
C C watts ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )

1
]
1

1
]
1
1
2
2
Integrating with respect to time to obtain the energy stored in the capacitor
yields
W t v t
C C
C joules ( ) ( )
1
2
2
Analogy between Electrical and Mechanical Elements and Variables
Electrical System Mechanical System
Voltage, v (V) Force, f (N)
Current, i (A) Velocity, u (m/s)
Inductance, L (H) Mass, M (kg)
Capacitance, C (F) Reciprocal spring constant, 1/k (m/N)
Resistance, R (ohms) Dashpot damping, B (N-s/m)
Parallel Combination of Capacitors
From Kirchoffs Current Law, we have
i
C C C
C C C
C C C
equivalent
C



+ +
+ +
+ +
( )
i i i
dV
dt
dV
dt
dV
dt
dV
dt
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 44 3 44
Capacitances in parallel add!
i(t)
i
C
1
(t)
C
1
i
C
3
(t)
C
3
i
C
2
(t)
C
2
V(t)
Series Combination of Capacitors
From Kirchoffs Voltage Law, we have
V
C C C
C C C
C C C
1 2 3
1 2 3
equivalent
1/ C

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
+ +
+ +
+ +

_
,

V V V
i t dt i t dt i t dt
i t dt
t t t
t
1 2 3
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 2 444 3 444
The reciprocals of series capacitances sum algebraically
to yield the reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance!
V(t)
+

+
i(t)
C
3
V
C
1
(t)
+
V
C
2
(t)
+

V
C
3
(t)
C
1
C
2
Series Combination of Inductors
From Kirchoffs Voltage Law, we have
V
L L L
L L L
L L L
equivalent
L



+ +
+ +
+ +
( )
V V V
di
dt
di
dt
di
dt
di
dt
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 44 3 44
Inductances in series add!
V(t)
+

+
i(t)
V
L
1
(t)
+
V
L
2
(t)
+

V
L
3
(t)
L
2
L
3
L
1
Parallel Combination of Inductors
From Kirchoffs Current Law, we have
i
L L L
L L L
L L L
1 2 3
1 2 3
equivalent
1/ L

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
+ +
+ +
+ +

_
,

i i i
V t dt V t dt V t dt
V t dt
t t t
t
1 2 3
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 2 444 3 444
The reciprocals of parallel inductances sum algebraically
to yield the reciprocal of the equivalent inductance!
i(t)
i
L
1
(t)
L
1
i
L
2
(t)
L
2
i
L
3
(t)
L
3
V(t)
Solution of Circuits Containing
Capacitors and Inductors
Circuits containing capacitors and/or inductors are described by differential
equations. For example, consider the following series RC circuit:
i t i t
C R
( ) ( ) + 0
C
v (t)
R
C C S
dv t
dt
v t ( )

( )
+

0
This yields
RC v (t)
C
C S
dv t
dt
v t
( )
( ) +
which is a first-order ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients.
The source voltage
v (t)
S
is assumed to be known. This permits solution
with any one of a variety of techniques that you learned in EA.
R
v
C
(t)
+

i
C
(t)
C
v
S
(t)
Apply KCL at the
node joining R and C.
i
R
(t)
+

In another example, consider the following series RLC circuit:

v t v t v t
C L R S
v (t) ( ) ( ) ( ) + +
1
C
L R v
S
i t dt
di t
dt
i t t
t
( )
( )
( ) ( )

+ +
After time-differentiation, this yields
L R
C
v
S
d i t
dt
di t
dt
i t
d t
dt
2
2
1 ( )

( )
( )
( )
+ +
which is a second-order ordinary differential equation with constant
coefficients. EA methods again permit solution, assuming a known
excitation
v (t)
S
.
R
v
C
(t)
+

C
v
S
(t)
Apply KVL around
the loop.
v
R
(t) v
L
(t)
+ +
L
+

i(t)
The Sinusoidal Steady State
For EEs, an important special case arises when the source exciting a
circuit is a continuous sinusoid, i.e.,
v
S
( ) cos t V t
. Sinusoidal voltage
and current excitations appear in all manner of EE technology ranging from
the ubiquitous 60-Hz alternating current used to power up our homes and
offices to the microwave signals used for our cellphone and satellite
communications.
How can we solve for the currents and voltages in an electric circuit
under sinusoidal excitation conditions? Well, we might try to directly solve
the circuit differential equation using EA-type methods. For example,
consider the series RC circuit. We can write the circuit differential equation
for the sinusoidally forced response as:
RC
C
C
dv t
dt
v t V t
( )
( ) cos +
We will assume that that the contribution to
v t
C
( )
generated by the
switching-on of the sinusoidal source has decayed to zero by the time that
we make our observation. In fact, this state is always achieved in passive
linear circuits if we simply wait long enough.
EEs would say that the circuits turn-on transient has decayed to zero,
and only the sinusoidal steady-state response remains. Math professors
would say that we are throwing away the homogenous solution of the
differential equation and retaining only the particular solution that results
from a sinusoidal excitation.
The sinusoidal steady-state response of a linear circuit is simply a
sinusoidal time waveform having the same ! frequency as the source but,
in general, a different amplitude A and different phase
!
:

v
C
(t) = A cos(! t + " )
A and
!
are initially unknown.
To determine A and
!
, we could substitute the above assumed solution
for
v
C
(t)
into the circuit differential equation for the sinusoidally forced
response. However, this is very tedious and non-intuitive, requiring the
use of lots of trig identities. Luckily, EE!s have developed a much better
method:
Phasor analysis!

which we will study next.
Introduction to Phasors and Impedance
Phasors provide an easy geometric interpretation of sinusoidal signals as
vectors in the complex plane. This eliminates the need to solve differential
equations when analyzing the sinusoidal steady-state behavior of circuits.
Eulers Identity (pronounced Oilers Identity)
This forms the basis of phasor notation. It defines a complex exponential
Ae
j
as a vector in the complex plane which can be represented by real
and imaginary components:
We see that Eulers identity yields polar-to-rectangular and rectangular-to-
polar transformations for numbers in the complex plane:

A A jA ,

cos , sin
[ ] [ ]
original polar-
coordinate
representation
of a complex
number
equivalent rectangular-
coordinate representation
123 1 2 444 3 444
Real
Imaginary
A

Acos
jAsin
Ae
j
Ae A jA
j
cos sin +
Real
Imaginary
tan
-1
(D/C)
C
jD
C + jD
C jD C D e
j D C
+ +


tan ( / ) 2 2
1
C D
2 2
+
C D D C C jD
2 2 1
+
[ ]
[ ]

, tan ( / ) ,
equivalent polar-coordinate
representation
original rectangular-
coordinate representation
of a complex number
1 2 4444 3 4444
12 4 3 4
For convenience, we will express the polar-coordinate representation of
a complex number as
Ae A
j

Note that A, which represents the magnitude of the complex number, is
always a positive value. Now, using Eulers identity, familiar numbers can
be re-cast into a more general form:
1 1 0
0

e
j
t

1 1 180
180 180


e e
j j
j e
j

90
1 90

j e
j

90
1 90
Relation of Phasors to Sinusoidal Signals
From Eulers identity, we see that a sinusoidal signal
v t ( )
having a general
amplitude A, angular frequency , and phase can be written as:
v t A t Ae Ae e
j t j j t
( ) cos( )
( )
+
[ ]

[ ]
+


Real Real
EEs denote the phasor associated with
v t ( )
as
V( ) j
:
v t A t j Ae A
j
( ) cos( ) ( ) +

V
Note that
V( ) j
contains only the amplitude and phase information of
v t ( )
.
The e
j t
term is factored out for convenience.
The phasor representation of v(t) = A cos(! t + ") is visualized as follows:



Note that a positive angle " rotates the phasor by " radians counterclockwise;
a negative " rotates the phasor clockwise. When " = 0, the cosine phasor lies
along the +Real axis. In fact, we might call the +Real axis the cosine axis.

The phasor representation of v(t) = A sin(! t + ") is visualized as follows:













When " = 0, the sine phasor lies along the Imaginary axis, because
sin(!t ) = cos(! t #/2). In fact, we might call the Imaginary axis the sine axis.

Imaginary (sine axis)
+Real (cosine axis)
A
"
A!"
A!("/2 + ")
+Real (cosine axis)
Example: Addition of Sinusoids

The utility of phasors is first illustrated by considering the addition of two
60-Hz ac voltage sources in series:

v(t) = 3 cos(377t) 4 sin(377t)

Using the concept of the cosine and sine axes of the phasor diagram,
we can immediately draw the following arrows and add vectorially to
obtain the resultant, V:





Now, we translate V back into the time domain to obtain v(t) :

v(t) = Real [5 e
j

53.1
e
j

377t
]

= Real [5 e
j

(377t + 53.1)
]

= 5 cos(377t + 53.1)

+Real (cosine axis)
+Imaginary (sine axis)
Step 3: Translate V into the time domain to obtain
v t ( )
:
v t e e t
j j t
( ) cos( . )
.

[ ]
+ Real 5 5 377 53 1
53 1 377
Impedance
Recall that for a resistor, we developed the concept of Ohms Law, which
provides a real number, R, as the ratio of the voltage across the resistor to
the current flowing through it. Now, using phasors, we can extend the
concept of resistance to obtain the voltage / current ratio for resistors,
capacitors, and inductors subjected to a sinusoidal steady-state excitation.
The extension of resistance to the sinusoidal case is called impedance.
The Ideal Resistor
Let the resistor voltage be
v t A t
R
( ) cos( )
. We identify this as the phasor
voltage
V
R
A 0
. By Ohms Law:
( )
( )

cos( )
i t
v t A t A
R
R
R
R R R


)

I 0
We can now define the resistor impedance
Z
R
as
Z
R
R
R
R
R

V
I
A
A
0
0
Thus, for a resistor, the sinusoidal steady-state impedance is independent
of frequency and is simply the dc resistance:
Z R
R

Impedance
The Ideal Capacitor
Let the capacitor voltage be
v t A t
C
( ) cos( )
. We identify this as the
phasor voltage
V
C
A 0
. By the defining relation for a capacitor:
i t
dv t
dt
d
dt
A t
A t A t A
C
C
C
C C
C C C 90
( )
( )
cos( )
sin( ) cos( )

[ ]
+
}

90 I
We can now define the capacitor impedance
Z
C
as
Z
C 90
1
C 90
1
C
1
C
C
C
C

V
I
A
A
j
0
90

Thus, for a capacitor:
Z
1
C
1
C
C

j
90
We see that the capacitor impedance is a pure imaginary number having
a phase of 90 at all frequencies. The capacitor impedance becomes
infinite (an open circuit) at zero frequency (dc). The capacitor impedance
approaches zero (a short circuit) at infinite frequencies.
In plain language, capacitors tend to block the passage of low-frequency
signals, but facilitate the passage of high-frequency signals.
The Ideal Inductor
Let the inductor current be
i t A t
L
( ) cos( )
. We identify this as the phasor
current
I
L
A 0
. By the defining relation for an inductor:
v t
di t
dt
d
dt
A t
A t A t A
L
L
L
L L
L L L 90
( )
( )
cos( )
sin( ) cos( )

[ ]
+
}

90 V
We can now define the inductor impedance
Z
L
as
Z
L 90
0
L L
L
L
L

V
I

A
A
j 90
Thus, for a inductor:
Z L L
L
j 90
We see that the inductor impedance is a pure imaginary number having
a phase of +90 at all frequencies. The inductor impedance becomes zero
(a short circuit) at zero frequency (dc). The inductor impedance approaches
infinity (an open circuit) at infinite frequencies.
In plain language, inductors tend to block the passage of high-frequency
signals, but facilitate the passage of low-frequency signals. This is opposite
the behavior exhibited by the capacitor.
Circuit Analysis Using Phasors and Impedance
Example: The Series RC Circuit
We can now use the concepts of phasors and impedance to analyze the
sinusoidal steady-state behavior of circuits containing capacitors and / or
inductors. Consider the following example that we briefly touched on before
in the context of setting up a circuit differential equation: the series RC
circuit. Assuming a sinusoidal voltage source, this circuit is drawn as:
R
v
C
(t)
+

i
C
(t)
C
A cos( t )
Transform to the phasor
domain, assigning
impedances to all circuit
components.
i
R
(t)
+

R
V
C
+

I
C
1 / j C A0
Apply KCL at the node
joining R and C:
I
C
+ I
R
= 0
I
R
+

I I
C R
+ 0
V V
C C
C
R 1
0
0
j
A

_
,

Solving this algebraic equation for
V
C
, we obtain the following ratio:
V
C
RC

+
A
j
0
1
Note that, whenever we have such a ratio of complex numbers, it is always
convenient to express the numerator and denominator in polar form.
Here, the numerator is already in polar form. Lets apply Eulers identity to
express the denominator in polar form:

1 + j RC
Hence,
1 1
2 1
+ +

j RC = RC RC ( ) tan ( )
Real
Imaginary
RC
1
1
2
+ ( ) RC
tan
1
( RC / 1 )
Now, we can write
V
C
as
V
C
RC RC / 1
RC
RC)

( ) tan ( )


( )
tan (

A
A
0
1
1
2 1
2
1

The transition back to the time domain to obtain the final answer for the
capacitor voltage can now be made by inspection:
v t
A
t
C
RC
RC) ( )
( )
cos tan (
+

[ ]

1
2
1

If the capacitor current is also needed, we apply the definition of the
capacitor impedance,
I V
C C C
Z /
:
I
V
V V
C
C
C C
C
C C

_
,

( )
1
1 90
j
j

and substitute our phasor solution for
V
C
from the top of this page:
I
C
C
RC
RC)
C
RC
RC)

( )
tan (

( )
tan (
( )
+

1
]
1

+

[ ]

1 90
1
1
90
2
1
2
1
A
A
The transition back to the time domain to obtain the final answer for the
capacitor current can now be made by inspection:
I
C
C
RC
RC)
( )
tan (
+

[ ]

A
1
90
2
1
i t
A
t
C
C
RC
RC) ( )
( )
cos tan (
+
+
[ ]

1
90
2
1
Two notes of interest:
1) The magnitude of a capacitors sinusoidal current is simply the
magnitude of its sinusoidal voltage multiplied by C . EEs say that a
capacitors admittance is C . We see that this admittance is zero
at dc ( = 0 ) and approaches infinity at very high frequencies.
2) The phase angle of a capacitors sinusoidal current is always 90 plus
the phase angle of its sinusoidal voltage, regardless of the frequency, .
EEs say that a capacitors sinusoidal current always leads its
sinusoidal voltage by 90; or equivalently that a capacitors sinusoidal
voltage always lags its sinusoidal current by 90.
Circuit Simplification Via Combining Impedances
Series and parallel impedances combine just like series and parallel
resistors. Namely, series impedances add, and the reciprocals of parallel
impedances add to yield the reciprocal of the composite impedance.
Here is an example of combining the impedances of a resistor and a
capacitor connected in series to quickly obtain a phasor expression for the
generator current I:
I

( )
tan (

_
,

+

[ ]

A
j
j A
j
A
0
1
1
90
2
1
R
C
C
1 + RC
C
RC
RC)

This is the same expression as that obtained earlier for
I
C
using the node
equation method.
R
I
1 / j C A0
+

Z
j
equiv
R
C
+
1

Lets sketch the impedance magnitude behavior of this series R C

combination versus frequency:
R
Near dc ( = 0), the combined impedance is dominated by the capacitor,
whose impedance goes to infinity (i.e., an open circuit) at exactly = 0.
As , the combined impedance approaches that of the resistor alone
because the capacitors impedance asymptotically approaches zero
(i.e., a short circuit).
R
1 / j C
Z
j
equiv
R
C
+
1

Z
equiv

0
0
~ / 1 C
R
Lets sketch the impedance magnitude behavior of a series L C
combination versus frequency:
Near dc ( = 0), the combined impedance is dominated by the capacitor
whose impedance goes to infinity (i.e., an open circuit) at exactly = 0.
As , the combined impedance approaches that of the inductor alone
because the capacitors impedance approaches zero (i.e., a short circuit).
At the resonant frequency
1 / LC
, the combined impedance is zero,
i.e., a short circuit.
j L
1 / j C
Z j
j
j
equiv
L
C
1 LC
C


+

1
2
Z
equiv

0
0
1 / LC
~ / 1 C
~L
Finally, lets sketch the impedance magnitude behavior of a
parallel L C combination versus frequency:
Near dc ( = 0), the combined impedance is dominated by the inductor
whose impedance goes to zero (i.e., a short circuit) at exactly = 0.
As , the combined impedance is dominated by the capacitor whose
impedance approaches zero asymptotically.
At the resonant frequency
1 / LC
, the combined impedance is infinite,
i.e., an open circuit.
j L
1 / j C
1
1
2
/

Z j
j
Z
j
equiv
equiv
C
L
L
1 LC
+

Z
equiv

0
0
1 / LC
~ / 1 C
~L
Transfer Functions and Filtering
Example: The Series RC Circuit
An important application of circuit analysis using phasors and impedance
is the derivation of the output / input relation of what EEs call two-port
networks. Consider the series RC circuit drawn in a slightly different way:
Here, the magnitude of the sinusoidal voltage exciting the RC circuit is
identified as
V
in
rather than A, and the voltage across the capacitor is
identified as
v t
out
( )
rather than
v t
C
( )
.
R
v
out
(t)
+

C
V
in
cos( t )
+

v
out
(t)
+

C
V
in
cos( t )
+

Two-port network
We can use the results of our previous analysis of this circuit for V
C

(Slides 55 57). Or, more simply, we can treat this circuit as a voltage
divider wherein the voltage division is accomplished via ratios of
impedances, rather than ratios of resistors:






We call this ratio H(!), the transfer function of the two-port network.
The magnitude of H(!), given by



is simply the ratio of the amplitude of the output sine wave relative to the
input sine wave. The phase of H(!), given by
!H(") = !V
out
(") # !V
in
(") = #tan
#1
("RC)

tells us by how many radians (or degrees) the phase of the output sine
wave differs from the phase of the input sine wave.
V
out
V
in
=
(1/ j!C)
R + (1/ j!C)
=
1
1+ j!RC
=
1
1 + (!RC)
2
"# tan
#1
(!RC)
H(!) =
V
out
V
in
(!) =
1
1 + (!RC)
2
We can learn much about the behavior of this circuit by graphing
H
and
H
versus frequency. First, remembering that
2 f
, we have
H f
f
f
f f B
( )
( )
( )

( )

( / )

+

+
V
V
out
in RC
1
1 2
1
1
2 2

H f f f f f B ( ) ( ) ( ) tan ( ) tan ( / ) V V
out in
RC
1 1
2
where the characteristic frequency
B 1 2 / RC
is defined as the circuits
bandwidth. Illustrative graphs of
H f ( )
and
H f ( )
follow:
f (Hz)
H f ( )
1
0
1 2
B 1 2 / RC 0
H f ( )
f (Hz)
B 1 2 / RC
0
45
90
passband stopband
With this circuit, input sinusoidal voltages having frequencies below
B Hz appear at the output with relatively little attenuation, whereas input
sinusoidal voltages having frequencies above B are suppressed. In the limit
as the input signal frequency rises well above B, almost no output signal is
obtained.
This is the action of what EEs call a low-pass filter. The frequency
range below B is called the passband, and the frequency range above B
is called the stopband.
Low-pass filters have important engineering applications in separating
desired signals from undesired (interfering) signals and noise. This action is
called windowing. For example, to optimally window a voice signal in a
telephone system, we would select R and C to yield
B
3 kHz, since most
energy in the human voice is concentrated in sinusoidal components have
frequencies between 0 (dc) and 3 kHz. Here are the approximate
bandwidths for three other signals of interest that can be effectively
decomposed into low-pass collections of sinusoidal components:
audio from the Chicago Symphony Orchestra 20 kHz
color TV video signals 5 MHz
digital bit stream in your computer 10 GHz
More Simple Voltage-Divider Filters


R-C High-pass Filter
























V
in

R
V
out

1
j!C
V
out
V
in
=
R
R + (1 / j!C)
V
out
V
in
0
1
1
2
0
!
1/RC
Passband Stopband
3-db cutoff
R-L High-pass Filter
























V
in

R
j! L
V
out

V
out
V
in
=
j!L
R + j!L
V
out
V
in
0
1
1
2
0
!
R/L
Passband Stopband
3-db cutoff
R-L-C Band-pass (Peak) Filter

























V
in

R
j! L
V
out

1
j!C
V
out
V
in
=
Z
L|| C
R + Z
L|| C
V
out
V
in
0
1
1
2
0
!
1
LC
3-db bandwidth
Passband
Stopband Stopband
R-L-C Band-stop (Notch) Filter


























V
in

j! L
V
out

1
j!C
R
V
out
V
in
=
R
R + Z
L|| C
V
out
V
in
0
1
1
2
0
!
1
LC
3-db bandwidth
Passband
Stopband
Passband
Typical Spectra of Radio Stations













0 db
10 db
20 db
30 db
40 db
50 db
Local
radio
station
Distant
radio
station #1
Distant
radio
station #2
frequency
signal
strength
noise floor
Tuning In the Local Station













0 db
10 db
20 db
30 db
40 db
50 db
Local
radio
station
Distant
radio
station #1
Distant
radio
station #2
frequency
signal
strength
noise floor
H(f)
Tuning In Distant Radio Station #1













0 db
10 db
20 db
30 db
40 db
50 db
Local
radio
station
Distant
radio
station #1
Distant
radio
station #2
frequency
signal
strength
noise floor
H(f)
Tuning In Distant Radio Station #2














0 db
10 db
20 db
30 db
40 db
50 db
Local
radio
station
Distant
radio
station #1
Distant
radio
station #2
frequency
signal
strength
noise floor
H(f)
Time-Average Power in the
Sinusoidal Steady State


Consider an arbitrary impedance, Z, in a
circuit that is operating in the sinusoidal
steady state:










Instantaneous power absorbed by Z:




v
max
cos!t
i
max
cos(!t +")
+
!
Z
p(t ) = v
max
cos!t " i
max
cos(!t +#)
=
v
max
i
max
2
cos(2!t +#) + cos#
[ ]
Time-average power absorbed by Z:











is often called the power factor.
This ranges from 1 for a resistor, where the
voltage and current are in phase, to 0 for a
capacitor or inductor, where the voltage and
current are 90 out of phase.

Hence, in the sinusoidal steady state, a
capacitor or inductor has 0 time-average
power dissipation.

p
average
=
1
T
p(t )dt
T
!
}
where T is one sinusoidal period at "
=
v
max
i
max
2T
cos(2"t +#) + cos#
[ ]
dt
T
!
=
v
max
i
max
2T
0 + T cos#
[ ]
=
v
max
i
max
2
cos#
cos!
Another interpretation of time-average
power: Dot product of the voltage and
current phasors, and .



















!
v

!
i

!
v

!
i
!
real
imaginary

p
average
=
v
max
i
max
2
cos! =
1
2
!
v
"
!
i
We can expand this expression to derive the
universally used formula for the time-average
power dissipated by an impedance in the
sinusoidal steady state:

















p
average
=
1
2
! v
!
!
i =
1
2
! v
real
!
i
real
+ ! v
imag
!
i
imag
( )
=
1
2
Real ! v
real
+ j ! v
imag
( )
!
i
real
" j
!
i
imag
( )
#
$
%
&
=
1
2
Real ! v
!
i
*
( )
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Given the Thevenin equivalent circuit of a
sinusoidal steady-state power source with
fixed and Z
Th
and a variable load, Z
load
.








Then, the maximum time-average power
that can be transferred from the power
source to the load occurs when Z
load
is set
equal to the complex conjugate of Z
Th
, i.e.:

Z
load
= Z
Th
*


!
v
Th
+
!
Z
Th


!
v
Th
Z
load

(fixed)
(fixed)
(variable)
Power
source
Impedance Matching for
Maximum Power Transfer

Often, all three quantities ( , Z
Th
, and Z
load
) are
fixed. Then, a lossless two-port matching
network can be inserted between Z
load
and the
power source as follows:










The matching network transforms the load
impedance such that the power source
senses at its terminals. Now, the
maximum possible time-average power is
transferred from the power source to the load.

!
v
Th
+
!
Z
Th


!
v
Th
Z
load

(fixed)
(fixed)
(fixed)
Power
source
Lossless
two-port
matching
network
Z
Th
*
Z
Th
*
Example of impedance transformation: Using
two capacitors and one inductor, transform a
very low 1! antenna impedance to match the
100! Thevenin impedance of a transmitter
operating at a frequency of 10 MHz:











Let C = 0.00159 F and L = 0.159 H. At 10 MHz,
Z
C
= j10! and Z
L
= j10!. This yields:
Z
transformed
= ! j10 +
j10 " 1 ! j10 ( )
j10 + 1 ! j10 ( )
= 100#

Z
load
= 1!
Lossless two-port
matching network
C C
L
Z
transformed

j10 j10
j10