UNIT I: Analysis of Concepts

Module 1: Words and Concepts

Word
- simplest unit of communication in a natural language
- indespensable means of communication
- sign of a concept
-made up of letters
Concept
- cannot just be made of letters only
- made up of ideas

Formation of Concepts

John Locke all things that exist in the world are called
particulars
General terms - were created because it was impossible
to name each one particular
abstraction- process of giving general terms
general idea- formed when we notice common
characteristic in particulars general term (white sand)

SIMPLE AND COMPLEX TERMS
term- group of words used to express concepts
- Verbal means of expressing what we know
through concepts
- Made of letters
- Simple ex. Cat,dog Complex ex. The king of
France
Simple (single word) Complex (several words)

Concepts - building blocks of our knowledge
- Exist in our minds
- Basic unit of philosophical analysis and critical
thinking

words concepts knowledge claims arguments

Module 2: Extension and Intension of Concepts

Extension and Intension
extension - members of the domain of the concept
intension trait, set of traits, characteristics, function
shared by members
Ex. extension of bat- all individual animals regardless of
size, shape, color
All bats
Intension of the concept bat- only mammals
capable of flight
Must pay attention to single trait or set of traits
those members of the extension must share

Essential property
When intension becomes very precise and
clearly defined
Possession of a single trait is the necessary and
sufficient condition to qualify one to be a
member of a concept
Ex. mammal possession of mammary gland
Essentialists believe that for a concept to be
meaningful intension should be limited by
essential property

Games and Family Resemblance
Wittgensteins Philosophical Investigation
Challenged essentialism
Could not find a single essence to characterize
ball games
Family resemblance network of traits

Module 3: Using the Same Language

Wittgenstein
Meaning- use in a language, actual use in a
language by real people,
If language game is unplayable by real people
in real life situations, language game has no
form of life
Sharing a language game= sharing a form of life
Different meanings in numerous language
games
Ambiguous and vague
Conventional- words are used in same way in
numerous language games
ex. father, mother, brother, sister, family ,
marriage
Ambiguous- word has acquired many different
uses in different language games
Vague- terms are used loosely in many language
games
Useless Controversies
Words are used in different ways
Cardinal rule
Never take part in a discussion or verbal dispute
in any subject matter unless you are sure that
both of you are using the same word in the
same way
What do you mean by that? In what sense are
you using the word?

Module 4: Classification of Concept

7 Types of Concepts
1. Empirical- tangible and visible to unaided senses
2. Theoretical-cannot readily be observed to exist in
space and time by unaided senses
- observable only through use of powerful sensory
extending devices, ex. microscope
3. Dispositional- hybrid concepts from sciences ex.
elastic, magnetic, temperature (not directly observable,
have to perform operations)
4. Analytic- entities that cannot be found in the world
- creation of our mind
Ex. numbers and circle (abstract concepts)
5. Evaluative moral (good or bad), aesthetic (beauty
or ugliness), religious (heaven and hell)
-judgement of worth or value of a person, act, behavior,
event, place
6. Fictitious- extension- purely imaginary ex. mermaids
and unicorns
7. Metaphysical- concept of substance God, mind and
matter
- concept of absolute- universal mind- totality of past,
present and to come, we are all part of one reality- the
absolute

Intra and Inter Subjectivity Test
Intra self should be able to observe any time
Inter- can be observed by others, otherwise empirical
fictitious

Module 5: Ambiguous and Vague Terms

Ambiguity matter of degree, the more uses a term
acquires, the more ambiguous it becomes
- Too ambiguous when it is difficult to determine
the proper language game in which the term is
used because of having too many uses
- Hedonist good = bodily pleasure, humanist-
development of human potentials, utilitarian-
promotes greatest happiness for the greatest
number, logical positivist- approval of act,
Kantian- accordance with ones duty

Vague Terms
Something wrong with the intension of the
concept
Clarify the intension to make it usable for
including members and excluding non-members
Intension of a concept has become too loose
and unclear

Fallacy of Equivocation
Using term in one way and using it again in another

SAQ
1. A term is ambiguous when it has acquired too many
uses in numerous language games.
2. A term is vague when the intension of the concept is
loose and imprecise.
3. The remedy for an ambiguous term is to determine
the language game in which the term is used.
4. A hedonist will identify good with bodily pleasure.
5. A humanist will identify good with developing
potentials.
6. A Kantian will identify good with doing ones duty.
7. The antidote of a vague term is to restate the
intension in clear and simple terms.
8. The fallacy of equivocation is committed when you
use a term in one way and use it again in a different
way in one line of reasoning.

Module 6: On Definitions
Definition- provide information about the correct use of
a term
Linguistic device that provides an explanation or
demonstration about the use of a term, it is
complete when provided with a clear statement
of intension and some typical members of its
extension
1. Definition by synonym defining unfamiliar term by
using a familiar term
2. Ostensive definition- giving examples, verbally or
pointing gesture
3. Reportive definition- standard or conventional use of
terms, dictionary definitions
4. Stipulative definition- term is used in a unique way in
a language game ex. technical terms
5. Operational definition created by P.W. Bridgman
- all scientific concepts should be defined in terms of
performable operations
a. instrumental operations (performed by various
devices for observation and measurement like
microscope and telescope)
b. paper and pencil operations (verbal and thought
experiments)

Module 7: Analytic Definition

Analytic definition
definiendum, definiens, denotata
definiendum- term to be defined
definiens- provides the intesion or defining property of
definiendum
denotata- samples of members of extension

DEFINIENS
genus- wider concept of which definiendum is a
member
differentia- states the traits that distinguish
definiendum from other species

Errors or fallacies in definitions
1. Too broad or too narrow
2. Circular definition
3. Negative definition
4. Figurative (idiomatic expression), obscure
(using a more complex term as definition),
metaphorical
5. Synonym definition or ostensive definition

SAQ
A.
1. Analytic definition is composed of three categories,
namely: definiendum, definiens and denotata.
2. The term to be defined is called definiendum.
3. Definiens is the category that states the trait or set of
traits of the members of the concept.
4. Definiens is composed of two categories genus and
differentia.
5. Genus is the wider concept in which definiendum is a
member.
6. The members of the genus are called species.
7. The denotata is the category that provides typical
samples of the members.
8. The common error in composing a definition is too
narrow or too broad.
9. If the definition is too narrow, it will exclude real
members.
10. If the definition is too broad, it will include non-
members.
11. If you define a term by using a synonym, you are
prone to commit an error called circular definition.
12. Negative definition does not state what it is, but
what it is not.
13. Never define a concept by using figurative and
obscure language because your definition will be
uninformative.
14. Synonyms and ostensive types of definition are
incomplete and misleading techniques.

B.
1. Symbol is an artificial sign which is non verbal.
2. Testimony is an assertion or set of assertions made
by another person, for example, the judgment of an
expert.
3. Equivocation is a linguistic use of words used by a
deliberate shift of meaning.
4. Analogy is a linguistic device which focuses on the
similarity of things and events.
5. Authority is a person who is an expert on a particular
subject of matter or field.
6. Generalization is a type of statement which states a
property common to the members of a population.
7. Circular is a type of definition in which the
definiendum occurs in definiens.
8. Contrary is a relationship of two statements in which
both cannot be true but both can be false.
9. Logic is both a science and an art concerned with
correct and incorrect reasoning.
10. Sign is an artificial device which leads the observer
to attend to something other than the device itself.

Kinds of Agreement and Disagreement
In fact, an excessive reliance on emotively charged
language can create the appearance of disagreement
between parties who do not differ on the facts at all,
and it can just as easily disguise substantive disputes
under a veneer of emotive agreement. Since the
degrees of agreement in belief and attitude are
independent of each other, there are four possible
combinations at work here:
1. Agreement in belief and agreement in attitude: There
aren't any problems in this instance, since both parties
hold the same positions and have the same feelings
about them.
2. Agreement in belief but disagreement in attitude:
This case, if unnoticed, may become the cause of
endless (but pointless) shouting between people whose
feelings differ sharply about some fact upon which they
are in total agreement.
3. Disagreement in belief but agreement in attitude: In
this situation, parties may never recognize, much less
resolve, their fundamental difference of opinion, since
they are lulled by their shared feelings into supposing
themselves allied.
4. Disagreement in belief and disagreement in attitude:
Here the parties have so little in common that
communication between them often breaks down
entirely.
It is often valuable, then, to recognize the levels of
agreement or disagreement at work in any exchange of
views. That won't always resolve the dispute between
two parties, of course, but it will ensure that they don't
waste their time on an inappropriate method of
argument or persuasion.