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w
/(w/100 + 1/G
s
)
Moisture Content in percent = w
Wet density of soil in g/cm3 =
S P C T is generally used in small fills,
parking lots and for building structures
M P C T is generally used in large fills, roads,
Airport Runways and Concrete Parking
Aprons and for building structures
Field compaction done with different type of
rollers
(a) Clayey and Silty Soils use Sheepsfoot rollers
(b) Granular Soils use Smooth-drum or Vibratory rollers
%age of Optimum Compaction attained
in the field is Relative Density or R (%)
1) R(%) for S P C T is 95% - 100%
2) R(%) for M P C T is 90% - 95%
3) R(%) for granular fills is 95% - 100%
Common R(%) field test is Sand Replacement Method
14
California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) testing
(Laboratory) apparatus
CBR
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) testing apparatus
15
California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) testing apparatus
in the field
CBR relationship of
force & penetration of a
cylindrical plunger of 3
inch
2
at a standard rate
into soil. 0.05 per
minute
CBRin essence evaluate strength of subgrades
High CBR lower pavement thickness & vise versa
CBR value CBR value Subgrade Subgrade strength strength
3% and less 3% and less Poor Poor
3% 3% - - 5% 5% Normal Normal
5% 5% - - 15% 15% Good Good
Other field apparatus used to determine CBR
(a)Hand held Mexe Penetrometer
indicate CBR values upto 3m depth
(b) Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
could be used to evaluate results using a formula
16
Stress
Penetration
Curves of
CBR Tests
Reinforcement
& Concrete
17
R/F bar tests to BS 4449
a) Proof / Yield stress > Characteristic strength of 460 or 250 N/mm
2
b) Tensile strength > Proof / Yield stress
c) %age elongation 12% for 460A & 14% for 460B
d) %age elongation 22% for MS - 250
e) Stress ratio (TS / YS) >= 1.05 for 460A & 1.08 for 460B
f) Stress ratio (TS / YS) >= 1.15 for MS
460A rib pattern
460B rib pattern
Bar Diameter ( Bar Diameter ( ) mm ) mm
6 6 8 8 10 10 12 12 16 16 20 20 25 25 32 32 40 40
0.222 0.222 0.395 0.395 0.616 0.616 0.888 0.888 1.579 1.579 2.466 2.466 3.854 3.854 6.313 6.313 9.864 9.864
9 9 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
0.242 0.242 0.421 0.421 0.656 0.656 0.928 0.928 1.650 1.650 2.577 2.577 4.027 4.027 6.597 6.597 10.308 10.308
0.202 0.202 0.369 0.369 0.576 0.576 0.848 0.848 1.508 1.508 2.355 2.355 3.681 3.681 6.028 6.028 9.420 9.420
Reinforcement weight - kg / m
3
rd
row :- Average weight
4
th
row :- + Tolerance
5
th
row :- Upper limit kg/m
6
th
row :- Lower limit kg/m
18
Chemical analysis and Carbon equivalence
Element Element Grade 250 Grade 250 Grade 460 Grade 460
% Max % Max % Max % Max
Carbon Carbon 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Sulphur Sulphur 0.060 0.060 0.050 0.050
Phosphorus Phosphorus 0.060 0.060 0.050 0.050
Nitrogen Nitrogen 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012
Max. Carbon equivalent Max. Carbon equivalent
values (CEV) values (CEV)
0.42 0.42 0.51 0.51
CEV = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V)/5 + (Ni +Cu)/15
STEMS
STEMS CONSULTANTS (PTE) LTD Computed By: S A Karunaratne
159, Model Farm Road, Col ombo 08 Date: 2006-11-24
Analysis of 36 No. cube test results furnished by SUPERMIX to Singapore Piling
for Grade 35 concrete to be used for concreti ng i n Luxary Apartment Bui l di ng
at Lot A1 & B3, Gal l e Road, Col ombo 03.
(Anal ysi s carri ed out i n pl ace of tri al batchi ng to veri fy the " Mi x Desi gn" )
Resul t
No Date Cast Date Tested Age Days N/mm
2
at test fi fi - fm (fi - fm)
2
1 1-9-06 29-9-06 28 34.5 -6.60 43.52
2 1-9-06 29-9-06 28 40 -1.10 1.20
3 1-9-06 29-9-06 28 41 -0.10 0.01
4 31-8-06 28-9-06 28 47.5 6.40 41.00
5 31-8-06 28-9-06 28 42 0.90 0.82
6 31-8-06 28-9-06 28 41.5 0.40 0.16
7 30-8-06 27-9-06 28 35.5 -5.60 31.33
8 30-8-06 27-9-06 28 39 -2.10 4.40
9 30-8-06 27-9-06 28 37.5 -3.60 12.94
10 14-8-06 11-9-06 28 36.5 -4.60 21.13
11 14-8-06 11-9-06 28 38 -3.10 9.59
12 14-8-06 11-9-06 28 39 -2.10 4.40
13 13-8-06 10-9-06 28 43 1.90 3.62
14 13-8-06 10-9-06 28 42.5 1.40 1.97
15 13-8-06 10-9-06 28 40 -1.10 1.20
16 8-8-06 5-9-06 28 37.5 -3.60 12.94
17 8-8-06 5-9-06 28 39.5 -1.60 2.55
18 8-8-06 5-9-06 28 35.5 -5.60 31.33
19 30-7-06 28-8-06 29 47 5.90 34.84
20 30-7-06 28-8-06 29 41.5 0.40 0.16
21 30-7-06 28-8-06 29 46 4.90 24.04
22 27-7-06 24-8-06 28 43 1.90 3.62
23 27-7-06 24-8-06 28 44 2.90 8.43
24 27-7-06 24-8-06 28 43.5 2.40 5.77
25 23-7-06 21-8-06 29 41.5 0.40 0.16
26 23-7-06 21-8-06 29 46 4.90 24.04
27 23-7-06 21-8-06 29 41.5 0.40 0.16
28 22-7-06 21-8-06 30 41.5 0.40 0.16
29 22-7-06 21-8-06 30 41.5 0.40 0.16
30 22-7-06 21-8-06 30 42 0.90 0.82
31 30-6-06 28-7-06 28 44 2.90 8.43
32 30-6-06 28-7-06 28 35.5 -5.60 31.33
33 30-6-06 28-7-06 28 45 3.90 15.23
34 29-6-06 23-8-06 55 39.5 -1.60 2.55
35 29-6-06 23-8-06 55 41 -0.10 0.01
36 29-6-06 23-8-06 55 45.5 4.40 19.38
37 0.00 0.00
38 0.00 0.00
39 0.00 0.00
40 0.00 0.00
36
Total = 1479.5 403.41
Average = Total /36 fm = 41.10
s = (fi - fm
2
/ 36 3.35
1.64 s = 5.49
Therefore fcu = fm - 1.64s = 35.61 N/mm
2
> 35N/mm2
Note: Concrete Cube resul ts are acceptabl e
However, No. of cube resul ts l ess than 40 and Contractor i s responsi bl e
Analysis of recently
cast concrete test cube
results in place of mix
design trial mix tests
19
A6
B6
C6 D6
AB
BA
BC
CB CD
DC
DA
AD
150 Cast Cube mould markings
Casting concrete cylinders & cubes for tests
(i) Place concrete in three layers
(ii) Compact each layer 35 blows; 350mm long
16mm rod or 25mm
2
area bar (600mm bullet
nosed rod)
150 x 300 CAST MOULD
STEMS Proj ect 35 Storey Tower, Lot A1 & B3, Col ombo 03
STEMS CONSULTANTS (PTE) LTD Computed By: S A Karunaratne
159, Model Farm Road, Col ombo 08 Date: 2007-08-18
Compressi ve Strength (28 Day Test Resul ts) - To BS 5328: Part 4: 1990: Cl ause 3.16.2
Set Of Resul ts No CC/02/239
Speci fi ed Compressi ve Strength = 30 N/mm^ 2
Number of Cube Resul ts avai l abl e= 3
Test Cube Resul t 1 = 45.5 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (b) Sati sfi ed 45.5 > 27 N/mm^ 2
Test Cube Resul t 2 = 48 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (b) Sati sfi ed 48 > 27 N/mm^ 2
Test Cube Resul t 3 = 50 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (b) Sati sfi ed 50 > 27 N/mm^ 2
Test Cube Resul t 4 = 0 N/mm^ 2 Not Appl i cabl e
Average Resul ts = 47.83 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (a) Sati sfi ed 47.83>=32 N/mm^ 2
Therefore Concrete Cube Resul ts i s OKAY
Set Of Resul ts No CC/02/251
Speci fi ed Compressi ve Strength = 30 N/mm^ 2
Number of Cube Resul ts avai l abl e= 2
Test Cube Resul t 1 = 34.5 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (b) Sati sfi ed 34.5 > 27 N/mm^ 2
Test Cube Resul t 2 = 29.5 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (b) Sati sfi ed 29.5 > 27 N/mm^ 2
Test Cube Resul t 3 = 0 N/mm^ 2 Not Appl i cabl e
Test Cube Resul t 4 = 0 N/mm^ 2 Not Appl i cabl e
Average Resul ts = 32 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (a) Sati sfi ed 32>=31 N/mm^ 2
Therefore Concrete Cube Resul ts i s OKAY
Set Of Resul ts No CC/02/223
Speci fi ed Compressi ve Strength = 30 N/mm^ 2
Number of Cube Resul ts avai l abl e= 3
Test Cube Resul t 1 = 49.5 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (b) Sati sfi ed 49.5 > 27 N/mm^ 2
Test Cube Resul t 2 = 47.5 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (b) Sati sfi ed 47.5 > 27 N/mm^ 2
Test Cube Resul t 3 = 46.5 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (b) Sati sfi ed 46.5 > 27 N/mm^ 2
Test Cube Resul t 4 = 0 N/mm^ 2 Not Appl i cabl e
Average Resul ts = 47.83 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (a) Sati sfi ed 47.83>=32 N/mm^ 2
Therefore Concrete Cube Resul ts i s OKAY
Set Of Resul ts No 0
Speci fi ed Compressi ve Strength = 30 N/mm^ 2
Number of Cube Resul ts avai l abl e= 4
Test Cube Resul t 1 = 30 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (b) Sati sfi ed 30 > 27 N/mm^ 2
Test Cube Resul t 2 = 50 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (b) Sati sfi ed 50 > 27 N/mm^ 2
Test Cube Resul t 3 = 34 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (b) Sati sfi ed 34 > 27 N/mm^ 2
Test Cube Resul t 4 = 29 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (b) Sati sfi ed 29 > 27 N/mm^ 2
Average Resul ts = 35.75 N/mm^ 2 Condi ti on (a) Sati sfi ed 35.75>=33 N/mm^ 2
a. Concrete test cube
compliance
20
D. Concrete
Type of concrete Type of concrete Max. total % Max. total %
of chloride ion of chloride ion
by mass of by mass of
combined combined
aggregate aggregate
Max. total % of Max. total % of
chloride ion by chloride ion by
mass of mass of
cement cement
Prestressed Prestressed
concrete concrete
R/C with cement to R/C with cement to
BS 12 BS 12
R/C with cement to R/C with cement to
BS 4027 & BS 4248 BS 4027 & BS 4248
0.10 0.10 0.01 0.01
0.05 0.05 0.40 0.40
0.03 0.03 0.20 0.20
Chloride in fine aggregate & in concrete
21
Maximum shell content in offshore sand
Size Size
Limit on shell Limit on shell
content (%) content (%)
Fractions of single size or of graded or Fractions of single size or of graded or
all all- -in aggregate, coarser than 10mm in aggregate, coarser than 10mm
8 8
Fractions of 10mm single size, or of Fractions of 10mm single size, or of
graded or all graded or all- -in aggregate finer than in aggregate finer than
10mm & coarser than 5mm 10mm & coarser than 5mm
20 20
Aggregate finer than 5mm Aggregate finer than 5mm No No
requirement requirement
GRADES GRADES
C C
Avera Avera 4 4
Results Results
Avera Avera 3 3
Results Results
Avera Avera 2 2
Results Results
BS & {ICTAD} BS & {ICTAD}
Indivi Indivi. Result > . Result >
C8/10 C8/10 12(2) 12(2) 11(1) 11(1) 10(0) 10(0) 8(2) ; {8(2)} 8(2) ; {8(2)}
C12/15 C12/15 17(2) 17(2) 16(1) 16(1) 15(0) 15(0) 13(2) ; {13(2)} 13(2) ; {13(2)}
C16/20 C16/20 23(3) 23(3) 22(2) 22(2) 21(1) 21(1) 17(3) ; 17(3) ; {18(2)} {18(2)}
C20/25 C20/25 28(3) 28(3) 27(2) 27(2) 26(1) 26(1) 22(3) ; 22(3) ; {23(2)} {23(2)}
C25/30 C25/30 33(3) 33(3) 32(2) 32(2) 31(1) 31(1) 27(3) 27(3)
C28/35 C28/35 38(3) 38(3) 37(2) 37(2) 36(1) 36(1) 32(3) 32(3)
C32/40 C32/40 43(3) 43(3) 42(2) 42(2) 41(1) 41(1) 37(3) 37(3)
C40/50 C40/50 53(3) 53(3) 52(2) 52(2) 51(1) 51(1) 47(3) 47(3)
Compliance criteria of concrete cube test results
Cast 6 cubes; Test 01 at 07 days (0.75 of 28 days strength) ; Test 04 at 28 days
(b) Lowest individual strength of any cube > 0.85 of characteristic strength
The difference of strength of two specimens < 15% of mean strength
(a) Average of 3 cubes >=characteristic strength
Two test specimens form a single result for compliance with the above chart
(Max Mini) of 3 results < 20% of average of 3 results
For small projects -ICTAD
22
What is C35A concrete
Grade 35 concrete for structures retaining Aqueous
(Water like) - (suffix - A) liquids
Maximum cement content 400 kg/m
3
Minimum cement content 325 kg/m
3
Maximum free water cement ratio 0.55
(Water reducing agents could be used)
Aggregates Maximum water absorption <3%
Coarse aggregate with low coefficient of
thermal expansion
Fully compactable Low permeability (Durability)
Control early thermal and shrinkage effects
Placing and Finishing
Placing and Finishing
Concrete
Concrete
23
READY MIXED CONCRETE
Central Mixed Central Mixed Transit Mixed Transit Mixed
Aggregate added at speed Aggregate added at speed
10 to 18 rpm up to 100 10 to 18 rpm up to 100
revolutions revolutions
Materials are batched in a Materials are batched in a
central plant central plant no addition no addition
of water of water
Transport Agitator Truck 2 Transport Agitator Truck 2
to 6 rpm to 6 rpm
Mixing in transit or at Mixing in transit or at
discharge speed 4 to 16 discharge speed 4 to 16
rpm of truck mixer rpm of truck mixer
For uniformity of mixing For uniformity of mixing
limit to 300 revolutions limit to 300 revolutions
For uniformity of mixing For uniformity of mixing
limit to 300 revolutions limit to 300 revolutions
Cement balls up to 200mm Cement balls up to 200mm
if no proper controls if no proper controls
The speed of mixing affects the rate of stiffening The speed of mixing affects the rate of stiffening
Basic Requirements for
Basic Requirements for
Placing Concrete (1)
Placing Concrete (1)
Preserve concrete quality Preserve concrete quality
Water Water- -cement ratio cement ratio
Slump Slump
Homogeneity Homogeneity
Avoid separation of aggregate and Avoid separation of aggregate and
mortar mortar
24
Basic Requirements for
Basic Requirements for
Placing Concrete (2)
Placing Concrete (2)
Avoid excessive horizontal movement Avoid excessive horizontal movement
Consolidate adequately Consolidate adequately
Maintain sufficient placement capacity Maintain sufficient placement capacity
Choose the right equipment for the concrete Choose the right equipment for the concrete
Depositing Concrete
Depositing Concrete
Start placing along perimeter at one end Start placing along perimeter at one end
with each batch discharged against with each batch discharged against
previously placed concrete previously placed concrete
Do not Do not
(a) dump in separate piles & then (a) dump in separate piles & then
level and work together level and work together
(b) (b) deposit in large piles & then deposit in large piles & then move move
horizontally into position horizontally into position
These practices result in segregation These practices result in segregation
(mortar flows ahead of coarser material) (mortar flows ahead of coarser material)
Slab Construction
25
Incorrect Placement with
Incorrect Placement with
Conveyor Belt
Conveyor Belt
Baffle
Mortar
Rock
Mortar
Mortar
Rock
Shallow
hopper
Placement with
Placement with
Conveyor Belt
Conveyor Belt
Belt Scraper
No
Separation
Provide at least 0.6 m
(24 in.) headroom for
downpipe, elephant
trunk or equivalent
26
Depositing Concrete
Depositing Concrete
Deposit in horizontal layers of Deposit in horizontal layers of
uniform thickness uniform thickness
Reinforced Reinforced 150 mm to 500 mm 150 mm to 500 mm
Mass Mass 375 mm to 500 mm 375 mm to 500 mm
Consolidate each layer before Consolidate each layer before
next is placed next is placed
Timely placement & Timely placement &
consolidation prevents flow lines consolidation prevents flow lines
and cold joints and cold joints
Walls
Placing Concrete
Placing Concrete
in piles
in piles
Used: Tremie
Advantages: Can be used to
funnel concrete down through
the water / bentonite into the
structure.
Watch for: Discharge end
always has to be buried in fresh
concrete to ensure seal
between water and concrete
mass.
27
Consolidating
Consolidating
Concrete
Concrete
Internal Vibration Internal Vibration
External Vibration External Vibration
Internal Vibration
Internal Vibration
d
R
1 R
Vibrator
Radius of Action
28
Internal Vibrators
Internal Vibrators
of of
head, head,
mm mm
frequency, frequency,
vibrations vibrations
per minute per minute
radius of radius of
action, action,
mm mm
Rate of Rate of
placemen placemen
t,m t,m
3 3
/h /h Application Application
20 20- -40 40 9000 9000- -15,000 15,000
80 80- -150 150 0.8 0.8- -4 4
30 30- -60 60
8500 8500- -12,500 12,500
130 130- -250 250 2.3 2.3- -8 8
50 50- -90 90
8000 8000- -12,000 12,000
180 180- -360 360 4.6 4.6- -15 15
Stiff plastic Stiff plastic
concrete (less than concrete (less than
80 80- -mm slump) mm slump)
Plastic concrete in Plastic concrete in
thin walls, thin walls,
columns, beams, columns, beams,
precast piles, thin precast piles, thin
slabs, slabs,
Plastic and flowing Plastic and flowing
concrete in thin concrete in thin
members. Also members. Also
used for lab test used for lab test
specimens. specimens.
Systematic Vibration of
Systematic Vibration of
Each New Lift
Each New Lift
CORRECT CORRECT
Vertical penetration a few inches into
previous lift (which should not yet be
rigid) of systematic regular intervals
will give adequate consolidation
INCORRECT INCORRECT
Haphazard random penetration of the
vibrator at all angles and spacings
without sufficient depth will not assure
intimate combination of the two layers
29
Placing Concrete in a
Placing Concrete in a
Sloping Lift
Sloping Lift
CORRECT CORRECT
Start placing at bottom of slope so
that compaction is increased by
weight of newly added concrete.
Vibration consolidates the concrete.
INCORRECT INCORRECT
When placing is begun at top of slope
the upper concrete tends to pull
apart especially when vibrated below
as this starts flow and removes from
concrete above.
External Vibration
External Vibration
Form vibrators Form vibrators
Vibrating tables Vibrating tables
Surface vibrators Surface vibrators
Vibratory hand floats or trowels Vibratory hand floats or trowels
30
Floating (Power or Hand)
Floating (Power or Hand)
To embed aggregate To embed aggregate
particles just beneath the particles just beneath the
surface surface
To remove slight To remove slight
imperfections, humps, and imperfections, humps, and
voids voids
To compact the mortar at To compact the mortar at
the surface in preparation the surface in preparation
for additional finishing for additional finishing
operations. operations.
Troweling
Troweling
Creates smooth, Creates smooth,
hard,dense surface hard,dense surface
Exterior concrete should Exterior concrete should
not be not be troweled troweled because: because:
it can lead to a loss of it can lead to a loss of
entrained air caused by entrained air caused by
overworking the surface overworking the surface
troweled troweled surfaces can be surfaces can be
slippery when wet. slippery when wet.
31
Curing and Protection
Curing and Protection
Cure for 7 days Cure for 7 days
Impervious Cover
Sprinkling of water
Curing Agent
Minimum period for curing Minimum period for curing
& protection & protection
Surface concrete Surface concrete
temperature temperature
o o
C C
5 5 - - 10 10 > 10 > 10 25 25
Average Average 4 Days 4 Days 3 Days 3 Days 2 Days 2 Days
Poor Poor
Average Average
6 6 4 4 3 3
All except All except
(1) with (1) with
ggbfs ggbfs or or
pfa pfa
Poor Poor 10 10 7 7 4 4
All All Good Good No curing No curing
(1) OPC, (1) OPC,
RHPC, RHPC,
SRPC SRPC
Type of Type of
cement cement
Ambient Ambient
conditions conditions
after after
concreting concreting
Table 6.5 of BS 8110
32
Controlling temperatures in
mass concrete
Volume > 300m
3
& thickness > 600mm
i. Concrete temperature to 60
0
C maximum
ii. Temperature difference at center & surface
to 20
0
C maximum
Limit
a. Temp > 71
0
C - internal expansion & cracking
b. Temp > 88
0
C - reduced compressive strength
Or minimum dimension > 1.8m
50kg cement temperature increase very
approx. 4.29
0
C 7.14
0
C ; control with
fly ash / ggbfs
Temperature rise in concrete above ambient Temperature rise in concrete above ambient
surrounding surrounding in in
0 0
C C
Section Section
thickness thickness
(mm) (mm)
18mm plywood 18mm plywood (Steel) (Steel) formwork formwork
cement content cement content - - kg/ m kg/ m
3 3
220 290 360 400 220 290 360 400
10 10 - -14 14 14 14 - - 19 19 18 18 - - 26 26 21 21 - - 31 31
5 5 - - 7 7 7 7 - - 10 10 9 9 - - 13 13 10 10 - - 15 15
9 9 - - 13 13 13 13 - - 17 17 16 16 - - 23 23 19 19 - - 27 27
13 13 - - 17 17 18 18 - - 24 24 23 23 - - 33 33 27 27 - - 39 39
18 18 - - 23 23 24 24 - - 32 32 33 33 - - 43 43 39 39 - - 49 49
15 15 - - 19 19 20 20 - - 27 27 27 27 - - 36 36 31 31 - - 43 43
18 18 - - 23 23 25 25 - - 32 32 34 34 - - 43 43 40 40 - - 49 49
22 22 - - 27 27 31 31 - - 37 37 42 42 - - 48 48 47 47 - - 56 56
> 1000 > 1000
700 700
500 500
< 300 < 300
33
150mm sand layer or felt
25mm polystyrene or
Shear R/F
Main R/F
polythene layer
Additional R/F mesh
Formwork
First concrete pour
Balance concrete
to be poured
Surface Insulation
Arrangement
(warm the surface &
reduce temp difference
Working Safely with Concrete
Working Safely with Concrete
Protect: Protect:
Your Eyes Your Eyes
Your Back Your Back
Your Skin Your Skin
34
E. Detailing
COVER & SPACERS
FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE
35
Cover to R/F
oCover to R C Member is the minimum
thickness of concrete over the R/F steel
measured from exposed surface to the
closest reinforced steel surface.
oCover is subjected to ingress of moisture
along with other chemicals, impact & wear
oCover should be dense having low
permeability, durable, strong, free from
honeycombs, cracks, voids & should be
wear resistant
Cover to R/F
oCover protects R/F steel from corrosion
oCover ensures R/F bond to concrete to develop
its strength
oSpacers ensure location of R/F
at the right location
oIncorrect R/F placement can lead even to
failures
oFor eg. lowering top R/f or raising bottom
R/F by 12mm in a 150mm slab, load carrying
capacity could reduce by 20%
36
Location Location Minimum cover Minimum cover
Concrete in contact Concrete in contact
with ground with ground
75mm 75mm
- - Do with formwork Do with formwork 50mm 50mm
Columns Columns Main Main 40mm, links 40mm, links 25mm 25mm
Walls Walls 25mm & > 25mm & > of bar of bar
Beams Beams 35mm & > 35mm & > of bar, Links of bar, Links - -
20mm 20mm
Slabs Slabs 20mm 20mm
End of bars End of bars 25mm & > 2 25mm & > 2 of bar of bar
At the foot of chairs At the foot of chairs > Cover to main bars of member > Cover to main bars of member
Minimum cover to reinforcement
Ex t ensi vel y c or r oded sl ab and beam
37
Devices used to provide cover
oStone chips get dislodged, & undesirable
oWood spacers inexpensive, difficult to
remove & undesirable
o Cement mortar cover blocks inexpensive,
porous, full of voids and allow moisture
penetration & undesirable
b = 10
Double links at bends
Links at laps as in the
confinement zones
Crank detail
Column link arrangement at laps
52
FAILURE OF
COLUMNS
Beam longitudinal R/F arrangement
Wall
l
>= l
>= 50
>= l >= l
l
n
1/4 of max. support R/F
a
a
b
b
(a+b)>=l
a>= 0.4 l
b>=12
Bottom R/F of adjacent
span
Note: Do not provide bent-up bars
53
Beam Transverse R/F
arrangement
combination of
staggared with
closed links
Beam with
closed links
Side bars
Crossties
alternatively
= 2h
k
<= 300mm, <= h
k
/2)
50mm
s
k
<= h
k
/4
s
k
<= 8
s
k
<= 150mm
( =min. longitudinal rebar diameter)
Beam
zone
confinement confinement
s
k
<= 24 ( =Diameter of stirrup)
= 2h
k
Beam
zone
Beam central zone
s
k
<= 50mm
(Min. links <= 12
h
k
BEAM FAILURE INSUFFICIENT
REINFORCEMENT