ELECTRIC HEATING AND WELDING

ELECTRIC HEATING
When current is passed through a conductor, the conductor becomes hot. When a
magnetic material is brought in the vicinity of an alternating magnetic field, heat is
produced in the magnetic material.
Similarly it was found that when an electrically insulating material was subjected to
electrical stresses, it too underwent a temperature rise (Dielectric heating).
There are various method of heating a material but electric heating is considered to be far
superior for the following reasons
(i)!leanliness
Due to complete elemination of dust and ash, the charges to maintain cleanliness are
minimum and the material to be heated does not get contaminated.
(ii)"ase of control
With the help of manual or automatic devices, it is possible to control and regulate the
temperature of a furnace with great ease.
(iii)#niform heating
Whereas in other forms of heating a temperature gradient is set up from the outer
surface to the inner core.
The core being relatively cooler, in case of electric heating, the heat is uniformly
distributed and hence the charge is uniformly heated.
(iv)$ow attention and maintenance cost
"lectric heating e%uipments normally do not re%uire much attention and maintenance
is also negligible.
&ence labour charges on these items are negligibly small as compared to alternative
methods of heating.
Requirement of Heating Material
i) $ow Temperature !oefficients of 'esistance

'esistance of conducting element varies with the temperature, this variation should be
small in case of an element.
(therwise when switched () from room temperature to go upto say *+,,-!, the low
resistance at initial stage will draw e.cessively high currents at the same operating
voltage.
ii)'esistance coefficient /ositive
0f temperature is negative the element will draw more current when hot.
1 higher current means more voltage, a higher temperature or a still lower resistance,
which can instability of operation.
iii)&igh 2elting /oint
0ts melting point should be sufficiently higher than its operating temperature.
(therwise a small rise in the operating voltage will destroy the element.
iv)&igh Specific 'esistance
The resistivity of the material used for ma3ing element should be high.
This will re%uire small lengths and shall give convenient si4e.
v)&igh (.idi4ing Temperature
0ts o.idi4ing temperature should higher than its operating temperature.
(therwise o.idised layers from the surface will fla3e off changing the resistance of
the filament and giving it a smaller life.
vi)Ductile
To have convenient shapes and si4es, the material used should have high ductility and
fle.ibility.
0t should not be brittle and fragile.
vii)Should with stand 5ibration
0n most industrial process %uite strong vibrations are produced.
Some furnaces have to open or roc3 while hot. The element material should withstand
the vibrations while hot and should not brea3 open.
viii)2echanical Strength
The material used should have sufficient mechanical strength of its own.

CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF ELECTRIC HEATING
(i!o"er Frequen#$ Met%o&'
Direct resistance heating, indirect resistance heating, direct arc heating, and indirect
arc heating.
(ii Hig% Frequen#$ Heating'
0nduction heating and dielectric heating.
Re(i(tan#e Heating'
This method is based upon the 0
+
' loss. Whenever current is passed through a
resistive material heat is produced because of 0
+
' loss.
There are two methods of resistance heating. They are

i) Direct 'esistance &eating
ii) 0ndirect 'esistance &eating
Dire#t Re(i(tan#e Heating'
0n this method of heating the material or change to be heated is ta3en as a resistance
and current is passed through it.
The charge may be in the form of powder pieces or li%uid. The two electrodes are
immersed in the charge and connected to the supply.
0n case of D.! or single phase 1.! two electrodes are re%uired but there will be three
electrodes in case of three phase supply.
When metal pieces are to be heated a powder of high resistivity material is sprin3led
over the surface of the charge to avoid direct short circuit.
The current flows through the charge and heat is produced. This method has high
efficiency since heat is produced.
This method has high efficiency since heat is produced is charge itself. Though
automatic temperature control is not possible in this method.
6ut it gives uniform heat and high temperature. (ne of the major application of the
process is salt bath furnaces having an operating temperature between 7,,-! to
*8,,-!.
1n immersed electrode type medium temperature salt bath furnace is shown in
figure9.+:.
The bath ma3es use of supply voltage across two electrodes varying between 7 to +,
volts.
;or this purpose a special double wound transformer is re%uired which ma3es use of
9< primary and single phase secondary. This spea3s of an unbalanced load.
The variation in the secondary voltage is done with the help of an off load tapping
switch of the primary side. This is necessary for starting and regulating the bath load.
1dvantages
&igh efficiency.
0t gives uniform heat and high temperature.

1pplication
0t is mainly used in salt bath furnace and water heaters.
In&ire#t re(i(tan#e %eating
0n this method the current is passed through a highly resistance element which is
either placed above or below the over depending upon the nature of the job to be
performed.
The heat proportional to 0
+
' losses produced in heating element delivered to the
charge either by radiation or by convection.
Sometimes in case of industrial heating the resistance is placed in a cylinder which is
surrounded by the charge placed in the jac3es as shown in figure9.+=.
The arrangement provides as uniform temperature.
1utomatic temperature control can be provided in this case.
6oth 1.! and D.! supplies can be used for this purpose at full mains voltage
depending upon the design of heating element.
1pplication
This method is used in room heater, in bimetallic strip used in starters, immersion
water heaters and in various types of resistance ovens used in domestic and
commercial coo3ing.
Ar# Furna#e(
There are two common types of arc furnaces (*)Three>phase furnace and (+)Single
phase furnace.
Three phase furnaces are used in the production of alloy steels.
Single phase furnaces are used for the manufacture of gray iron casting also.
Three phase furnaces are used for power ratings from +7,?51, *,,,,,?51 and
capacities upto +7 tonne.
@enerally graphite electrodes are used. 1s they are subjected to volatili4ation, they
are to be replaced.
The arc temperature is between 9,,, and 97,,-!, so that the process is carried out
between *7,,-! and +7,,-!.
The main components of a three phase furnace are

*)5ariable ratio power transformer
+)'eactors
9)1utomatic current regulator
8)!ontrol panel
7)"lectric motor and tilting motor
A)!ircuit brea3er and connecting switches.
The chamber in which arc is struc3 is placed on a metal frame wor3. The chamber is
lined inside with a refractory linning, which is acidic or basic in nature.
The electrodes arc inserted from the top or sides of the chamber, and are placed in
such a way as to be replaced easily or adjusted easily.
To have a through mi.ing, the furnace is made amenable for tilting.
Dire#t ar# furna#e
The arc is struc3 directly with the charge, when a current flows through it and
produces intense heat, which results, in high temperature.
1lthough some furnaces up to *,, tonne are made, generally furnaces up to +7 tonne
are in general use.
Stirring action is automatic and gives a uniform product. 0t is used for alloy steel
manufacture and gives a purer product.
2erits
When compared with cupola method,
0t produces purer products
0t is very simple and easy to control the composistion of the final product during
refining process.
Demerits
0t is very costlier.

"venthough it is used for both melting and refining but wherever electric energy is
e.pensive it is economical to use cupola for melting and arc furnace for refining.
1pplication
The most common application of this type of furnace is to produce steel.
In&ire#t ar# furna#e
"lectrodes are inserted from the sides and the heat produced is transmitted by
radiation to the charge.
1s there is no inherent stirring action, the furnace should be roc3ed.
This furnace is used for only single phase supplies. 1lso the capacity of the furnace is
limited up to *,, tonne.
The furnace is roc3ed thoroughly to ensure, that the metal will cover the refactory
lining and prevent it from reaching high temperatures.
2elting of non>ferrous metals is mostly carried out in this type of furnace.
0n both the type of furnaces, large %uantities of electrodes are used.
The energy used is about 7,,>:,,3wBtone corresponding to ma.imum power input,
the power factor is ,.:C and efficiency C,D.
1pplication
The main application of this type furnace is melting of non>ferrous metals.
In&u#tion %eating'
0nduction heating processes ma3e use of currents induced by electromagnetic action
in the material to be heated.
0nduction heating is based on the principle of transformers. There is a primary
winding through which an a.c current is passed.
The coil is magnetically coupled with the metal to be heated which acts as secondary.

1n electric current is induced in this metal when the a.c current is passed through the
primary coil.
The following are different types of induction furnaces
*. !ore type and
+. !oreless type
!ore type is classified into three types. They are
a) Direct core type
b) 5ertical core type and
c) 0ndirect core type
Dire#t #ore t$)e'
The direct core type induction furnace is shown ion fig.
0t consist of an iron core, crucible and primary winding connected to an a.c supply.
The charge is 3ept in the cruicible, which forms a single turn short circuited
secondary circuit.
The current in the charge is very high in the order of several thousand amperes. The
charge is magnetically coupled to the primary winding.
The change is melted because of high current induced in it. When there is no molten
metal, no current will flow in the secondary.
To start the furnace molten metal is poured in the oven from the previous charge.
This type of furnace has the following drawbac3s.
The magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary is very wea3, therefore the
lea3age reactance is very high. This causes low power factor.
$ow fre%uency supply is necessary because normal fre%uency causes turbulence of
the charge.
0f current density e.ceeds about 7 ampsBmm+ the electromagnetic force produced by
this current density causes interruption of secondary current.
&ence the heating of the metal is interrupted. 0t is called pinch effect.

The crucible for the charge id of odd shape and inconvenient from the metallurgical
point of view.
The furnace cannot function if the secondary circuit is open.
0t must be closed. ;or starting the furnace either molten metal is poured into the
crucible or sufficient molten metal is allowed to remain in the crucible from the
previous operation.
Such furnace is not suitable for intermittent services.
A*A+ W,ATT -erti#al #ore t$)e furna#e'
0t is modified type of core type induction furnace.
0t has a vertical channel for the charge, thus the crucible used is also vertical. The
construction of aja. wyatt vertical furnace is shown in fig.
The principle of operation is that of a transformer in which the secondary turns are
replaced by a closed loop of molten metal. The primary winding is placed on the
central limb of the core.
&ence lea3age reactance is comparatively low and power factor is high. 0nside of the
furnace is lined with refactory depending upon the charge.
The top of the furnace is covered with an insulated cover which can be removed for
charging. )ecessary arrangements are usually made for titling the furnace to ta3e out
the molten metal.
The molten metal in the E5F portion acts as a short circuited secondary. When primary
is connected to the a.c supply, high current will be accumulated at the bottom and
even a small amount of charge will 3eep the secondary completed.
&ence chances of discontinuity of the circuit is less.
1dvantages
&igh efficiency and low operating cost.
Since both primary and secondary are on the same central core, its power factor is
better.
The furnace is operated from the normal supply fre%uency.
!hances of discontinuity of the secondary circuit is less, hence it is useful for
intermittent operations.
1pplications

This furnaces is used for melting non ferrous metals li3e brass, 4inc, tin, bron4e,
copper etc.
In&ire#t #ore t$)e in&u#tion furna#e
0ndirect core type induction furnace is shown in fig. 0 n this type of furnace induction
principle has been used for heating metals.
0n such furnace an inductively heated element is made to transfer its heat to the
change by radiation.
0t consists of an iron core lin3ing with the primary winding and secondary. 0n this
case secondary consists of a metal container forming the walls of the furnace.
When the primary winding is connected to the supply, current is induced in the
secondary of the metal container.
So heat is produced due to induced current. This heat is transmitted to the charge by
radiation.
The portion 16 of the magnetic circuit is made up of a special alloy and is 3ept inside
the chamber of the furnace.
The special alloy will loose its magnetic properties at a particular temperature and the
magnetic properties are regained when the alloy will cooled.
1s soon as the furnace attains the critical temperature the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit increases many times and the inductive effect correspondingly decreases
thereby cutting off the heat supply.
The bar 16 is removable type and can be replaced by other, having different critical
temperature. Thus the temperature of the furnace can be controlled very effectively.
Corele(( in&u#tion furna#e'
!oreless induction furnace also operates on the principle of transformer. 0n this
furnace there is no core and thus the flu. density will be low.
&ence for compensating the low flu. density, the current supplied to the primary
should have sufficiently high fre%uency.
The flu. set up by the primary winding produces eddy currents in the charge. The
heating effect of the eddy currents melts the charge.
Stirring of the metals ta3es place by the action of the electromagnetic forces. !oreless
furnace may be having conducting or non conducting containers.

;ig shows a coreless induction furnace in which container is made up of conduting
material.
The container acts as secondary winding and the charge can have either conducting or
non conducting properties.
Thus the container forms a short circuited single turn secondary. &ence heavy current
induced in it and produce heat. This heat produced is transferred to the charge by
convection.
To prevent the primary winding from high temperature, refactory linings are provided
between primary and secondary windings.
;ig shows a coreless induction furnace in which the container is made of ceramic
material and the charge must necessarily have conducting properties.
The flu. produced by the primary winding produces eddy currents in the charge. The
heating effects of the eddy currents melt the charge.
Stirring action in the metals ta3es place by the action of the electromagnetic forces.
1dvantages
Time ta3en to reach the melting temperature is less.
1ccurate power control is possible.
1ny shape of crucible can be used.
The eddy currents in the charge results in automatic stirring.
1bsence of dirt, smo3e, noise, etc.
"rection cost is less.
Diele#tri# %eating'
Dielectric heating is also sometimes called as high fre%uency capacitance heating.
0f non metallic materials ie, insulators such as wood, plastics, china clay, glass,
ceramics etc are subjected to high voltage 1.! current, their temperature will increase
in temperature is due to the conversion of dielectric loss into heat.
The dielectric loss is dependent upon the fre%uency and high voltage. Therefore for
obtaining high heating effect high voltage at high fre%uency is usually employed.

The metal to be heated is placed between two sheet type electrodes which forms a
capacitor as shown in fig. The e%uivalent circuit and vector diagram is also shown in
fig.
When 1.! supply is connected across the two electrodes, the current drawn by it is
leading the voltage e.actly =,-.
The angle between voltage and current is slightly less than =,-, with the result that
there is a inphase component of the current (0
'
).
This current produces power loss in the dielectric of the capacitor. 1t normal supply
fre%uency the power loss may be small.
6ut at high fre%uencies, the loss becomes large, which is sufficient to heat the
dielectric.
1dvantages
#niform heating is obtained.
'unning cost is low.
)on conducting materials are heated within a short period.
"asy heat control.
1pplications
;or food processing.
;or wood processing.
;or drying purpose in te.tile industry.
;or electronic sewing.
Wel&ing'
Welding is the process of joining two similar metals by heating. The metal parts are
heated to melting point. 0n some cases the pieces of metal to be joined are heated to
plastic stage and are fused together.
Ele#tri# "el&ing'

0n electric welding process, electric current is used to produce large heat, re%uired for
joining two metal pieces. There are two methods by which electric welding can be
carried out. These are
*. 'esistance welding and
+. 1rc welding.
Types of electric welding
*. 'esistance welding
a) 6utt welding
b) Spot welding
c) Seam welding
d) /rojection welding
e) ;lash welding
+. 1rc welding
a) !arbon arc welding
b) 2etal arc welding
c) 1tomic hydrogen arc welding
d) 0nert gas metal arc welding
e) Submerged arc welding.
Re(i(tan#e "el&ing'
0n resistance welding heavy current is passed through the metal pieces to be welded.
&eat will be developed by the resistance of the wor3 piece to the flow of current.
The heat produced for welding is given by
&G0
+
't
Where,
&G &eat developed at the contact area.
0G !urrent in amperes.

'G 'esistance in ohms.
tG time of flow of current.
The fundamental bloc3 diagram for resistance welding is shown in fig.
The 1.! supply is given to the primary winding of the transformer through a
controlled contactor.
The welding transformer is a step down transformer. The secondary voltage is in the
order of * to *, volts. 6ut the current may range from 7, to *,,, amperes.
i .utt "el&ing'
0n this process heat is generated by the contact resistance between two components.
0n this type of welding the metal parts to be joined end to end as shown in fig.
Sufficient pressure is applied along the a.ial direction.
1 heavy current is passed from the welding transformer which creates the necessary
heat at the joint due to high resistance of the contact area.
Due to the pressure applied, the molten metal forced to produce a bulged joint.
This method is suitable for welding pipes, wires and rods.
ii S)ot "el&ing'
Spot welding is usually employed for joining or fabricating sheet metal structure. This
type of joint only provides mechanical strength and is not air or water tight.
Spot welding arrangement is shown in fig. The plates to be welded are placed overlapping
each other between two electrodes, sufficient mechanical pressure is applied through the
electrodes. The welding current flows through electrodes tips producing a spot weld. The
welding current and period of current flow depend on the thic3ness of the plates.
Ar# "el&ing'
1n electric arc is the flow of electric current through gases.
1n electric arc is struc3 by short circuiting two electrodes and then with drawing them
apart by small distance.
The current continue to flow across the small gap and give intense heat.
The heat developed by the arc is also used for cutting of metal.

Car/on ar# "el&ing'
0n this process D.! is usually employed.
The electrode is made of carbon or graphite and is to be 3ept negative with respect of
the wor3.
The wor3 piece is connected to positive wire as shown in fig. ;lu. and filler are also
used.
;iller is made up of similar metal as that of metal to be welded.
0f the electrode is made positive then the carbon contents may flow into the weld and
cause brittleness.
The heat from the arc forms a molten pool and the e.tra metal re%uired to ma3e the
weld is supplied by the filler rod.
This type of welding is used for welding copper and its alloy.
Metal ar# "el&ing'
0n metal arc welding a metal rod of same material as being welded is used as an
electrode.
The electrode also serves the purpose of filler. ;or metal arc welding 1.! or D.! can
be used.
"lectric supply is connected between electrode and wor3 piece.
The wor3 piece is then suddenly touched by the electrode and then separated from it a
little. This results in an arc between the job and the electrode.
1 little portion of the wor3 and the tip of the electrode melts due to the heat generated
by the arc.
When the electrode is removed the metal cools and solidifies giving a strong welded
joint.

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ELECTRIC DRI-ES AND CONTROL
INTROD0CTION
1n electric motor is a better prime move for driving mechanical load than hydraulic,
steam or diesel engines as it is possible to control the performance of an electric
motor is %uite easy.
;or obtaining electric drives, both 1.! and D.! motors are used. &owever 1.!
system is preferred.
The utili4ation of electric energy is always advantageous as it is cheaper.
0t is easy to maintain the voltage at consumer premises within the prescribed limits
and it is possible to increase or decrease the voltage without appreciable loss of
power.
0nspite of the advantages of 1.! system sometimes it becomes essential to use D.!
energy as industrial drive.
Ele#tri# &ri1e
1n electric drive is defined as a form of machine e%uipment designed to convert
electrical energy into mechanical energy and provide electrical control of this process.
0t is classified into three types. They are
*. 0ndividual drive
+. @roup drive and
9. 2ultimotor drive
A&1antage( of ele#tri# &ri1e(
0t is simple in construction and has less maintenance cost.

0ts speed control is easy and smooth.
0t is neat, clean and free from any smo3e or flue gases.
0t re%uires less space.
0t can be installed at any desired convenient place.
0t has comparatively longer life.
0t can be started immediately without any loss of time.
Transmission of power from one place to other can be done with the help of cables in
stead of long shaft etc.
0t can be remotely controlled.
0t has high efficiency.
In&i1i&ual &ri1e
0ndividual drive consist of single motor is used to drive one individual machine.
2ost of the industries use this type of drive.
0n some cases the motor, along with its control e%uipment, may form an integral part
of the machine, which results in better appearance, cleanliness and safety.
A&1antage('
The machines can be installed at any desired position.
0f there is a fault in one motor other machines will not be affected since they are
wor3ing independently.
"ach operator has a complete control of his machine. &e can vary its speed, if
necessary and stop while not in use. Thus no load losses can be eliminated.
!ontinuity in the production of the industry is achieved.
"fficiency of the system is high.
Di(a&1antage('
The initial cost is high.

Grou) &ri1e
1 group drive consist of a single large motor, which operates a number of machines.
The motor is mechanically connected to a long shaft.
0t is also called line shaft drive.
The line shaft is fitted with multistepped pulleys and belts.
The driven machines are connected to these pulleys and belts for their re%uired speed.
The fig shows the group drive.
A&1antage('
When compared with the individual drive,
0ts initial cost is less.
(nly less space is re%uired.
0t re%uires little maintenance.
0n this drive all the operation can be stopped simultaneously.
Di(a&1antage('
When the motor fails all the operations will be stopped.
0f most of the machines are idle the main motor will operate on load with less
efficiency.
)oise level in this drive is %uite high.
0t has low power factor.
0t is not possible to install any machine at a distance place.
Speed control of individual machine is not possible.
Multimotor &ri1e
0n multimotor drives separate motors are used for operating different parts of the same
mechanism.
"g in case of an overhead crane, different motors are used for hoisting, long travel
motion and cross travel motion.

Such drive is also essential in complicated metal>cutting machine tools, paper ma3ing
machines, rolling mills.
;ig shows a multimotor drive.
Sele#tion of motor(
1n industrial process needs a particular electric drive for its successful and efficient
operation which in turn calls for appropriate selection of the driving motor.
While selecting a motor, the following factors must be ta3en into consideration
a. "lectrical characteristics
'unning characteristics
Starting characteristics
Speed control
6ra3ing
b. 2echanical characteristics
Types of enclosures
6earings
Transmission of drive
)oise level
c. Si4e of motor and
!ontinuous rating
0ntermittent or variable load rating
(ver load capacity
/ull out tor%ue
d. !ost
!apital cost
'unning cost

The first three are the technical factors and the last one is the economic factor.
2any a time, there are conflicts between the technical and economic factors, but in
any commercial organi4ation, the economic factor overpowers the technical factors as
the correct choice of a motor is one which gives the re%uired service at the minimum
overall cost.
Since the load on a motor is an integral part of the drive system we study various
types of loads.
0t is essential that the motor characteristics match with those of the load for stable
operation of the system.
Ele#tri#al #%ara#teri(ti#(
Running #%ara#teri(ti#(
The running characteristics of a motor include the following speed> tor%ue or speed>
current characteristics, losses, magneti4ing current, efficiency and power factor at
various loads.
The magneti4ing current and power factor are to be considered in case of 1.! motors
only.
Starting #%ara#teri(ti#(
The starting tor%ue developed by a motor should be sufficient to start and accelerate
the motor at its load to the rated speed in a reasonable time.
Some motors may be have to start against full load tor%ue.
".g motors driving grinding mills or oil e.pellers, traction wor3 etc.
1t the time of starting a motor, two tor%ues come into play.
The tor%ue re%uired to overcome the static friction and
The tor%ue necessary to accelerate the motor and its load to the desired speed.
Starting #%ara#teri(ti#( of D2C motor(

The starting characteristics of D.! motor is the relation between the tor%ue and the
armature current.
The tor%ue of a D.! motor is proportional to the product of field flu. (<) and
armature current (0
a
).
i.e., T I <0
a
Where
0
a
G armature current
<G field flu.
D2C (%unt motor
0n D! shunt motor, the field current is constant from no load to full load.
Therefore the field flu. < also constant.
&ence the starting tor%ue is directly proportional to the armature current i.e. (T I 0
a
).
;ig shows the tor%ue current characteristics of D.! shunt motor.
D2C Serie( motor
0n D.! series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature.
&ence the field current, armature current and load current is same (ie 0
a
G0
se
G0
$
). hence
field flu. and armature flu. also same ie., <
se
G <
a
.
Since the series field flu. is proportional to the armature current upto saturation
point, the tor%ue produced is proportional to the s%uare of the armature current up to
saturation point.
&ence up to (1, the tor%ue current characteristics is in parabolic shape.
ie T I <0
a
upto saturation point, field flu. < I 0
a
&ence T I 0
a
+
1fter saturation, the series field flu. remains constant.
&ence the tor%ue is directly proportional to 0
a
(T I 0
a
). hence after 1, the tor%ue
current characteristics is a straight line.

Since the starting tor%ue is directly proportional to s%uare of armature current, and the
starting tor%ue of D.! series motor is very high.
So it can be used where large starting tor%ue is re%uired such as in electric trains,
cranes, lifts and hoists.
D2C #om)oun& motor
There are two types of compound motor namely,
*. !umulative compound motor
+. Differential compound motor
0n cumulative compound motor the series field flu. add with the shunt field flu..
&ence the total flu. is higher than that of the shunt motor.
So the tor%ue developed in this motor is more than that of shunt motor for the same
armature current.
0n differential compound motor, the series field flu. opposes the shunt field flu..
&ence the total flu. is lesser than that of the shunt motor as shown in fig.
Starting #%ara#teri(ti#( of t%ree )%a(e in&u#tion motor
Squirrel #age motor
During the starting period, the s%uirrel cage induction motor has low starting tor%ue
and ta3e high starting current.
The condition for ma.imum starting tor%ue is '
+
GJ
+
. During the starting period J
+
is
higher in compare to rotor resistance '
+
.
Therefore if the rotor resistance '
+
increases the starting tor%ue also increases(since T
I '
+
).
0t is not possible to increase the rotor resistance on s%uirrel cage induction motor.
Dou/le #age rotor
The starting tor%ue of a cage motor is increased by providing double cages.
The outer cage is made of high resistance metal bars whereas inner cage is made of
low resistance copper bar.

The inductance of the inner bar is higher than that of outer. ;ig shows the double cage
rotor.
1t the time of starting, the motor induced current is at the line fre%uency and hence
inner cage has a high reactance(J
+
G+ f
F
$).
Therefore, the rotor current will flow through the outer cage, with the result that the
starting tor%ue is high (since T I '
+
).
During normal running the reactance of the inner cage decreases (since rotor current
fre%uency fF is decreased) and hence the rotor current flows through the low
resistance inner cage.
This gives a high efficiency of the motor.
Sli) ring In&u#tion motor
0n slip ring induction motor, e.tra resistance can be added in the rotor circuit during
the starting period.
&ence a high starting tor%ue is produced. 0n addition, it also limits the starting current.
Starting #%ara#teri(ti#( of ($n#%ronou( motor
0t has no self starting tor%ue. 0t runs at synchronous speed.
The following methods are used to provide the starting arrangement.
i. D! motor coupled to synchronous motor.
ii. /ony motor(small 0.2.) coupled to synchronous motor.
iii. /rovide damper winding on rotor.
Starting #%ara#teri(ti#( of (ingle )%a(e in&u#tion motor
Single phase induction motor is not self starting.
0t re%uires some provision for starting. 1n e.tra winding 3nown as starting winding is
provided on the stator.
The main winding is of high reactance and low resistance.
The starting winding is of high resistance and low reactance. They are connected
across the supply.

This type of motor is called split phase motor. When the motor pic3s up the speed at
C7D of synchronous speed, a centrifugal switch is open and disconnects the starting
winding.
This motor has a very low starting tor%ue.
0f a capacitor is used for spilt the phase at starting then it is called capacitor start
motor . the main winding is connected directly across the line.
The starting winding is connected in series with the capacitor through centrifugal
switch and connected across the single phase supply.
Such an arrangement gives a high starting tor%ue.
0n permanent capacitor motor the capacitor remains in the circuit during starting and
running.
Running #%ara#teri(ti#( of motor(
The running characteristics of a motor include the speed>tor%ue or the speed>current
characteristics, losses, magneti4ing currents, efficiency and power factor at various
loads.
The magneti4ing current and power factor are to be considered in case of 1.! motors
only.
Running #%ara#teri(ti#( of D2C motor(
D2C (%unt motor
a) speed current characteristics
0n any D.! motor ) I ("
b
B <).
When the supply voltage is constant, in D! shunt motor < is flu. is constant.
) I "
b
) I 5>0
a
'
a
This indicates that speed of D.! shunt motor decreases with increase in armature
current due to loading.
The variation of speed with armature current characteristics is drooping slightly as
shown in fig.
The percentage of speed change will be about 7D at full load due to armature
resistance drop. 6ut due to armature reaction, the flu. is wea3ened.

&ence the speed will increase. () I ("
b
B <)). This increase in speed compensates the
drop in speed due to 0
a
'
a
drop.
Therefore the shunt motor is considered as constant speed motor.
b) Speed>Tor%ue characteristics
We 3now
T I <0
a
and
) I ("
b
B <).
0n shunt motor field flu. <G constant
T I 0
a
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (*)
0
a
G ?T
) I "
b
) I (5>0
a
'
a
) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (+)
/ut 0
a
value in e%uation (+)
) I 5>(?T)'
a
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (9)
;rom e%uation (9) we 3now that, when the tor%ue increases, speed decreases as shown in fig.
!erforman#e #ur1e
;ig shows the performance curves of D.! shunt motor. These curves are namely
tor%ue, speed, current and efficiency., each plotted against output power.
D2C (erie( motor
a) Speed> current characteristics
!onsider the speed e%uation
) I "
b
B<
) I (5> 0
a
'
a
)B <
When supply voltage 5 is 3ept constant, the speed of the motor will be inversely
proportional to flu. ) I (*

B <).

(n the light loads the flu. produced will be wea3 and therefore the speed will be
dangerously high.
;or small value of flu. <, the speed will be very high. &ence the shape of the curve
will be hyperbolic.
When the load current increases, the flu. also increases, after saturation the flu.
remains constant.
Therefore the speed will be constant and low at heavy loads as shown in fig.
b) Speed> Tor%ue characteristics
0n any D.! motor
) I (5>0
a
'
a
)B <
0f 0
a
'
a
drop is negligible
) I 5B < >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (*)
We 3now that,
T I < 0
a
T I <. < (since 0
a
I <)
T I <
+
<
+
GT
<
+
G KT >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (+)
Substitute the e%uation (+) in (*)
) I 5BKT
;rom the e%uation, speed is inversely proportional to tor%ue. &ence the characteristics
curve is hyperbolic in shape.
This is shown in fig.
0n D.! series motor, as tor%ue increases with decrease of speed. &ence series motor is
suitable for operating cranes, lifts, trains etc.
!erforman#e #ur1e
;ig shows the perfoemance curve of a D.! series motor.
These curves are namely tor%ue, speed, current and efficiency each plotted against
output power.

D2C #om)oun& motor
Speed L current characteristics
1 compound motor has both series field and shunt field.
!ompound motors are of two types.
0f the series field flu. and shunt field flu. add each other, it is called cumulative
compound motor.
0f the series field flu. opposes the shunt field flu., it is called differential compound
motor.
0n the cumulative compound motor, the series field emf increases with increase in
armature current. &ence cumulative compound motor has more flu. than that of shunt
motor.
0n any D.! motor,
T I < 0
a
&ence tor%ue of cumulative compound motor is greater than the shunt motor.
Since the speed is inversely proportional to flu. ) I (*

B <) cumulative compound
motor has lower speed than the shunt motor.
0n the case of differential compounded motor the field flu. decreases when the
armature current increases, which reduces the tor%ue. (since T I < 0
a).
6ut the speed increases with reduction flu. ( since ) I (*

B <)).
&ence the speed is greater when compared to shunt motor.
The speed 5s armature current and speed tor%ue characteristics of D.! compound
motors are shown in fig. in comparison with the shunt motor.
Running #%ara#teri(ti#( of t%ree )%a(e in&u#tion motor
'unning characteristics of s%uirrel cage induction motor or speed tor%ue
characteristics
0n cage induction motor
Tor%ue (T) G ?S"
+
+

'
+
B '
+
+

MJ
+
+


Where
3 G constant
S G slip
"
+
G e.m.f induced in the rotor
'
+
G rotor resistance
J
+
G rotor reactance
#nder normal running condition the rotor fre%uency (fFGSf) is small.
&ence the rotor reactance (J
+
G +NfF$) is also very small.
&ence the rotor reactance (J
+
) is neglected.
T I ?
*
S"
+
+

'
+
B '
+
+


i.e.,

T I ?S"
+
+
B '
+


Since the supply voltage 5is constant, "
+
is also constant.
&ence the running tor%ue of the motor depends upon the rotor resistance.
;rom the above e%uation the running tor%ue is inversely proportional to the rotor
resistance '
+
.
&ence at lower value of slip, increasing the running tor%ue the rotor resistance '
+
should be very low.
Since the cage motor rotor is short circuited, the rotor resistance is very low. &ence
cage induction motor has good running tor%ue.
;or various values of ' the family of speed tor%ue characteristics shown in fig. when
the load on the motor increases the rotor speed falls down.
Then the slip value increases. The tor%ue increases with increase in slip upto rated
load.
The tor%ue will reach a ma.imum value at slip SG'
+
BJ
+
. 1fter the rated load, the
increased load on the motor will increase the slip and on the decrease the tor%ue.
1ny further more increase in load on the motor results, the motor slowing down and it
finally stops.
The stable operating region of the motor lies for the slip values SG, and that
corresponds to ma.imum tor%ue.
The operating region is hatched in fig.

!erforman#e #ur1e
;ig shows the performance curve of three phase s%uirrel cage induction motor namely
slip, current, power factor, efficiency and speed each plotted against power output.
Running #%ara#teri(ti#( of (li) ring in&u#tion motor
The running characteristics of slip ring induction motor are same as s%uirrel cage
induction motor.
6y introducing resistance in the rotor circuit at running, the tor%ue can be increased.
Running #%ara#teri(ti#( of &ou/le (quirrel #age in&u#tion motor
The motor is designed to provide improved starting characteristics (i.e. high starting
tor%ue with low starting current).
0nner cage has high inductance and low resistance whereas outer cage has high
resistance and low inductance.
1t the time of starting inner cage offers high reactance. 6ecause the fre%uency of
rotor current is very high. (since at starting slipG*, hence fre%uency of rotor current fF
increases, since fF G s f).
&ence most of the current flows through outer cage where resistance is high. Thus
more starting tor%ue is developed.
1fter the motor has pic3ed up its full speed, the fre%uency of rotor current becomes
very low.
Therefore most of the current flows through the inner cage. &ence at running, copper
losses are reduced and the efficiency of motor is increased.
The speed> tor%ue characteristics of double cage induction motor are shown in fig.
Running #%ara#teri(ti#( of (ingle )%a(e in&u#tion motor
The speed tor%ue characteristics is similar to three phase induction motor.
;ig shows the speed tor%ue characteristics of single phase induction motor. 0t has no
self starting tor%ue.
Separate arrangement is provided to ma3e it self starting.
The repulsion start and capacitor start motors are the most common types of single
phase induction motors.
Single phase induction motors are used in domestic appliances li3e fans, refrigerators,
vacuum cleaners etc.

Running #%ara#teri(ti#( of uni1er(al motor.
#niversal motor operates on either 1.! or D.! supply.
0ts speed tor%ue characteristics are same as series motor speed>tor%ue characteristics.
;ig shows the speed tor%ue characteristics.
#niversal motors are used in vacuum cleaners, sewing machines, portable drills and
other small power drives.
S)ee& #ontrol
0n D.! motor the speed can be controlled by following methods
1rmature control method
;ield control method
0n 1.! motors, the speed can be controlled by following methods
6y changing the supply voltage
6y changing the supply fre%uency
6y changing the no of poles of motor
6y injecting emf in the rotor circuit
6y cascading of motors
6y injecting resistance in the rotor circuit
.ra3ing
When the load is removed from an electric motor and supplied to it be disconnected it
will continue to run for sometime due to inertia.
To avoid danger to the wor3er or damage to the products manufactured %uic3
stopping of motor is re%uired. 0t is done by bra3ing.
The bra3ing system should be reliable and %uic3 in action. The bra3ing tor%ue must
be controllable.
There are two types of bra3ing.

i) 2echanical bra3ing
ii) "lectrical bra3ing
Me#%ani#al #%ara#teri(ti#( of ele#tri# motor
While selecting a motor for a particular drive, the mechanical characteristics are also
ta3en into account.
The following features determine the suitability of the motor.
*. Types of enclosures
+. 6earings
9. )oise
8. Transmission of drive
T$)e( of en#lo(ure(
1ll the major parts of the motors such as windings, bearings, insulation etc are to be
protected from the surroundings contaminated air.
0n an industry the air surrounding the motors may contain metal, dust, oil, mist, water,
dust inflammable fumes etc. also accidents may occur to persons coming in contact
with the moving parts.
Therefore it is necessary to provide proper enclosures.
The different types of enclosures are as follows.
a) (pen type
This type can only be used where the atmosphere and surroundings are
free from all contaminations and surrounding air completely dry.
The advantage of this type of motor is that the cost of cooling is very
low.
6ut this type is rarely used since there is no protection to the motor
parts.
b) Screen protected type

0n this type of machines openings provided for ventilation are covered
with wire mesh screen.
This type of enclosures does not protect the motor against dirt and dust.
6ut larger bodies and big insects cannot enter into the machine.
c) Drip proof type
This motor has ventilating opening provided in such a way that drops of
li%uid or solid falling on it vertically are prevented to enter inside.
This type of motor cannot be used where inflammable dust particles are
present in the surrounding air.
Such motors are used in damp atmosphere. ".g /umpsets.
d) Totally enclosed type
This type of motors has solid frames and end shields but no opening for
ventilation.
They are cooled by surface radiation only. 0n this type machines no dirt or
foreign matter can enter and bloc3 the air passage.
These machines are used for very dusty atmosphere.
".g saw mills, coal handling plants and stone crushing %uarries.
e) Splash proof type
0n this type, the ventilation ducts are provided in such a way that drops of
li%uid or solid particles reaching the machine at any angle between vertical
and *,,- from it cannot enter the machine.
f) ;lame proof type
These enclosures do not communicate an internal fire to the e.ternal
environment.
&ence these motors are used in coal mines, gas plants, oil refineries etc.,
where the ris3 of fire is more.
g) /ipe ventilated type

$arge si4es of totally enclosed motor employ pipe ventilation.
1ir is drawn through pipe from outside the building, where clean air is
available and forced to cool the motor.
.earing(
6earings are the parts of machines which house and support the main shaft.
0t provides free rotation of the moving parts with minimum friction.
There are two types of bearings usually employed in motors.
*. 6all or 'oller bearing
+. Sleeve or brush bearing
.all or Roller /earing
6all or roller bearing consist of an inner and outer race and cage containing steel
roller or balls.
The outer race is attached to the housing(end cover) and the inner race is attached to
the shaft.
When the shaft rotates, the steel ball also rotates. &ence the friction of the shaft is
minimi4ed.
0t has a longer life and maintenance costs are low.
0t occupy less space. 6ut the initial cost of ball and roller bearings is high.
0t is used in three phase induction motor where smaller air gap is possible.
0t is used for chain, belt and gear drives.
Slee1e or /ru(% /earing
Sleeve or brush bearings are normally made of bron4e.
The rotating shaft is supported by bearing component and is rigidly fi.ed to the frame
of the machine.

0t has self lubricating properties due to capillary action.
0t is lubricated by a metal ring freely rotating on the shaft carrying oil to the bearings.
0t is mainly used in direct coupled drive such as fan and universal motor.
0t gives noiseless operation and their life is long.
6ecause of larger wear of bearings, this type of bearing is used in larger air gap
induction motor.
Tran(mi((ion of &ri1e(
5arious methods employed for transmission of mechanical power are
described below.
*. Direct drive
+. 6elt drive
9. 'ope drive
8. !hain drive and
7. @ear drive
Dire#t &ri1e
0n direct drive, motor is coupled directly to the driven machine with the help of solid
or fle.ible coupling.
;le.ible coupling protects the motor from jer3s.
0t is more efficient and re%uires minimum space and it is the simplest method.
0t can be used where driven and driving machine speed are same.
.elt &ri1e
0n belt drive, belt is used to transmit the power from motor to driven machine through
pulley system.
The mechanical power wasted due to slip is about 9 to 8 percentage.
2a.imum power of 9,, &./ can be transmitted through this drive.
1dvantages

@reater fle.ibility in the original design of a plant is possible.
0t gives convenient speed ratio thereby high speed motors can be utili4ed.
The tendency of slipping especially under heavy loads is reduced because it will
absorb a portion of the shoc3 of suddenly applied loads.
Ro)e &ri1e
This method for transmission for power is used, when it is not possible to employ belt
drive.
1 number of ropes run in 5>grooves over pulleys.
The advantages of rope drive are negligible slip and ability of ta3ing sudden loads.
0t is mainly used in lift and cranes.
C%ain &ri1e
!hain drive is very costly in comparison to belt and rope drive.
0t can be used for high speed ratio (upto A*).
0t is more efficient and transmits large amount of power.
0t is noiseless, sliplesss and smooth in operation.
Gear &ri1e
@ear drive is used when high speed motor is to drive a low speed machine.
The coupling between the two is through a suitable ratio gear bo..
Noi(e
)oise is the another important features to be considered while ma3ing the selection of
a motor.
0t should be 3ept as low as possible in the wor3shops, hospitals and other domestic
purposes.
The noise may be due to bearing, vibrations, magnetic pulsations and faulty
foundations.
To reduce noise, journal bearing may be used in place of ball bearings.
The motor should be mounted on a heavy concrete or cast iron bloc3.

The electrical connections should be made through fle.ible conduits.
Stan&ar& rating of motor
The rating of motor is the amount of power which it can deliver without becoming
unduly hot. The rating of a motor is classified as follows.
*. !ontinuous rating.
2. 0ntermittent rating or short time rating.
!ontinuous rating
This is the rating or the output of a motor which can be delivered continuously for
long periods without e.ceeding the permissible temperature.
This rating is applicable to drives li3e fans, pumps, te.tile, mills etc. which operate
continuously for long periods.
0ntermittent rating or short time rating
This is an output that a motor can give for specified short time without e.ceeding the
permissible temperature rise.
Such motor is loaded for short period of time and is then put off for sometime.
During that period the motor cools off as in mi.ies.
Cla((e( of loa& &ut$ #$#le(
1s per 0S 8C++ L *=A: various load time variations are encountered the eight standard
classes of duty.
*. !ontinuous duty.
+. Short time duty.
9. 0ntermittent periodic duty.
8. 0ntermittent periodic duty in the starting.
7. 0ntermittent periodic duty with starting and bra3ing.
A. !ontinuous duty with intermittent periodic loading.
C. !ontinuous duty with starting and bra3ing.
:. !ontinuous duty with periodic speed changes.
Sele#tion of motor( for &ifferent &ut$ #$#le(
!ontinuous duty

!ontinuous duty denotes the motor operation at a constant load tor%ue to reach steady
state temperature. The load time and temperature time graph are shown in fig.
/aper mill drives, compressors, conveyers, centrifugal pumps and fans are some
e.amples of continuous duty.
Short time duty
0t denotes the operation of motor at constant load for short period followed by rest to
cool down to the original starting temperature.
Short time duty timings are generally *,, 9,, A, and =, minutes.
The load time and the temperature time graph are shown in fig.
!rane drivers, drives for household appliances, sluice gate drives, valve drives and
machine tool drives are some e.amples of short>time duty.
0ntermittent periodic duty
0t denotes the operation of motor a se%uence of indential duty cycle each of constant
load and rest period.
0n this duty, heating of machine during starting and bra3ing operation is negligible.
;ig shows the load time and temperature time graph. /ressing, cutting and drilling
machine drives are some e.amples of intermittent periodic duty.
0ntermittent periodic duty with starting
This is intermittent periodic duty where heat losses during starting cannot be
neglected.
Thus it consists of a period of starting, a period of operation at a constant load and rest
period.
The operating and rest periods are too short to attain the steady state temperature in
one duty cycle.
0ts characteristics are shown in fig. in this duty heating of machine during bra3ing is
considered to be negligible.
Some e.amples are metal cutting, drilling tool drives, mine hoist drives for lift truc3s.
0ntermittent periodic duty with starting and bra3ing
This is the periodic duty where heat losses during starting and bra3ing cannot be
ignored.

Thus it consists of a period of starting, a period of operation with constant load, a
bra3ing period, and a rest period.
Thermal e%uilibrium is not reached in one duty cycle.
6ra3ing is done electrically and is %uic3. 0ts characteristics is shown in fig
Several machine tool drives, drives for electric suburban trains and mine hoist are
some e.amples of this duty.
!ontinuous duty with intermittent periodic loading
The operation of motor has a se%uence of indentical duty cycle, each consisting of a
period of operation and a period of operation on no load.
Thermal e%uilibrium is not reached in one duty cycle. 0ts characteristics are shown in
fig.
This duty is distinguished from the intermittent periodic duty by a period of running
at constant load is followed by a period of running at no load instead of rest.
/ressing, cutting, shearing and drilling machine drives are the e.amples.
!ontinuous duty with starting and bra3ing
The operation of motor consists of period of starting, a period of operation at constant
load a period of electric bra3ing and there is no rest period.
The characteristics are shown in fig. 6looming mill is an e.ample.
!ontinuous duty with periodic speed changes
(peration of the motor has a se%uence of indentical duty cycle, each cycle is having a
period of running at one load and speed and followed by another period of running at
different speed and load.
There is no rest period. 0ts characteristics are shown in fig.
Dri1e( for &ifferent in&u(trial a))li#ation
1. !a)er mill4 S$n#%ronou( motor
1 paper mill re%uires a drive which must fulfill the following re%uirements
To manufacture different thic3ness of papers it is re%uired to vary the speed of
entire series of rolls.
'elative speed of rolls should be constant otherwise the paper may be tearing.

0t is re%uired to adjust the speed at any one group of rolls relative to other in order
to draw the paper.
52 Rolling mill( or (teel mill( 6 (e)aratel$ e7#ite& DC motor
Separately e.cited D! motor is mainly used in rolling mills.
The motor re%uired for these mills should have high starting tor%ue about + to +.7
times the rated tor%ue.
0t should have strong construction.
The ward leonard speed control of D.! motors or slip ring induction motors are
used.
82 Te7tile mill( 6 Dou/le #age in&u#tion motor
0n te.tile mills group drive is employed.
The motors employed must have high starting tor%ue with constant speed.
The motors used must be totally enclosed and moisture proof to prevent entry of
dust and moisture enter into machine.
&ence totally enclosed, fan cooled, high tor%ue double cage induction motors are
used.
92 Cement mill(
5arious types of loads available in a cement factory and the motor used for them
are given below
a) &ammer crusher L Three phase slip ring induction motor
The lime stones are bro3en into smaller si4es in the crushing mill.
;or this purpose high starting tor%ue motor is re%uired.
&ence three phase slip ring induction motor is used because it has high
starting tor%ue.
b) 6all mills L Synchronous motor
0n ball mills, the raw materials grind in powder form synchronous
motor are used for this process.
c) 'otary driers L Slip ring induction motor
The cement slurry is dried by blowers and speed of blower is varied
depending upon the amount of air re%uired to blow.

&ence slip ring induction motor with pole changing speed control is
employed.
d) Slurring pumps and agitators L Three phase S%uirrel cage induction
motor
These are used in the wet process
Three phase S%uirrel cage induction motors used for slurring pumps
and agitators.
5. Ma#%ine tool( 6 D2C (%unt motor or 8: Squirrel #age in&u#tion motor
The starting tor%ue re%uired is less in most of the machine tools since they
start up light.
Therefore 9 phase s%uirrel cage induction motor is used for machine tool
application.
Different speed operation is obtained by using two or three speed motor with
suitable gear combination.
D.! shunt motors are used for machine tool application li3e planners where
rapid reversal, and wide speed control are re%uired.
0n the case of grinders, totally enclosed motors are used to prevent metallic
dust getting into it.
;2 Lift an& %oi(t( 6 DC #om)oun& motor or 8: (li) ring in&u#tion motor
The essential re%uirements for a lift are high overload capacity, high smooth
accelerating tor%ue of + to +.7 times the full load tor%ue at starting and
ma.imum degree of silence.
D.! compound motor and three phase slip ring induction motor are used for
lifts and hoists.
<2 .elt #on1e$or 6 Dou/le (quirrel #age in&u#tion motor
The conveyors are re%uired to transport bul3 materials li3e coal, are sand on
either flat belt or buc3et system.
0t re%uires a high starting tor%ue so as to accelerate the load for transport.
&ence totally enclosed surface cooled motors are used.
Double s%uirrel cage induction motors are used in belt conveyors.
=2 S%i) 6 S$n#%ronou( motor(

Three phase induction motors and synchronous motors are used for very big
ships.
1 three phase alternator gives the supply to the synchronous motor.
The prime mover used for the alternator is steam turbine by varying the
voltage and fre%uency of alternator the speed of motor is controlled.
>2 Air #om)re((or 4 8 : In&u#tion motor
1ir compressors are used for pneumatic drill, 9< induction motors are used to
drive compressors.
'epulsion motor is used for various industrial machinery air compressors.
Single phase induction motor is used for small air compressors.
?@2 !un#%e( an& (%ear(
;or punches and shears D.! cumulative compound motors and
1.! 9 < slip ring induction motors provided with fly wheel are used.
??2 Rotar$ )rinting
The rotary printing machinery re%uires variable speed motor.
D.! compound motors or 1.! 9 < induction motors with rotor resistance
control are used for printing machineries.
?52 !um)(
!entrifugal pump
The load tor%ue varies as s%uare of the speed in a centrifugal pump.
1t starting the tor%ue re%uired is less.
&ence 9 < s%uirrel cage induction motor is used for centrifugal pump.
The li%uid handled by the pump does not enter the motor.
&ence totally enclosed motor is preferred.
'eciprocating pump
1 reciprocating pump re%uires two times the full load tor%ue at starting.
1 double cage induction motor is suitable for reciprocating pump.

9 < slip ring induction motor is also used for this type of pump.
D.! shunt motor is used where D.! supply is available.
?82 Draug%t fan
The single phase split phase induction motors are used for draught fan.
The single phase split phase induction motor has shunt characteristics and so
the operating speed is almost constant.
?92 Ceiling fan(
Single phase capacitor start and run motors are used for ceiling fan.
?A2 Crane( 6 D2C (erie( motor
The D.! series motors are used for cranes because they have high starting
tor%ue.
6ecause they have high starting tor%ue, which helps the motor to reach the
speed in a short time and also prevents the motor from stalling in case of
heavy loads.
1.! 9 < slip ring inductions are also used for cranes.
;or starting and special adjustments proper graded rotor resistance is used
with slip ring induction motor.
?;2 Mine(
The various loads in a mine are winders, ventilating fans, conveyors,
compressors and pumps.
The winder consists of two cages and a rope for transporting material from
bottom of the mine to the surface.
1cceleration and bra3ing operations are repeated. 1 9 < slip ring induction
motor with ward leonard speed control is used for winder.
5entilating fans are used for circulating fresh air. 1 9 < s%uirrel cage
induction motor is used for ventilating fan if no speed control is not re%uired.
!onveyors re%uire a high starting tor%ue, so a double s%uirrel cage motor is
used.

!ompressor is used to provide compressed air for pneumatic drills used for
mining operations. 0t re%uires shunt characteristics and so 9 < s%uirrel cage
induction motor is used.
!entrifugal pumps are used to pump out the water falling through the roc3
layers. 0t re%uires high starting tor%ue therefore a 9 < slip ring induction
motor is used for pumps.
?<2 Dome(ti# a))lian#e( 6 0ni1er(al motor or Single )%a(e in&u#tion motor
Small universal motor is used for various domestic appliances such as for
domestic refrigerators, shavers, vacuum cleaner, mi.i, cloth washing machines
etc.,
C%oi#e of &ri1e
!hoice of drive is governed by the following factors
(i) Speed of driving and driven machines
(ii) !onvenience
(iii) Space available
(iv) !lutching arrangement re%uired
(v) !ost
The choice of motor speed is the most important factor as it not only affects
the performance of motor but also overall cost.
The dimension and, therefore, the first cost of a motor for a given output are
appro.imately inversely proportional to the speed, so for the some output 3W
the cost of a high speed motor is less than that of a slow speed motor.
0n case of induction motor, the efficiency and power factor decreases with
decrease in speed.
Thus for a low>speed drive high speed motor using a reduction gear is usually
found cheaper than a low>speed direct>coupled motor.
!o"er requirement #al#ulation
?2 Continuou( &ut$ an& #on(tant loa&'

;or most of the applications, the rating can be determined from the e%uation
given as under
/ G T)B=C7 kW
---------------------------------- (1)
Where,
T G $oad tor%ue, 3g>m,
) G Speed, r.p.m., and
= Product of the efficiency of the driven equipment and that
of transmittin device.
0n case of linear motion, the rating of the motor re%uired is given by,
/ G ; ! v"2 ! 1#2 kW
------------------------------------ (2)
Where,
; G force caused by the load, ?g, and
v G velocity of motion of the load, mBs.
"%uation (+) is directly applicable in case of hoisting mechanisms. 0t is also
suitable for lifts or elevators, it should be modified as follows

/ G ; ! v"2 ! 1#2 kW
$he ve%ocity of norma% passener %ift ca&ins vary from #.5 to
1.5 m"s.
'n case of pumps( the ratin can &e determined from the
fo%%o)in re%ation*

P = +,-"1#2 kW
Where(
+ = .ensity of %iquid pumped( k"m
/
(

, = .e%ivery of pumps( m
/
"s( and
- = 0ross head (static head 1 friction head)( m.
varies from #.2 to #.3 for reciprocatin pumps and from #.4
to #.2 for centrifua% pumps.
$he ratin of a fan motor is iven &y(
P = ,h"1#2 kW
Where(
, = vo%ume of air or any other as( m
/
"s( and
h = Pressure in mm of )ater or k"m
2
.
5or sma%% po)er fans( the efficiency may &e taken as #.6 and for
%are po)er ones it may reach a va%ue up to #.2.
$he ratin of a motor used in meta% shearin %athes can &e
found from the re%ation.
P = ; ! v" 1#2 ! 6# kW
Where(
5 = shearin force( k(
v = 7e%ocity of shearin( m"min( and
= 8echanica% efficiency of the %athe.
2. Motor rating for variable load:
$he fo%%o)in are the common%y used methods for determination of
motor ratin for varia&%e %oad drives
(i) 2ethod of average losses
(ii) "%uivalent current method
(iii) "%uivalent tor%ue method
(iv) "%uivalent power method.
2ethod of average losses (O
av
)

The method consists of finding average losses O
av
in the motor when it
operates according to the given load diagram.
These losses are then compared with O
nom
, the losses corresponding to the
continuous duty of the machine when operated at its nominal rating.
This method presupposes that when O
av
G O
nom
, the motor will operate without
temperature rise going above the ma.imum permissible for the particular class
of insulation.
0n this case, Om G O
av
B 19 G O
nom
B 19.
The loss diagram of the electric motor is shown. The rating of the electric
motor can be found from method of successive appro.imations.
The losses of the motor are calculated for each portion of the load diagram by
referring to the efficiency curve of the motor. The average losses are given by
O
av
G O
*
t
*
M O
+
t
+
M O
9
t
9
MPPP. M O
n
t
n
B t
*
M t
+
M t
9
MPP.M t
n
>>>>>>>>>>>> (*)
The average losses as found from e%n (*) are compared with losses of selected
motor at rated fre%uency.
0n case the two losses are e%ual or differ by a small amount the motor is
selected.
&owever, in case the losses differ considerably, another motor is selected and
the calculations repeated till the motor having almost the same losses or the
average losses is found.
This method is accurate and reliable for determining the average temperature
rise of the motor during one wor3 cycle.
The disadvantage of the method of e%ual losses is that it is tedious to wor3
with and also many a times the efficiency curve is not readily available and the
efficiency has to be calculated by means of empirical formulae which may not
be accurate to wor3 with.
"%uivalent current method
This method is based on the assumption that the actual variable current may be
replaced by an e%uivalent current 0
e%
which produces the same losses in the
motors as the actual current.

0
e% G
K(0
*
+
t
*
M 0
+
+
t
+
M 0
9
+
t
9
M PPM 0
n
+
t
n
) B ( t
*
M t
+
M t
9
M PPM t
n
)
The heating and cooling conditions in self ventilated machines depend upon
its speed. 1t low speed the cooling conditions are poorer than at normal
speeds.
The e%uivalent current as found from e%n should be compared with the rated
current of the motor selected and the conditions 0
e%
Q 0
nom
should be met.
The machine selected should also be chec3ed for its overload capacity.
;or D.! motorsPPPP.. 0
ma.
B 0
nom
Q + to +.7
;or induction motors PPP 0
ma.
B 0
nom
Q *.A7 to +.C7
0n case the overload capacity of the motor selected is not sufficient it becomes
necessary to select a motor of high power rating.
0t may not be easy to calculate the e%uivalent current especially in cases where
the current load diagram is irregular as shown in fig.
The e%uivalent current in such cases is calculated from the following
e.pression
0
e%
G K :(*B
*
R
n
) t;
<t
i
2
dt=
The value of the integral may be found with the help of integral.
The current values obtained by this method are sufficiently accurate for
practical purposes.
"%uivalent tor%ue and e%uivalent power methods
;or the selection of suitable capacity of the motor it often becomes necessary
to use tor%ue or power load diagrams.
The e%uivalent tor%ue or power is found in the same manner as the e%uivalent
current.
1ssuming constant flu. and constant power factor, the tor%ue is directly
proportional to current and, therefore, the e%uivalent tor%ue is
T
e%
G K ST
*
+
t
*
M T
+
+
t
+
M T
9
+
t
9
MP. M T
n
+
t
n
B t
*
M t
+
M t
9
MPP..M t
n
T

The e%uation for e%uivalent power follows directly from above e%n. as power
is directly proportional to the tor%ue.
1t constant speed or where the changes in speed are small, the e%uivalent
power is given by
/
e%
G K S/
*
+
t
*
M /
+
+
t
+
M /
9
+
t
9
MP. M /
n
+
t
n
B t
*
M t
+
M t
9
MPP..M t
n
T
The Ue%uivalent current methodV is the most accurate out of all the above
methods discussed above.
This method may be used to determine the motor capacity for all uses e.cept
where it is necessary to ta3e into account the changes in so Econstant lossesF
i.e. the iron and mechanical losses.
The Ue%uivalent tor%ue methodV cannot be used for cases where e%uivalent
current method cannot be applied.
0t cannot be used for selection of motor rating for cases in which the field flu.
does not remain constant li3e D.! series motors and for s%uirrel cage
induction motors under starting and bra3ing conditions.
The disadvantage of the Ue%uivalent power methodV is that it cannot be used
for motors whose speed varies considerably under load, especially when
dealing with starting and bra3ing conditions.
!o"er fa#tor im)ro1ement
A))arentB A#ti1e (True or Real an& Rea#ti1e )o"er an& !o"er Fa#tor
"very circuit has two components
(i) 1ctive component and
(ii) 'eactive component.
U1ctive componentV consumes power in the circuit while Ureactive
componentV is responsible for the field which lags or leads the main current
from the voltage.

0n fig active component is 0
active
G 0 cos <, and reactive component is 0
reactive
G
0 sin <.
0 G K S(0
active
)
+
M (0
reactive
)
+
T
(i) 1pparent power (S)
0t is given by the product of r.m.s. values of applied voltage and circuit
resistance.
S G 50 G (0 ! >) .0 G 0
+
W volt>amperes (51)
(ii) 1ctive or true or real power (/ or W)
0t is the power which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance.
/ G 0
+
' G 50 cos < watts.
(iii) 'eactive power (O)
1 pure inductor and a pure capacitor do not consume any power, since in a
half cycle what so ever power is received from the source by these
components the same is returned to the source.
This power which flows bac3 and forth(i.e., in both directions in the circuit) or
reacts upon itself is called Ureactive powerV.
0t may be noted that the current in phase with the voltage produces active or
true or real power while the current =,X out of phase with the voltage
contributes to reactive power.
0n a '>$ circuit, reactive power which is the power developed in the inductive
reactance of the circuit, is given as
O G 0
+
J
$
G 0
+
Wsin < G 0. (0W) sin <
G 50 sin < volt>amperes>reactive (51')
These three powers are shown in fig
'elation between 51, W and 5'
W G 51 cos <
51' G 51 sin <
51 G WB cos <
51 G 51'B sin <
/ower factor (p.f) G WB51 G True powerB 1pparent power

The larger bigger units of apparent, true and reactive power are 351 (or
251), 3W(or 3W) and 351' (or 251') respectively.
The power factor depends on the reactive power component. 0f it is made
e%ual to the active power component, the power factor becomes unity.
Cau(e( of lo" )o"er fa#tor
(i) 1ll 1.! motors (e.cept overe.cited synchronous motors and certain
types of commutators motors) and transformers operate at lagging
power factor.
(ii) Due to typical characteristics of the arc, are lamps operate at low
power factor.
(iii) When there is increase in supply voltage, which usually occurs during
low load periods (such as lunch hours, night hours etc.,) the
magneti4ing current of inductive reactances increases and power factor
of the electrical plant as a whole decreases.
(iv) 1rc and induction furnaces etc. operate at a very low lagging power
factor.
(v) Due to improper maintenance and repairs of motors the power factor at
which motors operate fall.
1dvantages of power factor improvement
The installation of power factor improvement device, to raise the power factor
results in one or more of the following effects and advantages
*) 'eduction in investment in the system facilities per 3W of the load
supplied.
+) 'eduction in circuit current.
9) 'eduction in copper losses in the system due to reduction in current.
8) 0ncrease in voltage level at load.
7) 0mprovement in power factor of the generators.
A) 'eduction in 351 loading of the generators and circuits.
?) 'eduction in 351 demand charges for large consumers.
Met%o&( of )o"er fa#tor im)ro1ement

The various methods employed for power factor correction are
*) #se of static capacitors.
+) #se of synchronous condensers.
9) #se of phase advancers.
8) #se of phase compensated motors.
The above methods of power factor improvement are discussed below
#se of static capacitors
0t is 3nown that static capacitorB condenser ta3es current which leads the
voltage by nearly =,X.
Thus if condenser is connected across an inductive load resultant %uadrature
component of the whole combination will be difference of leading component
of condenser current (0
c
) and lagging component of lead current (0 sin <
*
) as
shown in fig.
0n view of reduced magnitude of %uadrature component of current, p.f of the
whole combination is improved from cos <
*
to cos <
+
.
/ower factor of the system can be improved by placing static capacitors in
series with the liner as shown in fig.
!apacitors connected in series with the line neutrali4e the line reactance.
The capacitors, when connected in series with the line, are called Useries
capacitorV, and when connected in parallel with the e%uipment, are called
Ushunt capacitorsV.
Shunt capacitors are used in factories, plants and also on transmission lines.
Series capacitors are used on long transmission lines as they provide automatic
compensation with the variations in load.
1dvantages of capacitors
*) Small losses (less than ,.7 percent) or higher efficiency (say ==.A).
+) $ow initial cost.
9) "asy installation.
8) $ittle maintenance.
7) $ong life.

A) @reater reliability in service.
C) ;le.ible in operation.
:) )o restriction on the choice of site for capacitor and can be installed in
relatively small ban3s located near the load.
6esides p.f improvement, capacitors are employed to perform the following functions
also
*) To reduce losses.
+) To reduce voltage regulation of the line.
9) To meet a demand for reactive power.
8) To utili4e fully the capacities of generators, transformers and transmission
and distribution networ3.
#se of synchronous condenser
1n over> e.cited synchronous motor running on no load is called the
synchronous condenser or synchronous phase advancer.
0t behaves li3e a capacitor, the capacitance reactance of which depends upon
the motor e.citation.
/ower factor can be improved by using synchronous condensers li3e shunt
capacitors connected across the supply.
0
$
G current ta3en by the industrial load,
<
$
G 1ngle of lag,
0
2
G current drawn by the synchronous motor,
<
2
G 1ngle of lead,
0 G 'esultant current and
< G angle lag
Synchronous condensers are usually built in large units and are employed
where a large %uantity of corrective 351' is re%uired.
;rom the fig we observe that angle of lag(<) is much smaller than <
$
Y thus
overall factor is improved from cos <
$
to cos <
2
by the use of synchronous
condenser.
1dvantages

1 finer control can be obtained by varying the field e.citation.
0nherent characteristics of synchronous condensers of stabili4ing variations in
the line voltage and thereby automatically aid in regulation.
/ossibility of overloading a synchronous condenser for short periods.
0mprovement in the system stability and reduction of the effect of sudden
changes in load owing to inertia of synchronous condenser.
Disadvantages
The cost is higher than that of static capacitors of the same rating, e.cept in
si4e above about 7,,, 351'.
&igher maintenance and operating costs comparatively.
!omparatively lower efficiency, due to losses in rotating parts and heat losses.
0ncrease of short>circuit currents when the fault occurs near the synchronous
condenser.
;or starting synchronous condensers an au.iliary e%uipment is re%uired.
/ossibility of synchronous condensers falling out of synchronism causing
interruption of supply.
During operation noise is produced.
#se of phase advancers
The p.f of an induction motor falls mainly due to its e.citing current drawn
from the 1.!. supply mains, because e.citing current lags behind the voltage
by =,X.
0t may be improved by e%uipping the set with an U1.!. e.citerV or Uphase
advancerV which supplies this e.citing current to the rotor at slip fre%uency.
Such an e.citor may be mounted on the same shaft as the main motor or may
be suitably driven from it.
#se of phase advancer is not generally economical in connection with motors
below *7, 3W output but above this si4e, phase advancers are fre%uently
employed.
Shunt and series type of phase advancers are available according to whether
the e.citing winding of the advancer is connected in parallel or series with the
rotor winding of the induction motor.

#se of phase compensated motors
1s mentioned earlier, the use of phase advancers may not be economical for
induction motors below *7, 3W output.
/ower factor improvement of the system is achieved by the use of phase
compensated motors such as torda, osnos and scharge motors.
These motors are however very costly and re%uire more maintenance than
plain induction motors.
1s such these motors are chosen when we are sure that they will be loaded to
rated output for most of the time and that they will effect more saving in the
energy cost due to higher p.f than the additional e.penses incurred on them.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
ELECTRIC TRACTION

The locomotive in which the driving or tractive force is obtained from electric motors
is called Ele#tri# tra#tion2
"lectric traction has many advantages as compared to other non>electrical systems of
traction including steam traction.
"lectric traction is used in
i) "lectric trains
ii) Trolley buses
iii) Tram cars
iv) Diesel>electric vehicles etc.,
Tra#tion ($(tem(
1ll traction systems, broadly spea3ing, can be classified as follows
1. )on>electric traction systems These systems do not use electrical
energy at some stage or the other.
".amples (i) Steam engine drive used in railways
(ii) 0nternal combustion>engine>drive used for road
transport.
2. "lectric traction systems These systems involve the use of electric
energy at some stage or the other. These are further sub divided into
the following two groups
a) Self contained vehicles or locomotives
".amples i) 6attery>electric drive
ii)Diesel>electric drive
b) 5ehicles which receive electric power from a distribution networ3
or suitably placed sub>stations.
".amples i) 'ailway electric locomotive fed from overhead 1.!
supplyY
ii) Tramways and trolley buses supplied with D.!.
supply.
'e%uirements of an ideal traction system

The re%uirements of an ideal traction system are
*. &igh adhesion coefficient, so that high tractive effort at the start is possible
to have rapid acceleration.
+. The locomotive or train unit should be self contained so that it can run on
any route.
9. 2inimum wear on the trac3.
8. 0t should be possible to overload the e%uipment for short periods.
7. The e%uipment re%uired should be minimum, of high efficiency and low
initial and maintenance cost.
A. 0t should be pollution free.
C. Speed control should be easy.
:. 6ra3ing should be such that minimum wear is caused on the bra3e shoes,
and if possible the energy should be regenerated and returned to the supply
during bra3ing period.
=. There should be no interference to the communication lines running the
trac3.
Different systems of traction
The various systems of traction commonly used are,
*. Steam engine drive.
+. 0nternal combustion engine drive.
9. 0nternal combustion electric drive.
8. /etro>electric traction.
7. 6attery electric drive.
A. "lectric drive.
Steam engine drive
Steam engine drive, though losing ground gradually due to various reasons, it
is still the amply adopted means of propulsion of railway wor3 in
underdeveloped countries.
0n this type of drive, the reciprocating engine is invariably used for getting the
necessary motive power.

1dvantages
;ollowing are the advantages of steam engine drive
Simplicity in design.
Simplified maintenance.
"asy speed control.
Simplicity of connections between the cylinders and the driving wheels.
)o interference with communication networ3.
$ow capital cost as trac3 electrification is not re%uired.
The locomotive and train unit is self contained, therefore, it is not tied to a
route.
0t is cheap for low density traffic areas and in initial stages of communication
by rail.
(perational dependability.
Disadvantages
$ow thermal efficiency.
Due to the reason of low adhesion coefficient, power>weight ratio of steam
locomotive is low.
0t has strictly limited overload capacity.
Steam locomotive cannot be put into service at any moment as time is re%uired
for raising of steam.
(wing to high centre of gravity of steam locomotive, speed is limited.
Steam locomotive re%uires more repair and maintenance.
".tensive and costly au.iliary e%uipment.
Since driving wheels are very close, hence more concentrated adhesive weight
is re%uired.
6igger si4es of running sheds and wor3shop are re%uired.
0nternal combustion engine drive

This drive is widely used for road transport.
The motive power is derived from petrol to diesel.
0t has an efficiency of about +7 percent when operating at normal speed.
5arious e.amples are buses, cars, truc3s etc.,
1dvantages
$ow initial investment.
0t is self>contained unit and, therefore, it is not tied to any route.
"asy speed control.
5ery simple bra3ing system.
0t is cheap drive for the outer suburbs and country districts.
Disadvantages
$imited overload capacity.
1 gear bo. is essential for speed control.
&igher running and maintenance costs.
(peration at any but the normal speed is uneconomical.
The life of propulsive e%uipment is much shorter than that of electrical
e%uipment of a tram car or a trolley bus.
0nternal combustion electric drive
0n an 0.! engine electric drive the reduction gear and gear bo. are eliminated
as the diesel as the diesel engine is to drive the D.!. generator coupled to it at
a constant speed.
This type of drive is finding considerable favour for railway wor3 and
locomotives of this type are being widely used.
1dvantages
$ow initial investment.
)o modification of e.isting trac3s is re%uired while converting from steam to
diesel electric traction.

1s the locomotive and train is a self contained unit, therefore, it is not lied to
any route.
!an be put into service at any moment.
$oss of power in speed control is very low.
0t is available for hauling for about =,D of its wor3ing days.
(verall efficiency is greater than that of steam locomotives.
Disadvantages
$imited overload capacity.
&igh running and maintenance cost.
&igher dead weight of locomotivesY more a.les re%uired comparatively.
!omparatively costlier than steam or electric locomotives.
0n such drives, regenerative bra3ing cannot be used.
The life of the diesel engine is comparatively shorter.
There is a necessity to provide special cooling system for the diesel engine in
addition to motor>generator set.
/etrol>electric traction
This system, due to electric conversion, provides a very fine and continuous
control which ma3es the vehicle capable of moving slowly at an imperceptible
speed and creeping up the steepest slope without throttling the engine.
/etrol>electric traction is employed in heavy lorries and buses.
6attery electric drive
0n this system the locomotive carries the secondary batteries which supply
power to D.!. motors employed for driving the vehicles.
This type of drive is well suited for fre%uently operated service such as for
local delivery of goods in large towns with ma.imum daily run of 7, to A,
3m, shunting and traction in industrial wor3s and mines.
6attery vehicles are started by series>parallel for starting and running at the
speed upto half ma.imum speed and in series for running at full ma.imum
speed.
1dvantages

6attery driven vehicle is easy to control and very convenient to use.
$ow maintenance cost.
1bsence of fumes.
Disadvantages
The major disadvantages of this type of drive are the small capacity of
batteries and the necessity for fre%uent charging.
$imited speed range.
"lectric drive
&ere the drive is by means of electric motors which are fed from overhead
distribution system.
The drive of this type is most widely used.
1dvantages
1s it has no smo3e, electric traction is most suited for the underground and
tube railways.
The motors used in electric traction have a very high starting tor%ue. &ence, it
is possible to achieve higher accelerations of *.7 to +.7 3mBhBs as against ,.A to
,.: 3mBhBs in steam traction.
1n electric locomotive is ready to start at momentFs notice against about two
hours re%uired for steam locomotive to heat up.
The maintenance cost of an electric locomotive is 7, percent of that of steam
locomotiveY its maintenance time is also much less comparatively.
6y the use of electric traction high grade coal can be saved, since electric
locomotives can be fed either from hydroelectric stations or thermal power
station which use cheap low>grade coal.
0n electric traction system it is possible to use regenerative bra3ing.
(wing to complete absence of smo3e and fumes, this system is healthier from
the hygienic point of view.
The vibrations in electrically operated vehicles are less as the tor%ue e.erted
by the electric motor is continuous.
"lectric e%uipment can withstand large temporary overloads and can draw
relatively large power from the distribution system.

Disadvantages
&igh initial cost of laying out overhead electric supply system. #nless the
traffic to be handled is heavy, electric traction becomes uneconomical.
/ower failure for a few minutes can cause traffic dislocation for hours.
The electric traction system is tied up to only electrified routes.
!ommunication lines which usually run parallel to the power supply lines
suffer from electrical interference. &ence, these communication lines have
either to be removed away from the rail trac3 or else underground cables have
to be used for the purpose which ma3es the system still more e.pensive.
1dditional e%uipment is re%uired for regeneration. 0n case of D.!. series
motors regeneration is not a simple process.
0n case of electric traction provision of a negative booster is essential. 6y
avoiding the flow of return currents through earth, it curtails corrosion of
underground pipe wor3 and interference with telegraph and telephone circuits.
Whereas steam locomotives can use their steam for heating the compartments
in cold weather very cheaply, the electric locomotives have to do it at an e.tra
cost.
0n cold countries a service locomotive is re%uired to run up and down the line
in order to prevent the formation of layer of ice on the conductor rails.
S)ee& time #%ara#teri(ti#(
0t is the curve drawn between speed of train in 3mBhour along y>a.is and time
in seconds along .>a.is.
The speed time curve gives complete information of the motion of the train.
This curve gives the speed at various times after the start and run directly.
The distance travelled by the train during a given interval of time can be
obtained by determining the area between the curve and the time a.is
corresponding to this interval.
1 typical speed time curve for main line service is shown in fig. This curve
consists of five sections.
1. )otching up period (, to t
*
)
During this period of run (, to t
*
), starting resistance is gradually
cut so that the motor current is limited to a certain value and the

voltage across the motor is gradually increased and the traction
motor accelerates from rest.
To cut the starting resistance, the starter handle has to be moved
from one notch to another. &ence this period is called notching up
period.
The acceleration is almost uniform during this period. Therefore
speed> time curve is a straight line ((1).
2. 1cceleration period (t
*
to t
+
)
When all the starting resistances are cut out, the full voltage is
applied to the motor.
)ow the tor%ue decreases and speed increases according to the
speed tor%ue characteristics of the motor.
)ow the acceleration gradually decreases with the increase in
speed and finally reaches the re%uired tor%ue for the movement of
the train (at time t
+
).
/. ;ree running period (t
+
to t
9
).
During this period i.e. t
+
to t
9
the power supplied to the motor is at
full voltage and speed of this period is constant, also during this
period power drawn from the supply is constant.
4. !oasting period (t
9
to t
8
)
1t the end of free running period supply to the motor is cut off and
the train is allowed to run under its own 3inetic energy.
Due to train resistance speed of the train gradually decreases.
The rate of decreasing of speed during this period is 3nown as
Ucoasting retardationV.
5. 6ra3ing or retardation period (t
8
to t
7
)
1t the end of coasting period the bra3es are applied to bring the
train to stop.
During this period speed decreases rapidly and finally reduces to
4ero.
Types of services
There are three types of electric traction services.

*. 2ain line service
+. Sub>urban service
9. #rban service
S)ee& 6 Time #ur1e for main line (er1i#e
The distance between two successive stations in main line service is
considerably more (more than *, 3m).
0n this service free run is longer duration. The duration of acceleration and
retardation is small2
S)ee& 6 Time #ur1e for (u/ur/an (er1i#e
0n this type of service the distance between two successive stations is
in the range of *.7 3m to : 3m. ;ig represents speed>time curve for
sub>urban service.
1cceleration and bra3ing retardation re%uired are high.
;ree running period is not possible and coasting period will be
comparatively longer than urban service.
S)ee& 6 Time #ur1e for ur/an or #it$ (er1i#e
0n city service the distance between the two stations is very short i.e., between
,.C7 to * 3m.
The time re%uired for this run between the adjacent and retardation should be
sufficient high.
;ig shows the speed>time curve for urban or city service. 0t will be seen that
there will be no free running period.
The coasting period is also small.
Tra#ti1e effort
The effective efforts re%uired to run a train on trac3 are
(i) Tractive effort needed to provide acceleration (;
a
)
(ii) Tractive effort needed to overcome the train resistance (;
r
)
(iii) Tractive effort needed to overcome gradients (;
g
)
Tractive effort for acceleration (;
a
)

$et 2 is the dead or stationary mass of train in tones.
Dead mass of train G 2 tones
G *,,, 2 3g
1cceleration G I 3mBhrBsec
G I ! 1###"/6## m"sec
2
When a train is accelerated in a linear direction, its rotating parts li3e the
wheels and armature of motors have to be accelerated in an angular direction.
Therefore the accelerating mass of the train is greater than the dead mass of
the train.
@enerally the effective or accelerating mass is *,D more than the dead mass.
i.e. 2
e
G *.* 2
$et the effective mass of train G 2
e
ton
G *,,, 2
e
3g.
;orce re%uired for acceleration G 2ass ! acceleration.
i.e., ;
a
G 2
e
! a
G *,,, 2
e
! I *,,,B9A,,
G +CC.: 2
e
I )ewtons
Tractive effort to overcome the train resistance (;
r
)
While moving, the train has to overcome the opposing force due to the surface
friction and wind resistance.
The train resistance depends upon various factors such as shape, si4e,
condition of trac3 etc.
Tractive effort re%uired to overcome the train resistance
;
r
G 2 ! r )ewtons
Where 2 G 2ass of train in tone
r G train resistance in )ewtonsBtone
Tractive effort re%uired to overcome gradients (;
g
)Z
!onsider that an electric train is moving upwards on a slope as shown in fig.

The dead mass of the train along the slope will tend to bring it downward.
To overcome this effect of gravity, tractive effort are re%uired in opposite
direction.
Tractive effort to overcome the effect of gravity G ;
g
;
g
G 2
g
sin @ tone m"sec
2
G *,,, 2
g
sin @ k m" sec
2

= 1### 8

sin @ Ae)ton
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity
G =.:* mBsec
+
B is the angle of slope.
;
g
G *,,, 2 ! =.:* sin @ )ewton >>>>>>>>>>>>> (*)
0n railway practice the gradient is e.pressed in terms of rise or fall in every
*,, metres of trac3 and it is denoted by @ D
;rom fig , @radient @ G 6! B(1!B*,,)
G (6!B1!) ! *,,
i.e., @ G *,, sin @
sin @ = 0"1##
-------------------- (2)
Cu& the va%ue of sin @ in eqn (1)
;
g
G *,,, 2 ! =.:* ! @B*,,
;
g
G [ =.:* 2@ )ewton
/ositive sign is to be used for upgradient and negative sign for down gradient.
Total tractive effort (;
t
)
;
t
G ;
a
M ;
r
M ;
g
G +CC.: 2
e
I M 2
r
[ =.:* 2@ )ewtons.
.ra3ing
6ra3ing is very fre%uent in electric drives to stop a motor in a reasonably short
time.

;or e.ample a plannar must %uic3ly be stopped at the end of its stro3e and
sometimes must %uic3ly be stopped at the end of its stro3e and sometimes it is
necessary to stop the motor in order to prevent accident.
The essential of a good bra3ing system should be
i) 'eliable and %uic3 in its action.
ii) The bra3ing force must be capable of being controlled.
iii) 1de%uate means be provided for dissipating the stored energy that is
3inetic energy of the rotating parts.
iv) 0n case of a fault in any part of the bra3ing system the whole system
must come to instantaneous rest or result in the application of the
bra3es.
There are two types of bra3ing
i) 2echanical bra3ing
The motor in this case is stopped due to friction between the
moving part of the motor and the bra3e shoe that is stored energy is
dissipated as heat by a bra3e shoe or bra3e linning which rubs against a
bra3e shoe or bra3e linning which rubs against a bra3e drum.
ii) "lectric bra3ing
0n this method of bra3ing, the 3inetic energy of the moving
parts that is motor is converted into electrical energy which is
consumed in a resistance as heat or alternatively it is returned
to the supply source.
"lectric bra3ing is superior to the friction bra3ing as it is fast
and cheap since there is no cost of maintenance of the bra3e
shoes or linning.
During bra3ing operation a motor has to function as a
generator.
The motor can be held at stand still. 0n other words the electric
bra3ing cannot hold the motor at rest.
Thus it becomes essential to provide mechanical bra3es in
addition to electric bra3ing.
5arious types of electrical bra3ing are

a) /lugging
b) 'heostatic bra3ing
c) 'egenerative bra3ing

/lugging
This is a simple method of electric bra3ing and consists in reversing the
connections of the armature of the motor so as to reverse its direction of
rotation which will oppose the original direction of rotation of the motor and
will bring it to 4ero speed when mechanical bra3es can be applied.
1t the end of the bra3ing period the supply to the motor is automatically cut
off. This method of bra3ing can be applied to the following motors.
*) D! motors
+) 0nduction motors
9) Synchronous motors
/lugging applied to D! motors
To reverse a D! motors, it is necessary to reverse the connections of the
armature while the connections of the field are 3ept the same.
The direction of m.m.f remains the same even during bra3ing periods.
Series motors
The arrangements of connection before and after the bra3ing are shown in fig.
Shunt motors
The arrangements of connections before and after bra3ing for shunt motor are
shown in fig.
Total voltage of 5M "
b
is available across the armature terminals which causes
a current 0 to flow around the circuit.
When "
b
G 5 then the voltage across the armature is +5 and at the time of
bra3ing twice the normal voltage is applied to the resistance in series with the
armature at this time in order to limit the current.
While the motor is being bra3ed, the current is still being drawn from the
supply.

This method re%uires energy from the supply for its action and not only the
3inetic energy of the motor is being wasted, but this energy is also being
dissipated.
Speed and bra3ing tor%ue
"lectric bra3ing to tor%ue
T
6
I <0 >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (*)
T
6
G ? <0 >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (+)
Where ? is a constant
!urrent G 5M "
b
B ' >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (9)
"
b
G ?
*
) < >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (8)
Where 5 is applied voltage
"
b
is bac3 emf of the motor.
' is the resistance of the motor
) is the speed
?
*
is a constant
Substitute the value of "
b
from e%uation (8) in (9)
!urrent 0 G (5 M ?
*
) <)C ' >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (7)
0n view of e%uations (+) and (7)
T
6
G ? <S(5 M ?
*
) <)C 'T

G ? <5B ' M ??
*
) <
+
C '

G ?
+
< M ?
9
<
+
) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (A)
Where ?
+
G ?5B ' >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (C)
1nd ?
9
G ??
*
B' >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (:)
1pply the results obtained to the series motor, where
< I armature current (0
a
) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (=)
Then "lectric bra3ing in series motor,
G ?
8
0
a
M ?
7
0
a
+
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (*,)
0n the case of shunt motor since flu. is constant, so
"lectric bra3ing tor%ue
T
6
G?
A
M ?
C
) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (**)
Wherever there is a load on the machine the load will also e.ert bra3ing tor%ue
due to it and then the total bra3ing tor%ue (T)
T G "lectric bra3ing tor%ue M $oad tor%ue >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (*+)
/lugging applied to induction motors
0n the case of induction motor its speed can be reversed by inter changing any
of the two stator phases which reverses the direction of rotation of motor field.
1ctually at the time of bra3ing when the induction motor is running at near
synchronous speed.
The point O represents the tor%ue at the instant of plugging one can notice that
the tor%ue increases gradually as one approaches the stand still speed.
Different values of rotor resistance give rise to different shapes of speed
tor%ue curve in order to give any desired bra3ing effect.
The rotor current 0
+
can be calculated during the bra3ing period from the
following relation and is plotted as shown.

0
+
G S"
+
B K S'
e
+
M (SJ
+
)
+
T >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (*9)
Where "
+
is the e.m.f. induced in rotor at standstill
'
+
is the rotor resistance
J
+
is the standstill reactance of the rotor and
S
+
is the percentage slip
/lugging applied to synchronous motors
/lugging can be applied to the synchronous motors, with the only difference
that the field on the rotor will be rotating in opposite direction to that of the
rotating field on the stator with the synchronous speed and the relative velocity
between the two will be twice the synchronous speed.
This will meant that there is one synchronous motor tor%ue but the same will
be produced by the induction in the starting winding.
Since most of the motors are e%uipped with starting winding, a synchronous
motor provides satisfactory bra3ing.
'heostatic bra3ing
0n this method of bra3ing, the motor is disconnected from the supply and run
as generator driven by the remaining 3inetic energy of the e%uipment that is
the energy stored in motor and load which are to be bra3ed.
The following drives can be bra3ed by the rheostatic method
(i) D! motor
(ii) 0nduction motor
(iii) Synchronous motor.
Dc motors
Shunt motor
0n this type of motor, the armature is simply disconnected from the supply and
is connected to as resistance in series with it, the field, winding remains
connect to the supply as shown in fig.

The bra3ing can be adjusted suitably by varying the resistance in the armature
circuit.
0n the case of failure of the supply, there is no bra3ing tor%ue because of
absence of the field.
Series motor
0n this case of the connections are made as shown is fig during bra3ing
operation.
The motor after disconnection from the supply in made to run as a D! series
generator.
The resistance inserted in the circuit must be less than the critical resistance
otherwise the generator will not be self e.citing.
When the series motor is disconnected from the supply the direction of the
armature current is reversed.
6ra3ing tor%ue and speed
"lectric bra3ing tor%ue is given by e%uation (9)
6ra3ing current G "
b
B ' >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (*8)
&ence bra3ing current of e%uation (*8) and (8)
G ?
*
<)B' >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (*7)
Substitute the value of bra3ing current is e%uation (*)
"lectric bra3ing tor%ue G ??
*
<
+
)B'
G ?
+
<
+
) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (*A)
Where ?
+
G ??
*
B' >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (*C)
0n the case of a series motor the flu. dependent upon the armature current
"lectric bra3ing tor%ue for series motor
G ?
9
0
a
+
) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (*:)
While in the case of shunt motor since flu. is constant
"lectric bra3ing tor%ue G ?
8
) >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> (*=)

'heostatic bra3ing is applied to induction motor
0n this case the stator is disconnected from the supply and is connected to D!
supply which e.cites the windings thereby producing a D! field.
The rotor is short>circuited across through resistance in each phase.
When the short circuited rotor moves it outs the steady flu. produced in the air
gap due to D! current flowing in the stator produced in the air gap due to D!
current flowing in the stator and an e.m.f is induced in the rotor conductors.
The satisfactory application of this method is applicable only to the phase
wound inductor motor where e.ternal resistance can be inserted in each phase.
'heostatic bra3ing as applied to the synchronous motors
'heostatic bra3ing in the synchronous motors is similar to the rheostatic
bra3ing in induction motors.
0n this case the stator is shorted across resistance in star or delta and the
machine wor3s li3e an alternator supplying the current to the resistance, there
by dissipating in 3inetic energy in the form of losses in the resistances.
'egenerative bra3ing
0n this type of bra3ing the motor is not disconnected from the supply but
remains connected to it and its feeds bac3 the bra3ing energy or its 3inetic
energy to the supply system.
This method is better than the first and second methods of bra3ing since no
energy is wasted and rather it is supplied bac3 to the system.
This method is applicable to following motors
(i) D.! motors
(ii) 0nduction motors
D.! motors
Shunt motor
0n a D! machine where energy will be ta3en from the supply or delievered to
it depends upon the induced emf, if it in less than the line voltage the machine
will operate as motor and if it is more than the line voltage, the machine will
operate as generator.

The e.m.f induced in turn depends upon the speed and e.citation that is when
the field current or the speed is increased the induced e.m.f e.ceeds the line
voltage and the energy will be field into the system.
This will %uic3ly decrease the speed of the motor and will bring it to rest.
Series motor
0n this case, complications arise due to fact that the reversal of the current in
the armature would cause a reversal of polarity of the series field and hence
bac3 emf would be reversed.
'egenerative bra3ing applied to induction motor
0n the case of induction motors, the regenerative bra3ing is inherent, since an
induction motor act as a generator when running at speeds above synchronous
speeds and it feeds power bac3 to the supply system.
)o e.tra au.iliaries are needed for this purpose. This method is however very
seldom used for bra3ing but its application is very useful to lifts and hoists for
holding a descending load at a speed only slightly above the synchronous
speed.
Tram"a$(
The tramway is perhaps the cheapest type of transport available in very dense
traffic.
0t receives power through a bow collector or a grooved wheel from an
overhead conductor at about A,, 5 D.!., the running rail forming the return
conductor.
0t is provided with atleast two driving a.les in order to secure necessary
adhesion, start it from either end and use two motors with series> parallel
control.
Two drum>type controllers, one at each end used for controlling the tramcar.
Though these controllers are connected in parallel, they have suitable
interloc3ing arrangement to prevent their being used simultaneously.
The main frame of the car body is made from high tensile steel. 1luminium is
e.tensively used for bodywor3.
The under frame is of rolled steel sections. Seats are either in transverse
direction or a combination of transverse and longitudinal arrangement is used.

The e%uipment is similar to that used in railways but the output is considerably
smaller and does not e.ceed A, to C7 &./.
;or normal service rheostatic and mechanical bra3ing are employed.
;or mechanical bra3ing, electro>mechanical drum bra3es are used. 1lso
magnetic trac3s bra3es are used for giving better retardation.
This traction system is losing ground to trolley bus or internal combustion
engine ominus system due to the following reasons
i) $ac3 of operational fle.ibility in areas of heavy congestion.
ii) #ndesirable effect of trac3 on other road vehicles.
iii) 0t is an economical method of transportation only for large cities
having dense traffic.
Trolle$4.u(
Serious drawbac3 of tramway is the lac3 of manoeuvrability in congested areas and
noiseY this is overcome by the trolley>bus drive.
0t is an electrically> operated pneumatic>tyred vehicle which needs no trac3 in
the roadway. 0t receives its power at A,, 5 D.!. from two overhead contact
wires. Since adhesion between a rubber>tyred wheel and ground is sufficiently
high, only a single driving a.le and, hence, a single motor is used. The trolley
bus can manoeuvre through a metre or two on each side of the centre line of
the trolley wires.
1 D.! compound motor of output of 7, to *,, 3W is normally used.
Speed control is obtained by field wea3ening method. ;oot operated master
controllers are used so that drive may have his hands free to steer the vehicle
and apply hand bra3e. (ne pedal controls the starting, speed control and
regenerative bra3ing, if any and second pedal control rheostatic and
compressed air bra3es. 'egenerative bra3ing is usually not employed in
trolley>bus drive because of difficulty of ensuring that supply system is always
in a position to absorb the energy regenerated.
The lighting system in the car is low>voltage D.! supplied from a motor>
generator set connected in parallel with a battery. The vehicles are usually
provided with secondary batteries so that the vehicles can be manoeuvred in
case of emergency.
Since the body of the car is insulated from earth on account of the rubber>tyred
wheels, it must be properly chec3ed for ade%uate insulation resistance lest it
lea3s and causes electric shoc3s to the passengers while boarding and

alighting from the bus. The insulation resistance is chec3ed at the end of the
day.
Trolley L buses have more passenger carrying capacity, higher acceleration
and bra3ing retardation than oil>engined buses. These are, therefore, used for
medium traffic density as obtained in inner suburbs. (il engine buses, on the
other hand, are used for outer suburbs and country side where there is low
traffic density.
Re#ent tren&( in ele#tri# tra#tion
Three phase 1! traction drives
The advantages of 1! propulsion drive are good reliability due to static power
conversion e%uipment.
The important component of the 1! traction is the three phase s%uirrel cage
induction motor.
1 popular car pair used in modern electric traction uses the pulse width
modulation inverter principle.
The /W2 inverter produces a symmetrical three>phase output voltage, whose
amplitude and fre%uency can be controlled continuously.
&ence the speed and tor%ue of the s%uirrel cage induction motor used for
traction can be adjusted in monitoring and bra3ing, as well as in both
directions, of rotation with a fully static device, that is no operational contacts
are re%uired.
The /W21! drives covers subway railcars, $'5S, trolley buses, diesel
electric and electric locomotives.
!lass "1 locomotive
The class "1 locomotive is a multipurpose locomotive used for fast inter>city
trains.
;ig shows the main circuit of a class "1 locomotive.
The four %uadrant controllers rectify the 1! voltage from the transformer to
+:,,5 D!. The pulsating inverters invert the three phase voltage.
The three phase voltage now fed into traction motors has a variable voltage
and fre%uency. The system can be used for regenerative bra3ing.

Three au.iliary converter feed the three>phase fan motors for oil cooling and
traction motor cooling, for rectifiers as well as the lubricating oil pump for
cooling compressor and pneumatic compressor.
;ig shows the bloc3 diagram of a locomotive. The locomotive has a
transformer suspended under the locomotive body, giving ample space for
switch cabinets and e%uipment in the locomotive.
There is a powerful electric bra3e on the class "1 locomotive, which is also of
infinitely variable regulation.
$ocomotive electrical e%uipment
1 typical scheme of locomotive used consists of eight diodes and twenty
thyristors.
The current flows from one to another without any stoppage.
&ere a natural physical phenomenon is used, the motor itself piloting the
converter that supplies it. &ence there is no need to fear unbalance in the
system.

ELECTROL,TIC !ROCESSES
0ntroduction
The processes based on the fact that electrical energy can produce chemical changes are
called Ele#trol$ti# )ro#e((e(. These processes are widely used for
(i) ".traction of pure metals from their ores(e.g., copper, 4inc, aluminium, magnesium
etc.)Y
(ii) 'efining of metals (e.g., gold, silver, copper, nic3el etc.)Y
(iii) 2anufacturing of various chemicals (e.g., caustic soda, potassium permagnate,
chlorine etc.)Y
(iv) "lectro>deposition of metals including electro>plating, electro>typing, electro>
formingY
(v) 6uilding up of worn parts in metallurgical, chemical and other industries.
1ll the processes mentioned above, though they appear differently in apparent detail, are
based on the principle of electrolysis.
"$"!T'($\S0S L T&" 61S0! /'0)!0/$"
When a compound formed by electrovalent bond is dissolved in water which has high
dielectric constant results in the wea3ening of the electrostatic force of attraction
between the ioni4ed atoms.
This results in the charged ions to lead an independent e.istence. !onsider the case of
a copper sulphate (!uS(
8
) dissolved in water.

0t dissociates into positively>charged copper ions (!u
MM
) and negatively>charged
sulphate ions (S(
8
>>
) moving freely in the solution.
0f two electrodes are placed in the electrolyte (i.e., !uS(
8
solution) and one of them is
made positive and the other negative, the positively>charged ions travel towards the
cathode and the negatively>charged ions travel towards the anode.
"ach of the positively>charged copper ions (cations) reaching the cathode will ta3e
two electrons from it and become a metallic atom of copper, and similary each of the
negative>charged sulphate ions (anions) reaching the anode will give up two electrons
to it and cease to be anion.
Thus the copper is deposited at the cathode as metal. The sulphate ions collect at the
anode and react with water giving out o.ygen
+&
+
( M +S(
8
G +&
+
S(
8
M (
+
(.ygen is liberated as gas at the anode and &
+
S(
8
is formed. 0f the cathode is made of
!u, the sulphuric acid attac3s it forming copper sulphate and liberating hydrogen
&
+
S(
8
M !u G !uS(
8
M &
+
Thus the copper of the anode goes into solution and copper from copper sulphate is
deposited on the cathode.
During the process there is no accumulation of charge at any point in the circuit and
the mass of copper deposited at the cathode is e.actly e%ual to that removed from the
anode.
The whole process described above is called ele#trol$(i(2
FARADA,DS LAWS OF ELECTROL,SIS
2ichael ;araday (an "nglish scientist) formulated the laws governing the electrolytic
processes, which are stated below
;aradayFs ;irst $aw 0t is stated as follows
UThe mass of a substance liberated from an electrolyte in a given time is proportional
to the %uantity of electricity passing through the electrolyte.V
That is m I O I 0t
m G Wit
where,
W G 1 constant called the electrochemical e%uivalent,
0 G the steady current in amperes, and

t G Time (second) for which current 0 flows through the electrolyte.
0f 0 G *1, t G *s and W G m
Thus electrochemical e%uivalent, W, of a substance is defined as the amount of the
substance deposited on passing a steady electric current of *1 for one second through
its solution. The S.0. unit of W is 3ilogram per coulomb (?gB!).
;aradayFs Second $aw This law states as under
UWhen the same %uantity of electricity is passed through several electrolytes, the
masses of the substances deposited are proportional to their respective chemical
e%uivalents or e%uivalent weights. ;rom this law it follows that the constant of
proportional to the chemical e%uivalent.
The theoretical value of current re%uired for depositing a given %uantity of metal and
the time for which this current should be passed through the electrolyte can be
calculated from the ;aradayFs laws, if electro>chemical e%uivalent of the metal is
3nown.
TERMS CONNECTED WITH ELECTROL,TIC !ROCESSES
;ollowing terms are used in electrolytic processes
*. !urrent efficiency
+. 5oltage
9. "nergy efficiency.
Current effi#ien#$'
Due to impurities which cause secondary reactions, the %uantity of the
substance(s) liberated is slightly less than that calculated from faradayFs laws. This is
ta3en into account by employing a factor, called the U#urrent effi#ien#$E2
The #urrent effi#ien#$ is defined as the ratio of the actual %uantity of
substance liberated or deposited to the theoretical %uantity, as calculated from
faradayFs laws.
1ctual %uantity of substance liberated or deposited
i.e., !urrent efficiency G >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>.
Theoretical %uantity of substance liberated or deposited
The value of current efficiency lies between 90 to 98 percent.
0n certain cases this efficiency is very low. ;or e.ample in chromium plating it *+ to
*7D (app.).

+. -oltage2 The voltage that is essentially re%uired to pass the current through an
electrolyte depends upon the potential drops at the electrodes and in the electrolyte. 0t
is, therefore, desirable that these drops are made as small as possible. This can be
achieved, in many cases, by adding special conducting agents to the electrolyte to
ma3e it ( electrolyte ) a good conductor. ;or e.ample dilute sulphuric acid is added to
copper sulphate bath in copper plating.
The normal voltage re%uired to pass current through most electrolytes is * to + 5.
9. Energ$ effi#ien#$. (wing to secondary reactions, the voltage actually re%uired for
the deposition or liberation of metal is higher than the theoretical value which
increases the actual energy required.
Energ$ effi#ien#$ is defined as the ratio of theoretical energy to the actual energy
re%uired for depositing a given %uantity of metal.
Theoretical energy re%uired
i.e., "nergy efficiency G ]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]
1ctual energy re%uired
A))li#ation of ele#trol$(i(
The major applications of electrolysis are as under
"lectro>deposition
i. "lectroplating
ii. "lectro>deposition of rubber
iii. "lectro>metallisation
iv. "lectro>typing
2anufacture of chemicals
1nodi4ing
"lectropolishing
"lectro>cleaning or pic3ling
"lectro>parting or electro>stripping

i. "lectro>e.traction
ii. "lectro>refining
"lectro>deposition
The process of depositing a coating of one metal over another metal or non>metal
electrically is called the ele#tro4&e)o(ition2
0t is used for protective, decorative and functional purposes and includes such
processes as electro>plating, electro>forming, electro>typing, electro>facing, electro>
metallisation etc.
;actors on which %uality of electro>deposition depends
;ollowing are the factors on which the %uality of electro>deposition depends
)ature of electrolyte
The electrolyte from which comple. ions can be obtained provides a smooth
deposit.
!urrent density
The deposit of metal will be uniform and fine>grained if the current density is
used at a rate higher than at which the nuclei are formed. The deposit will be strong
and porous if the rate of nuclei formation is very high current density.
Temperature
1 low temperature of the solution favours formation of small crystals of metalY
and a high temperature, large crystals.
!onductivity
The solution of good conductivity provides economy in power consumption
and also reduces the tendency to form trees and rough deposits.
"lectrolytic concentration
6y increasing the concentration of the electrolyte, higher current density can
be achieved, which is necessary to obtain uniform and fine>grain deposit.
1ddition agents
The addition of acid or other substances to the electrolyte reduces its
resistance. 1ddition agents li3e glue, gums, de.trose, de.trin etc.

0nfluence the nature of deposit. The crystal nuclei absorb the addition agent added in
the electrolyteY this prevents it to have large growth and thus deposition will be fine>
grained.
Throwing power
0t is defined as the ability of the electrolyte to produce even irregular surfaces.
Due to irregular shape of the cathode the distance between the various portions of the
cathode and anode will be different. Due to une%ual distance, the resistance of the
current path through the electrolyte for various portions of the cathode will be
different but the potential difference between the anode and any point on the article to
be plate will be, of course, be the same and the result will be that the current density
will be more on the portion nearer to anode and it will cause uneven deposit of the
metal.
/olari4ation
With the increase in the electroplating current density, rate of metal deposition is also
increased upto certain limit after which electrolyte surrounding the base metal
becomes so much depleted of metal ions that rate of deposition does not increase with
increase in current density. 0f current density more than this limit is employed, it will
result in electrolysis of water and hydrogen deposition on the cathode. This hydrogen
evolved, blan3ets the base metal which diminishes the rate of metal deposition. This
phenomenon is called )olariFation2 6lan3ing effect can be reduced by agitating the
electrolyte.
"lectroplating
"lectroplating is an art of depositing a superior or a more noble metal on an inferior or
a base metal by means of electrolysis of an a%ueous solution of a suitable electrolyte.
or
"lectroplating is defined as the electro>deposition of metal upon metallic surfaces. 0t
is done to accomplish the following
To protect the metals against corrosion.
To give a shiny appearance to articles.
To give reflecting properties reflectors.
To replace worn out material.
The electrolyte deposits are crystalline in nature. The crystals must be very fine in
order to get firm, coherent and uniform deposits. ;or this purpose, suitable
electrolytes should be used in the electrolytic bath and current density used should

have an appropriate value. The temperature should also be maintained at a proper
level.
The articles to be coated with nobler metals should be in as high a state of purity as
possible.
(peration involved in electroplating
5arious operations involved in electroplating are
*. !leaning operation
+. Deposition of metal
!leaning operation
0n case the object to be electroplated is not cleaned, polished and degreased,
the deposit formed may not be well adherent to the base metal and is li3ely to peel off.
!leaning operation includes the following
'emoval of oil, grease, or other organic material. To accomplish this, soaps,
hot al3ali solutions, or organic solvents such as gasoline or carbon
tetrachloride are used.
'emoval of rust, scale, o.ides, or other inorganic coatings adhering to the base
metalB wor3 pieceP To accomplish this various acids, al3ali and salt solutions
are employed.
2echanical preparation of the surface of the metal to remove the deposited
metal, by polishing, buffing etc., To accomplish this mechanical abrasion and
polishing are used.
Deposition of metal
0n all types of metal deposition processes, article to be electroplated is made cathode,
solution is made up of salt of the metal to be deposited and anode is often of the same metal
which is to be deposited.
Details of preparation of solutions and current densities employed for deposition of
various metals are given henceforth.
!opper plating
!opper plating baths are of the following two types.

0n acid bath, solution is made of *7, to +,, gm of copper sulphate, +7 to 9C
gm of &
+
S(
8
per *,,, c.cc of solution. !urrent density employed is +,, to 8,,
1Bm
+
and temperature of +7- to 7,-!. anode is made of copper.
Deposit obtained is thic3 and rough which re%uires polishing.
!yanide bath consists of +7 gm of copper cyanide, +: gm of sodium cyanide,
A gm of sodium carbonate and A gm of sodium biphosphate per *,,, c.c.
!urrent density used is 8 to *7, 1Bm
+
, and temperature of 97- to 7,-!. anode
employed is of copper. This gives thin and smooth deposit.
!opper plating is used
(i) ;or iron articles to prevent them from rusting
(ii) 1s undercoat for silver and nic3el plating.